The National Geographic Magazine 1909-02: Vol 20 Iss 2

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Vol. XX CONTENTS Kaleidoscopic La Paz: The City of the Clouds. By Harriet Chalmers Adams. With 23 Illustrations The Mountaineers of the Euphrates. By Ellsworth Huntington. With 1 3 Illustrations One Thousand Miles of Railway Built for Pilgrims and Not for Dividends. By Colonel F. R. Maunsell With 12 Illustrations. Scenes in Asia Minor. With 36 Illustrations. Jack in the Box. An Account of the Strange Performances of the Most Wonderful Island in the World. By Captain F. M. IViunger, Senior Captain U. 5. KK. C. S. With 8 Illustrations.

Conditions of Cuba as Revealed by the Census. By Henry Gannett. A Wasteful Nation PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D. C

SUBSCRIPTION, $2.50 A YEAR SINGLE NUMBER, 25 CENTS Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter . (<) Copyright, 1909, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved { 4 ‘ 4 ‘@ en AT he . ests . 4 eee ee a - “

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=| THE NATIONAL LIF=| GEOGRAPHIC |—4 MAGAZINE Copyright, 1909, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved nN Intusrratep Monruty, published by the NatrionaL Geocrapuic Society. All editorial communications should be addressed to GILBERT H. Grosvenor, Editor the Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; SUBSCRIPTION $2.50 A YEAR Mditor: GILBHRT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors MAJ. GEN. A. W. GREELY U. S. Army Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, 0. & Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOOR Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. & Department of Agriculture oO. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. $8. @onst and Geodetic Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistica, Department of Commerce and Labor ROB'T HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey DAVID G. PAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Be- partment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY U. S. Geological Survey R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicage G. EK. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. 8. Weather Burean, San Franciseo ALMON GUNNISON President St Lawrenee University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. Se a a XUM —aZ

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UM THe HAMILTON WATCH THe NATIONAL TIMEKEEPER OF AMERICA Cart ) Ww , > No. 960 The Handsomest Bridge Watch in the Market, a Phenomenal Record-Breaker for Accuracy of Time. A Chnistmas Gift for a lifetime. Every Hamilton Watch has the Personal Guarantee of The Hamilton Watch Co., Lancaster, Pa. Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated

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Office Hours, 9 A. M. to 4.30 P. M. Telephone, North 306 National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Vice-President ‘Treasurer HENRY GANNETT JOHN JOY EDSON President Secretary WILLIS L. MOORE Oo. P. AUSTIN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone C. M. CHESTER Rear Admiral U. S. N., For- merly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory F. V. COVILLE Botanist, U. S. Department of Agriculture RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor, The Evening Star T. L. MACDONALD, M. D. WILLIS L. MOORE Chief U. S. Weather Bureau S. N. D. NORTH Director U. S. Census Office HENRY F. BLOUNT Vice-President Am. Security and Trust Co. Editor Fs BOARD OF MANAGERS O. P. AUSTIN Chief U.S. Bureau of Statistics CHARLES J. DELL President American Security and Trust Co. T. C. CHAMBERLIN Professor of Geology, Univer- sity of Chicago GEORGE DAVIDSON Professor of Geography, Uni- versity of California JOHN Joy EDSON President Washington Loan & Trust Co. DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Ex- plorations, Dept. cf Agric. A. J. HENRY Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau C. HART MERRIAM Chief U. S. Biological Survey B. EICHELBERGER. - Asst. Treasurer Asst. Secretary A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l U. S. Army HENRY GANNETT Geographer of the Census J. HOWARD GORE Professor of Mathematics, The George Washington Univ. GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Editor of National Geographic Magazine GEORGE OTIS SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey JOHN M. WILSON Brigadier General U.S. Army. Formerly Chief of Engineers Please detach and fili in blank and send to the Secretary Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The membership fee includes subscription to the National Geographic Magazine DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad, $3.00; Canada, $2.50; life Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a dis- membership, $50. tance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or expre s order. Go the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.: I nominate Address for membership in the Society. 1909 YIIM

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JM To ee how the World was made visit the | of Arizona Deep down in the earth a mile and more you gO, past strata of every known geologic age. And all glorified by a rainbow beauty of color. You don’t have to be a scientist to appreciate this marvel of world-building. ‘The average person can see it all and understand what it means. A gash in earth’s crust, more than a mile deep, thirteen A miles wide, and 217 miles long, partly filled from rim to rim "ZA by great masses of rock eroded in fantastic shapes. The main thing is, to go there this season, not next; and go on the WF luxurious y= California Limited en route to or from California on the Santa Fe. This train carries a Pullman for the Canyon, and has Mew equipment this season. Iz the way ae Two to five days’ time, $6.50 railroad fare, a reasonable hotel bill at El Tovar (management Fred Harvey) and a few dollars for trail and rim trips —- that’s all the extra expense of seeing the Canyon. Yosemite also can be visited in winter by rail from Merced. Won’t you write to me to-day for our bai? & ag Nag Traffic Mgr., . * ,___ COPS, r OL. zee d (. a *, Ry. System, illustrated booklets- “Titan of ( hasms, 1114-10 Railway Exchanee, **El Tovar’’ and ‘*Yosemite’’? Chicago. Your courtesy in mentioning the Mag azine when writing will be appreciated

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JM WASHINGTON FEBRUARY, 1909 THE | NATIONAL | J GEOGRAPHIC {~t MAGAZINIE a KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAG; Tie CLly oF THE CLOUDS By Harriet CHALMERS ADAMS With Photographs by the Author LIGHTING from the train at Alto La Paz, I looked in vain for the city. A railway station, three old- fashioned stage coaches awaiting city- bound passengers—but where was “La Paz de Ayacucho,” the metropolis of Bolivia ? On either side of the track a dreary brown plain seemed to stretch unbrokenly to the snowy range of the Andes. There was not a trace of verdure, not a single habitation in sight beyond the forlorn little station-house. It was bitterly cold, for Alto La Paz is 13,000 feet above the sea, and while my _ fellow-traveler at- tended to the luggage I walked rapidly along the road, hoping to “thaw out.” Suddenly, to my amazement, I found inyself on the brink of a deep canyon, a cut in the plain, heretofore imperceptible. Across the gorge the mountains towered skyward, while far below, in the narrow valley, lay a red-roofed city. A steep, serpentine wagon-road led from heights to valley, and on this highway I could dis- cern moving objects toiling upward. [It quite takes one’s breath away, this unexpected view of La Paz, and on inti- mate acquaintanceship the place retains the unique charm of this first impression. No other New World city resembles it, and it has few rivals on earth in pic- turesque diversity. Although protected from the icy blasts which sweep across the bleak plateau above, La Paz is a city of the clouds, elevated nearly two and a half miles above sea-level, and the trav- eler bound thither will do well, when equipping, to prepare for a land where it is always winter. Until recent years highland Bolivia was a hermit republic, reached only after a long and difficult overland journey. Now one can climb to the Andean up- lands by rail, and this year can even descend from Alto La Paz to the city by trolley. The local color, however, has not as yet been greatly marred by that buccaneer and despoiler of natural beauty, modern civilization. On leaving the heights our stage driver decided to win in the race to town and lashed his mules into a gallop. I sat on top of the coach, expecting to have a splendid view, and held fast to the seats’ railing—and my breath—as we dashed down the steep, zig-zag road. We won the race, even arriving intact, but alto-

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120 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AT THE RAILROAD gether missed the scenery, as the coach was enveloped in a cloud of dust during the entire journey. Our lodging place, an annex of the Hotel Guibert, was a stately old edifice, evidently the residence of a Spanish grandee in the days of the vice-royalty. A crest surmounted the doorway and a massive marble stairway connected the inner court-yard with the dwelling rooms above. Our windows opened on a nar- row Old World balcony, overhanging the street, from which we next day viewed a passing play of great interest and variety —a play staged and costumed by a master hand. The curtain was rung up in the early morning, distant trumpeters announcing the prologue. Hurriedly throwing on a dressing gown, I rushed to the balcony to see the Bolivian regimental band marching down the hill. For a half hour the brilliantly uniformed soldiers played in the plaza opposite our windows, and STATION: LA PAZ sweeter music I have never heard. In the clear highland atmosphere the notes had an unusual quality. Often in a minor key, the music seemed expressive of the sorrows of the Andean people rather than of their victories. As the soldiers marched away the water-carriers gathered by the fountain in the center of the plaza, filling the im- mense copper jars which they carried on their backs. They were Indians, full- blooded Aymaras, descendants of a peo- ple conquered by the Incas. The origin of their ancestry is shrouded in mystery, but many ethnologists believe them to be descended from the earliest American aborigines known to us, the builders of Tiahuanaco, now in sand-swept ruins not far from Lake Titicaca.* The costume of the water-carriers was certainly unusual. It consisted of jackets and short trousers of homespun, MAGAZINE for * See NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC September, 1908.

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KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS — OE ay ae 121 a ele Ase k , Cotten Bie 2g 8 Sa SE perrr Lf at ual saaer1"| teeta Mise Patt. G (eae Pepe. FON at! Sat 4-5 ae eee COURT-YARD OF THE HOTEL IN LA PAZ, FORMERLY A COLONIAL MANSION the latter slit at the knees and pieces of cotton cloth inserted, permitting greater freedom of action in hill climbing. The men were bare-footed, but their heads were well protected from the severe cold by skull caps of vicufia wool worn under- neath felt hats. These caps and the woolen ponchos covering their broad shoulders were multi-colored, and with the shining copper jars they presented a gay figure. The skin of these Andean highlanders is a russet brown in shade, the hair straight and black, while their features bear a striking resemblance to those of the Tibetan on the Himalayan plateau. As the water-carriers started up hill on a trot, bowed down under the weight on their backs, we had an “intermission for refreshments.” Unlike a breakfast in the States, this early repast consisted only of thick, sweet chocolate and unbuttered rolls, served in our room by a pongo. This odd character is an Aymara, who is a relic of the Colonial days, when the cruel repartimiento and muita systems were enforced by the Spaniards. The repartimiento was the distribution among the natives of articles of European pro- duction—z source of oppression and fraud. The Indians were obliged to pay exorbitant prices for articles utterly useless to them. Far more oppressive and cruel was the muita, consisting of forced labor in the mines and plantations, where the poor Indians died by the thou- sands from over-exertion and _ill-treat- ment. Another sort of compulsory labor was domestic service in the homes of pro- vincial authorities and priests. These house servants were called pongos, anda modified form of this service exists today in La Paz. A friend of mine, who rented a house in the city, found that one of these servants went with it, a new one for

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ILLIMANI IN THE DISTANCE T MOUN MHERIGHTS OVERLOOKING LA PAZ: ON Till XUM

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UM KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS 125 TO LA PAZ ROAD Pik ON

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124 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE LPI EG pp Ee! AEM WIR Das /, Pedy IN THE HIGHLANDS OF BOLIVIA, NEAR LA PAZ each week in the year, as her landlord sent his country employees into town, one by one, for a week’s holiday. The pongo performed odd services about the house and slept on a mat in the court- yard, guarding the entrance. Some of these men had villainous faces. My friend was desirous that her mother in New York should visit her, but the man of the house was not as enthusi- astic over the plan, so he sent on a photo- graphic group of the family servants, the pongo well in the foreground, and the mother-in-law indefinitely postponed her visit. The pongo who served our breakfast had evidently just arrived in town, and the broad grin on his stupid face beto- kened enjoyment of his vacation. He could not speak Spanish, and we pos- sessed little knowledge of the Aymara tongue, but his never-changing smile and our wild gesticulations answered all pur- poses. The sound of shouting in‘ the street brought me back to the balcony to see a llama-driver urging his flock down-hill. Slowly and gracefully the strange little mountaineers descended, casting furtive glances to either side. Stately, silent- footed, wearing an expression of great curiosity, the llamas, with their big cousins, the camels, are the only burden- bearers with pride unbroken. They carry their heads with a regal air. In coloring they are black, brown, tan, or white, often wearing a brighter touch in ear ribbons and small ornamental bags hung about the neck. No sooner had the llamas departed than I beheld, crossing the plaza, the gorgeous Bolivian belle of my dreams, the Chola girl. My impulse was to rush down to see if she were real. Of mixed Indian and Spanish blood, the Cholos form the greater portion of the popula- tion of La Paz. Industrious and loyal, the men are good citizens and excellent XUM

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KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS 125 A STREET soldiers. The women are often mer- chants in a small way, but devote most of their attention to personal adornment. It is all a question of geography, and while the London ‘“Arriet” spends her earnings on her bonnet and the East Side New York damsel pines for imitation jewelry, the Chola’s petticoats are her pride and wealth. She wears one over the other, each of a different brilliant hue—twenty-five, I believe, is the record. Short, plump, and bright of face, with two neat black braids hanging from under a round straw hat, her head is as attractive as her pretty little feet. She seldom wears stockings, but her shoes are high-heeled importations of colored leather, often ornamented with red and yellow kid butterflies. All other splendor paled, however, as I gazed at those mar- velous skirts displayed to great advantage on the hilly streets of the city. PEDDLER OF LA PAZ In utter contrast to the merry faced Cholas, so sumptuously bedecked, were the aristocratic seforitas bound church- ward, wearing black garments and a de- vout expression. They passed under our balcony in the morning, their sweet, pale faces half hidden by the mantos draped about their heads; but in the late after- noon, when there was music again in the plaza, they blossomed out in Parisian gowns and beflowered hats. As _ they walked around the square, well chap- eroned, the youth of the city paid tribute to their beauty. In the Latin-American countries, where the freedom of acquaintance existing in America between men and women is un- known, the early stage of courtship is the language of the eyes. It is perhaps as well that the lover first woos his lady fair with glances. Were hie obliged to call on her often, conversing tender

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126 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE \ CHOLO BOY at length in the drawing room, his de- votion might wane, for there is no method employed of heating rooms arti- ficially ; no furnaces, stoves, or fireplaces in any of the native houses. For culinary purposes braziers are employed, charcoal and the tagui of the llama being used as fuel. .\ compassionate .\merican, for- ever enshrined in my memory, loaned 1 imported from the 1 ls a coal-oil stove just States, and our first evening in the city, and all that followed, were spent 11 close to this beloved heater. proximity We found the little fur shops an at- tractive feature of the town. Tawny vi- cuna and silvery chinchilla skins adorned the walls The chinchilla is becoming scarce and its coarser relative, the visca s sometimes si oO unwary cus tomers as a substitute. Like all animals \ ( sk 1] ive a 10] hee valu OF LA PAZ the chinchilla has been killed in and out of season and is destined to extinction. The ruddy, silky fur of the vicuna has few rivals in beauty and was greatly valued by the Incas. In their day this wild cousin of the llama, of the original cameloid stock, was hunted in the \ndean highlands even more extensively than it is today. If La Paz is a peacock, the market place is its tail. Here the maids of the iridescent skirts hold court. The stalls occupy an entire square under cover, the overflow both sides of the street for blocks. I felt that I was attending a fancy dress ball and looked about for lining masks. Color ran riot. Seated on the eround, encircled in petticoats ranging in shade from scarlet, rose, and pink to iolet, and lavender, the Chola ] ] thants displayed their wares spread XUM

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JM KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: LYPES. IN out before them on colored blankets. Nothing was sold by weight. The pro- duce or merchandise was arranged in the primitive way, in little heaps, on which a price was set. The people bought their supplies only for the one day. I fol- lowed a modest purchaser, who filled his basket with two cents’ worth of chutio (the frozen potato, on its native heath), three cents’ worth of charque (jerked beef), and four whole cents’ worth of fruit. Although La Paz is situated upon the roof, its market is filled with every va- rietv of fruit, vegetables, and flowers from the gardens of the Yungas, on the eastern slope of the Andes. Llamas and burros bring the produce to town, and on Sunday morning the country people may be seen coming on foot down the steep trails from the heights, urging on their tired animals. Their goal is the Sunday market, the eventful day of the week. 17 [ went from one stall to another, learn- ing much of the wavs and needs of the people. \ native cafe interested me The CITY OF THE CLOUDS 127 LA PAZ chef, a little Cholo boy, squatted on the ground beside a brazier, watching a pot containing the favorite chupe, grand- mother to the Irish stew. When the feast was ready there was a general scramble, fingers serving in place of spoons. An Indian artist, hawking his wares, next claimed my attention. He sold his work by the yard, colored figures on a white background, and I have ever since been endeavoring to unravel his pictured story. It seems to be the portrayal of some oral tradition handed down from his forefathers. ‘rom the artist 1 turned to a musician, a “*Pan-come-true” playing on reed pipes. [| wondered how this shepherd had man- aged to slip away from his flock of al- pacas up on the cheerless mountain, and realized that this was a great day for him, a mad whirl of social pleasure. A saucy-faced little flower-seller seemed to f his dreams, for he be the princess ¢ piped his sweetest as he passed her booth. The shepherd was not the only musi-

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128 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A PLAZA IN LA PAZ, SHOWING cian in evidence, however. Along came a rival thumping on a guitar-like instru- ment constructed from the shell of the This gallant held my atten- tion only for a moment, for my notice was called to a solemn-faced little young- ster, who evidently had an elastic stom- ach. He was stowing away enormous quantities of sugar-cane, while his big sister stood lost in admiration of a Chola armadillo. MOUNT ILLIMANI IN THE DISTANCE merchant wearing a pea-green blouse, at least fifteen petticoats, and a pair of ear- rings three inches in length. The coun- try damsel wore only one scant skirt and a ragged shawl, and her face, as she gazed on the dazzling Chola, expressed both envy and awe. It was most interesting to me to see the Quichua and Aymara types side by side. They seldom blend in their native XUM

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JM SS eee KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: TYPICAL INDIANS CITY OF OF BOLIVIA THE CLOUDS 129

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ON THE highlands. The pure-blooded Indian fears and dislikes all whites and is not on inti- mate terms with the Cholos. He often understands Spanish, even when he can or will not speak it. On the highway he appears very respectful, greeting the stranger with a gutteral “Tata, asqui ura churutam” (Father, a good day to thee). g The shoe stall proved the market's “star” exhibit. I:very possible combi- nation of color was displayed in the foot gear. On the street I saw men and carrying their shoes, following “festa” women carefully saving them for the day, when they squeezed their poor rock- worn feet into the gorgeous vellow crea- tions decorated with pink, blue, and pur- ple designs. After paying for any pur- chase the customer expects some little thing to boot from the merchant. \s we walked away from the market we came on a group of children playing ROAD LO LA PAZ game, which was not “hide but a mock bull fight. One child had horns tied on his head, and the other boys represented toreadors. Bright little fellows, these future Bolivian citi- zens. .\ day of progress has dawned for them. La Paz is now connected by rail with Chilian, as well as Peruvian, ports, and before long Bolivia will be traversed by a railroad connecting Peru and Chile with northern Argentina. In time the road will also be finished from la Paz to Puerto Pando, at the head of navigation on the Beni branch of the Madeira River, and the line constructed around the dreaded Madeira Falls, on the route to the Amazon. There were few foreigners in the city at the time of our visit, but the number is increasing steadily, with the arrival of German merchants, The Bolivians of a favorite and | SCC, \merican engineers, and British capitalists. XLIM

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UM KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS 151 PET FIGHTING COCK OF the better class have long been people of charm and culture. ven in the days when every luxury was brought up from the sea on the backs of animals, requiring a journey of months’ duration, the homes of refinement were filled with European treasures and the educated people kept in touch with the outside world. We visited all of the modern municipal buildings, and I was so selfish as to regret them. I dread the time when La Paz will lose her captivating individuality. Through the city flows the Chuquiapu River, spanned by many bridges. It is a remarkable stream, inasmuch that it does not flow to the Pacific, as do most rivers formed on the western slope of the \ndes. The Chuquiapu defies the nat- ural order and tlows through a cleft in the mountains, joining the streams bound for the Amazon. One day we mounted mules and fol THE FAMILY : NEAR LA PAZ lowed the merry little river. Our way led through steep, narrow streets to the \lameda, the city’s park. Dy way of an avenue lined with stately trees we en- tered the suburbs and were soon out of sight of the town. The road row clung to the cliff and the canyon deveioped into a miniature Yellowstone in coloring. \Vith each mile the mountain walls grew more rugged, more picturesque in their rainbow attire, and we very reluctantly turned townward. As we entered the city I looked back as the sunset glow enveloped the snow-clad Illimani, the mountain known to the Aymaras as ““The verlasting,” guardian of the picturesque canyon of La Paz. \Ithough the Bolivian seat of govern- ment has never been moved _ officially from the city of Sucre, La Paz is in reality the capital. Far easier of access than the interior city, it is now the home

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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE whites F VISIT TO TOWN FIRST THEIR PAGE 124) ON (SE PONGOS THFUL YoU PAZ i GIRL: CTIOL, \ 1D nN x E XUM

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JM KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS l: of the President and his Cab- inet and the headquarters of the army. Before the Kuro- peans came the city was known as Chuquiapu, which means “the place of gold” in the Aymara tongue, and upon the site of the ancient town ‘Nuestra Senora de La Paz” (Our Lady of the Peace) was founded by the Spaniards in 1545. After the final victory of independence, in 1824, the name was changed to “La Paz de Ayacucho” (the Peace of Ayacucho) in honor of the famous battle-ground. There is a deep significance in this application of the name of Ayacucho, reverenced by all South Americans as the place where the Spaniards met their Waterloo, for La Paz can now claim both Alpha and Omega. It was in “Nuestra Sefora de La Paz,” in the year 1809, that the first cry for liberty was sounded in the Southern republics. Remote from the seat of Spanish authority, the spirit of independence had been fostered in this country, then known as Alto, or Upper, Peru. Here the people had suffered most from the cruel mita and many other forms of tyranny. The first proclaimed Declaration of Independence ran: “In the noble and valorous city of Our Lady of the Peace, at 8 o'clock at night, on this 16th of July, 1809, assembled in the salon of the Cabildo, the undersigned, in the name of the people, declare and swear to defend with their blood and fortune the independence of the country.” It was in the Plaza Murillo, opposite our windows, that one of the great sign- ers of this declaration was led to the scaffold the following year. Yet in the prophecy uttered in his farewell, “The torch which I have lighted shall never be extinguished,” Pedro Domingo Mu- rillo voiced a great truth. Recalling the twenty flags of the Latin-American re- CHOLA GIRL IN PARK: LA PAZ publics, one realizes that he and his fel- low-patriots did.not die in vain. To the traveler the interest and charm of a city like La Paz lies not only in its ever-changing scenes, for every street, every other building, has its history. I never entered the old court-yard of our hotel at twilight without picturing scenes quite as attractive and far richer than those of today. From the balconies above [ seemed to see fair, bejeweled ladies, robed in satin brocade, with great tor- toise-shell combs crowning their heads looking down, as mounted cavaliers rode gaily into the patio, resplendent in armor, silver trappings on saddle and _ bridle. Those were indeed picturesque days, under the vice-royalty ; and sometimes, in the very early morning, when the city was still asleep, I walked up the old highway leading to the heights. Failing to look back at the tiled roofs, I quite

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THE NATIONAL GEO GRAPHIC MAGAZINE GOING TO forgot the coming of the Spaniards, for the men and women whom I| met on the road belonged to a time long past. Speak- ing a tongue even more ancient than the Quichua of the Incas, these people were little changed from their ancestors who lived in Aymara-land. In those olden days, when the habitation in the canyon was known as Chuquiapu, just such way- farers as these urged their llamas down the steep hill at dawn, hoping to be the first of the country folk to reach the vil- lage market. Too soon came the day de- for our MARKET: LA PAZ parture. Regretfully we rode up to the Alto, where we stood for a time bidding “farewell” to the canyon. Yet | find | have never lost sight of it. Up here in our progressive America, where we rush and strive from morning till night, where all of the cities are alike, and every man, woman, and child dresses like every other, I think happily of “Our Lady of the Peace.” When the day is especially colorless I recall with delight that far-off canyon, where lies the quaint city of “high lights,” kaleidoscopic La Paz. XUM

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CLOUDS 4 4 4 THI 4 4 I O e's IDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: ALE N I ulvjIdIOd 10 XVM {O SUjvol M ITV SCULLO J SAOUTNOUL AWA LAN AD ‘ TAs : a" SR vjOou.) UM

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XUM ZVd V’I DNIMOO'INAAO SOON V’Id ALNOW AZINE APHIC MAG iR OC 4 4 I ‘ I THE NATIONAL ‘(

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PAZ LA BASTIAN : 4 + SE PLAZA SAN Mt Pay iN he rn ee stots Mi UALS

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PEDRO: LA PAZ PLAZA SAN THE IN LLOLIDAY CROWD \ XUM

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KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: CITY OF THE CLOUDS 139 eastern slope of forest country on the LA PAZ a“ + ¢<7 L \Z \ I PLAZA SAN SCENE: the Andes

its market is filled with tropical fruit “A ‘A se ‘ad in - s po = 7 ~ ot ye tS é abDOVe

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140 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE RT ae altar fa ts 4 ji / ve | i FOr BR aesat | taj f 7 iy Tete 7 Li 5 ri} ; Ci , i, or, ; ; re ET ? ° é , / ,, f a7, Fad A PAZ ] SCENE: PREET XUM

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141 THE CLOUDS 4 4 CITY OI KALEIDOSCOPIC LA PAZ: ZVd ZVd V'J Vl -SVNVI' aN ye 74 KUM

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THE MOUNTAINEERS OF THE EUPHRATES* By ELtswortH HuNTINGTON THREE thousand years the proud kings of Assyria led their trained armies northwestward into the mountainous region of the upper Euphrates and Tigris rivers. The turbu- lent mountaineers against whom they ad- vanced fled before the civilized soldiers of the Mesopotamian plain and took ref- uge in inaccessible heights, leaving their rude villages of mud and stones to be destr ved, Invariably the kings claimed to have defeated the wild upland tribes, as boast- ful inscriptions carved in the living rock still prove; but the defeat was never per- manent. As soon as the soldiers retired the mountaineers reoccupied their vil- lages, and soon began to plunder the low- ago lands as lawlessly as ever. Centuries later, when Xenophon led his ten thousand from the lower Euphrates northward across the Arme- nian plateau to Trebizond, the mountain- eers were still untamed. All night they rolled down the mountain-side upon XNenophon’s army, and were only vanquished by a stratagem. Today the great empires of Mesopo- tamia have fallen; the power of Greece has passed away; but still, as of old, the mountains breed lawlessness, and the mountaineers are the unsubdued scourge of the people of the plains. The lineal descendants of the Carduchi who opposed the march of Nenophon are the Iurds—a_ sturdy, strong-featured race of Mohammedan Aryans, allied to the Persians on the one hand and to the Armenians on the other. Their home is in the southern part of the Armenian plateau, among the headwaters the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and in the Zagros Mountains, which run southeast- ward from Lake Van to the Persian Gulf and form the boundary between Turkey and Persia. There they tend their flocks : for the majority are primarily shepherds, although they cultivate the soil so far as Greeks stones ot possible. several articles b N’ 4 This is the first of published in the of Asia which will be 1 \Ir Huntington « IONA 7 Although most of the Kurds possess villages, composed of clusters of low, Hat-roofed houses or mud, all the tribes are more or less nomadic. ‘The majority live in dark-brown, many-peaked tents of goats’ hair during the summer, not wandering far from home, but merely up into the high mountains, where and snowy to dwell in of stone going It is too cold winter. \ considerable number, however, live a purely nomadic life, wandering hundreds of miles along regular routes between the warm plains of Mesopotamia in win- ter and the cool, grassy uplands in sum- mer. Among the pure nomads society is organized upon a half-tribal, half-patri- archal system, while the semi-nomadic Kurds are either divided into tribes or clans, like those of medieval Scotland, or are ruled by feudal lords, whose power is often absolute. Poverty is thé rule among the Kurds; their mountain fastnesses are difficult of access, and they themselves are strong and hardy by reason of their life of The people of the neighboring on the other hand, are relatively well-to-do, and are also com- paratively unprotected and averse to war. \ll these combine to make the turds a race of plunderers. “No race,” nei- exertion. fertile lowlands, factors says the famous geographer Reclus, ther Baluch, Bedouin, nor Apache, has developed the marauding instinct to a higher degree than have the warlike urd tribes.” One of the places where they are most lawless is Dersim, a highly mountainous district lving. between the two main branches of the Euphrates River. For scores of years the Turkish authoricies, like their ancient Assyrian predecessors, have been vainly trying to bring the Nuzzilbash Kurds of this region into subjection. Jast summer a new oppor- tunity seemed to offer itself. The rainfall of the winter of 1907-08 was unpropi- tious, and the Kurds succeeded in raising known regions during 1990. lescribing littl SAPHLIC AMIAGAZIN! (sFOGI XUM

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JM THE MOUNTAINEFQS OF THE EUPHRATES 145 only very scanty crops from their stele mountain-sides and narrow valley l,jf- toms. It was necessary to procure food from more prosperous places. A few began to plunder their neighbors; the majority attempted to buy food in a legitimate way. The government heard that a large caravan loaded with grain which the Kurds had purchased was on the way to Dersim. “Now,” said the officials, “‘is our chance to deal the Kurds a telling blow without danger to ourselves.” Troops were ordered to seize the caravan. When the Kurds heard that the grain on which their wives and children must rely for sustenance was lost to them, there was a fierce uprising on all sides. The government ordered troops into the mountains, but at first the soldiers would not go. They were only half paid and half clothed. Why should they risk their lives in a wild region, where the enemy hid behind rocks high on the mountain- sides and never gave the invaders a chance to shoot them. Ultimately some 30,000 troops are said to have been sent to the confines of Dersim. ‘There was more or less fighting, a number of men were killed on both sides, and some of the Kurdish leaders were imprisoned. The Kurds have been punished, but not conquered: they will probably remain quiet only until they become hungry once more. Iike those other sc« urges of Tur- key, the Albanians in the Balkans and the \rabs in the Syrian desert, they cannot be made to keep the peace permanently unless some economic change can be in- troduced to prevent them from suffering when their parched hillsides fail to fur- nish an adequate supply of food. The southern part of the Armenian plateau, where many of the most warlike Kurds dwell, furnishes an admirable ex- ample of the influence exerted upon man by inhospitable mountains among which lie fertile plains. The plateau is highly diversified. Above its uneven surface rise lofty ranges of limestone mountains and scores of great volcanoes, such as Nimrud and Sipan, near Lake Van, so recently extinct that hot springs. still abound in the craters and elsewhere. Be- low the general level of the plateau mag- nificent canyons have been cut by the Kuphrates and Tigris rivers and_ their tributaries, while broad basin-shaped de- pressions are floored with smooth, fertile plains. Originally the whole country was prob- ably occupied by the Carduchi, the ances- tors of the Kurds. Over two thousand years ago, however, the Kurds gave way before Armenian conquerors, who, in turn, submitted to Turkish invaders in more recent times. The result of these invasions, on the one hand, and of the diverse topography of the country on the other, 1s seen today in the distribution and character of the three races—Kurds, \rmenians, and Turks—who now occupy) the region of the upper Euphrates. The Ikurds, being the conquered race, hold the mountains and some of the less accessible valleys and basins. Like many races which have been driven to the highlands by strong invaders, they are now the ter- ror of their conquerors. The Armenians occupy a position in- termediate between the Kurds and the Turks. Sometimes they live in the heart of the mountains and are of a decidedly warlike character. Often they occupy somewhat secluded basins or valleys, girt by lofty hills, and’ in many cases they possess large portions of the most fertile plains. ‘The Turks, as befits the most recent conquerors, are generally confined to the richest plains and to the cities. The areas occupied by the three races are not marked off distinctly. In some cases Kurds. Turks, and Armenians all live close together. In the cities each race often has its own quarter; but it is very rare to find all three in the same village. \rmenians and Turks, however, often occupy different quarters of a single vil- lage. Nevertheless, on the whole, the three races live apart, each having its distinet habitat. The Kurds, Armenians, and Turks have little love for one another. The Kurd hates the Turks because they have often worsted him in battle, because they tax him heavily whenever they are able,

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144 and because they curtail his opportunities for fighting and plundering. He despises the Armenians because they are Chris- tians, and because they can be robbed and ill-treated almost with impunity when the Turks give permission. Yet in spite of this he has a sort of sympathy for them, because they, too, are oppressed. The Armenian hates and fears both the Kurds, who plunder him, and the Turks, who oppress and persecute him. [le also despises both races because they are not so clever as he. It is only by exerting his superior wits in business or in flattery of his rulers that he can manage to main- tain his position. It is not strange that his character reflects the conditions under which he lives. The Turk, in turn, despises the Kurds because many of them are very half- hearted or heretical Mohammedans, and because they are simple, unsophisticated folk. He fears them, also, because they are wild, lawless people, who make the life of the tax-gatherer a burden and who rob a Turkish official with great glee if they find the opportunity. The Turk \rmenians because, as he put it, “they He hates despises the would somewhat unfairly are cowardly Christian dogs.” them because he knows that they are far quicker and keener than he, far better business men, and far better educated. The Turks realize their own mental and industrial inferiority to the subject race, and they realize, too, that the Armenians owe much of their present advancement in education and industry to American missionaries. ‘The common feeling among the Turks prior to the re- cent revolutionary crisis is well illus- trated by a saying which was common among them two or three years after the sad massacres which were perpetrated upon the Armenians in 1894-96 by the Kurds, with the consent of the Turks. ‘A few vears ago,” said the Turks, 1 these Christian infidels were stripped ot everything. Now,” as the Turkish idiom at i t i « Lt i i« \ pl en ce 1¢ eat be tel than W ¢ What shall we Racially the do about it: Turk in the reason to ce spise upper Euphra- : : A tes region has little THE NATIONAL GE MGRAPHIC MAGAZINE either the Kurds or the Armenians. ‘Two out of three of his ancestors probably belonged to one race or the other. Not only are Kurdish and Armenian woien frequently taken to Turkish harems by force or otherwise, but there is a constant process of assimilation going on. When a Ikurd comes from the mountains to work in the city or in a large village, he forms the habit of speaking Turkish instead of his own semi-Persian tongue. Little by little he gives up Kurdish ways of thought and action and passes himself off as a Turk, especially if he begins to rise in the social scale. All over the country villages can be found which are properly Kurdish, but are situated among Turkish villages and are gradually be- coming assimilated to their neighbors. (ther villages can be found which are now considered Turkish, but which have distinct traditions of a time when all their inhabitants were Christian Arme- nians. They were converted by force during some period of persecution and now intermarry with the true Turks, and are zealous Mohammedans. \ good example of the transition from \rmenians to “Turks” is found in the small mountain-girt basin of Bermaz, south of the city of Harput. The vil- lagers are known as Kurds at home, but as Turks when they go abroad. Accord- ing to reliable Armenian sheep dealers who have most intimate dealings with them, the people of Bermaz make the sign of the cross before meals and have a common tradition that their ancestors Armenian Christians a few cen- uries ago. Religious edifices of any kind are rare in these villages, although prayers are said according to the common Moham- Apparently the process of becoming “Turks” is only half com- pleted. In a few hundred years more such villages will probably claim to be purely Turkish. The mixture of religious ideas among he more remote inhabitants of the upper were medan practice. Ituphrates region is singular. Dersim, le region already referred to, between the two main branches of the Euphrates,

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\/ eld

a re 7, 4 4 ee ere ae, fi

Sones o 4 a + a < . + Rha Te Photos by Ellsworth Huntington AN ARMENIAN FAMILY, CONSISTING OF A FATHER, SON, MOTHER, AND SERVANT, IN ORDER FROM LEFT TO RIGHT The long sleeves of the undergarment are arranged in four different ways. In winter they are used in place of gloves. The stone pestle and the gourds for water are common in remote districts. A GROUP OF ARMENIANS READY FOR DINNER Their costume displays the extent to which they have been influenced by the west. Some wear tunics, others are clad in baggy Turkish trousers, and one has adopted tight European trousers, and therefore finds it inconvenient to sit on his knees or cross-legged as the others do.

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A PORTION OF THE Photo by Ellsworth Huntington CITY OF HARPUT It lies around a strong castle 1,500 to 2,000 feet above one ef the broad, fertile basin- plains of Armenia. The large roofless building on the right is an Armenian church, which was burned by the Kurds during the massacres of 1905. is inhabited largely by Kuzzilbash Kurds who are neither good Mohammedans, good Christians, nor good pagans. Nom- inally they belong to the Shiah sect of Mohammedans, who are looked upon with great aversion by oxthodox Sunni Mohammedans, such as the Turks. In practice the Kuzzilbash are very cosmo- politan in their religious observances. When away from home they readily join in the prayers at either a Shiah or a Sunni mosque. If they happen to be in an Armenian village where there are no Turks, they often go in and join in the Christian service, kneeling and bowing with the congregation. At home they are said not to pray except when led by one of their sayids, or holy men, who are supposed to be descendants of Moham- med. As a matter of fact they, like the rest of the Kuzzilbash, are probably de- scended, in part at least, from Armenians whose Mohammedanism was not exactly a matter of conviction. conversion to One of the most peculiar customs of the Kuzzilbash is an ancient rite which is apparently of Christian origin. No European has seen it, but, according to trustworthy Armenians, the Kuzzilbash men gather at the mosques on solemn feast days and one by one they advance to the front of the sacred building—on their knees, it is said by some. As each man comes forward a sayid takes a bit of meat, dips it in wine, and puts it in the man’s mouth. Such a ceremony can scarcely be anything but a relic of Chris- tianity. In many places Turks, Kurds, and Ar- menians all reverence the same shrines places which have probably been sacred since the far-off days of the pagans who fought with the Assvrians or opposed the march of Nenophon. One of the most notable of such places is located in Mus- har Dagh, or Mushar Mountain, inside the point of a sharp bend to the west- Kuphrates River ward made by the

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XUM THE MOUNTAINEERS OF THE EUPHRATES 147 AN ISLAND CASTLE IN THE EUPHRATES RIVER Photo by Ellsworth Huntington NEAR THE MOUTH OF THE CANYON The stairways, platforms, and tunnels on this rock and on the fortified cliffs on either side of the river were carved by the Haldis, one of the old races of mountaineers who fought with the Assyrians. The fortifications must have been constructed to guard against enemies coming down the river, probably on rafts of skins such as are represented upon Assyrian monuments and are still in use. around the Harput Mountains near Malatia. Close to the river lies a great rock, fashioned by an ancient race called Haldis into a castle whose main feature was innumerable platforms, steps, cis- terns, and tunnels carved in the solid limestone. Four hundred feet up the bare brown side of the mountains a rude platform of mud and stones is said to be the grave of a saintly Armenian girl who cared for a ruined church which lies two thousand feet higher, at the very peak of the mountain. Beside the grave stands a scraggly thorn-bush decked with a multitude of fluttering rags of every hue. As the writer stopped beside it his Armenian guide lifted the cotton robe which hung half way to his ankles, and from the bottom tore a strip of cloth. This he tied to the bush. “What is that for?” I asked. “Are you sick?” “No,” was the answer, “I am not sick, but I may have a pain some day, and this will drive it away.” He went on to explain that the grave was extremely holy, and that the sainted girl had great power to heal diseases. The Kurds of the neigh- boring village evidently are of the same opinion, for they tie rags to the bush, and their chiefs are brought here for burial, altho the common people must be content with a final resting-place down by the river. Five or six hundred feet above the resting-place of the Armenian girl, a limestone cave contains a grave reputed to be that of a Mohammedan saint called Hassan. The supposed grave is of enor- mous size, and is covered by a great mass of dry clay adorned with velvet and tinsel brought by pious worshipers. The back of the cave is partially walled off from the

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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4 4 4 THE 148

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d in her rig mT ul She scoops it up with the go river. KUM THE MOUNTAINEERS OF THE EUPHRATES 149 T Cop yd f ' : s ™ Y ™ . of ~. .) a J a « ) A “a *, _ ee. iw fe . : " &e : ~& Photo by Ellswo: I] gton A COMPLETED RAFT OF portion which contains the grave, and there, in a recess, all manner of filthi- ness is gathered—the bones, sinews, and gristle of sacrifices which pilgrims have devoured beside the grave. Outside the cave the place of sacrifice appears—a great altar, four-square, of rough stones, covered with the dark gore of countless victims offered through the ages by Turks, Kurds, and Armenians, all of whom hold the spot in equal reverence. Beside the main altar stands a smaller one piled high with the horns of sacri- fices. Great beams have been put up be- tween this altar and a neighboring rock, and from them hang large copper cal- drons, donated by pilgrims for the use of the offerers of sacrifices. No man dare touch the sacred objects except for their legitimate uses, and the caldrons and the offerings of tinsel and cloth within the cave remain unmolested in a region where all things else are constantly subject to theft. 1 | i INFLATED SHEEPSKINS The crowning holy place in this bend of the Euphrates is the ruined church of Mushar Killisseh, or Surp Aharon (Saint Aaron), as the Armenians call it, on the top of the mountain, 2400 feet above the river. The men who built it must have had great love of scenery or else a great desire for safety or seclusion. Otherwise the church would scarcely have been built in so inaccessible a spot, unless, perchance, the site was originally chosen as a holy place by worshipers of the sun. The chief interest of the shrines of Mushar Dagh lies in the fact that they indicate how closely the various and apparently diverse races of the upper Euphrates region are actually united to one another. In spite of conquest and racial difference, in spite of the diversity of life occasioned by the contrast between the fertile plains and the barren moun- tains, all races still reverence the shrines of their remote predecessors.

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150 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE MARBLE GORGE OF THE EUPHRATES NEAR Huntington Ellsworth Photo by KEBAN MAADEN In ancient times marble was quarried on the right of the river and was apparently floated down stream on rafts The customs, manner of life, and mode of thought of the Turks and Armenians are fairly well known; but those of the Kurds have been studied comparatively little. A few examples will give an idea of certain of the most noteworthy Kurd- ish characteristics. In the spring of 1901 the writer, in company with Professor Thomas H. Norton, U. S$. Consul at Harput, was able to make a trip of two hundred miles down the Euphrates River through the great series of canyons by which the river traverses the Taurus Mountains. Only once before had the journey been made—by the great Ger- man general, \on Moltke, in 1838. The raft was made of sheep skins, taken off entire and inflated with air. Thirty such skins, like great bladders, were tied under a frame of poles, and made a wonderfully buoyant raft. Rapids abound and our Armenian raftsmen feared to shoot them. Accordingly, at first we made arduous portages around rapid after rapid, climbing far up the steep walls of the canyon and descending over the rockiest of trails. At length the canyon became so narrow that it was impossible longer to scale the sides, and we were obliged to shoot rapids much larger than those around which we had wearily climbed. Time XUM

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CUM THE MOUNTAINEERS OF THE EUPHRATES 151

ENTRANCE TO THE MAIN after time we were drenched in great waves which broke over us at the foot of smooth-sloping sheets of water, where the raft seemed to drop like a toboggan. Once one of the men was washed over- board by a wave, but was caught by his companion, who seized the skirt of his gown as he disappeared. Once the raft struck upon rocks in the midst of a wild rapid, but fortunately it held together and we came through safely. On this journey down the Euphrates, our first contact with the Kurds was at a ferry. As we glided toward the ferry the Armenian raftsmen said: “Do you see that boat? It belongs to the village ( SORGE OF Photo by Ellsworth Huntingtor THE EUPHRATES next above ours. Last winter the old boat belonging to the Kurds was carried away in a flood. As soon as the water fell they came up to our neighbors’ vil- lage and carried off their boat. And what could the poor Armenians do? They have no guns. The Turks have taken them all away.” \s we floated toward the Kurds we approached the shore, and finally stopped them. ‘“Backsheesh! Back- sheesh! <A present,” was their greeting. “This is our ferry, and you must pay us.” It made no difference to them that, as we pointed out, we were using our own con- close to veyance, and were going down the river,

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152 TURKISH SOLDIERS CROSSING THE MUZI RIVER, BY MEANS OF A SMAL FRIGHTE BY <A not across it. They took out their long flint-lock guns and prepared to shoot. It was only when we emphasized the fact that our party contained a consul that they let us go without payment and with- out gunshot. Later we came to an isolated crag of naked rock rising close to the river and crowned by the ruins of an ancient castle, used first by the Haldis, then by the Romans, and finally by the Saracens. At its foot lay the ruined mosques of Pertag, a town which was moved to another loca- tion nearly a hundred years ago because soldiers were quartered on the inhabi- tants for half a year at a time. Some months later I visited the new town—a picturesque place at the foot of hot, white, limestone mountains, from which gush out springs of clear, cold water to support the trees and vines that embower the flat-roofed adobe houses. As my companion and I were

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GY xo AS 4, eee Photo by Ellsworth Huntington JR SU, A BRANCH OF THE EUPHRATES IL RAFT OF SKINS, TOWED NED HORSE sitting under the ever-present mulberry trees, enjoying a watermelon with yellow flesh and brown seeds, a ragged man, hot, breathless, and exhausted, came running up to the house where twenty soldiers were quartered to preserve the peace. At once there arose the sound of shout- ing; horses were led out; soldiers were seen taking down their guns and ammu- nition; the villagers came out of their houses or in from the fields in wild ex- citement, loading their long guns as they walked. Some of the soldiers and vil- lagers went in one direction, some in the other. It appeared that three or four hundred sheep and goats belonging to the village had been grazing, an hour’s jour- ney away, when a band of Kuzzilbash Kurds swooped down upon them. One shepherd was shot; the others ran away. Now the whole village was going out in an attempt to overtake and punish the rob- bers. How it turned out I do not know,

XUM

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THE MOUNTAINEERS OF ACROSS THE A KURD SWIMMING for we were obliged to continue our jour- ney. The government was so afraid that some harm would befall the foreigners of our party that it insisted upon in- creasing our escort for the next few days to four, then seven, and finally sixteen soldiers. After spending seven days in voyaging down the Euphrates we landed at the picturesque castle of Gerger, on a peak among the foothills which overlook the great plains of Mesopotamia. There we stayed a few days in a village occupied partly by Kurds and partly by Arme- nians, One day I went out to copy a long Greek inscription dating from about the time of Christ. Some twenty swarthy Kurds in white cotton drawers, white shirts, and gaily embroidered waistcoats followed me. As I copied the old Greek words, they leaned on their long guns KUPHRATES ON AN THE EUPHRATES Ellsworth Huntington INFLATED GOATSKIN and talked in low tones, until at length they seemed to come to some decision, whereupon they all went quietly away. Then I heard the sound of gunshot after gunshot, coming apparently from the gate of the castle. When I went out, the graceful Arabic inscription over the door was seen to have been freshly chipped and defaced. Evidently the Kurds had been firing at it. Back at the village the servants ex- plained the matter as they had heard it from the Kurds. The Kurds, it appears, believe that all inscriptions tell where gold is buried. As they watched the for- eigner copy the Greek inscription they said to one another: “We can’t stop him now; he has copied this one and will find Let’s go outside and spoil the the gold. that he inscription over th shan’t find that gold, too.” That night I made minute inquiries 1 the door, so

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ruE CASTLE OF GERGER, OCCUPIED SUCCESSIVELY BY HITTITES, ROMANS, AND SARACENS [he size may be judged from the figure in the doorway SYRIAN MONASTERY PLASTERED AGAINST THE WALL OF THE CANYON OF THE EUPHRATES RIVER XUM

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THE MOUNTAINEERS OF THE EUPHRATES 155 HITTITE FIGURE concerning a square cave which had been excavated thousands of years ago in the face of a perpendicular cliff of limestone on one side of the cas- tle. Were there any inscriptions in it, or any rock carvings? The natives did not know. The next day I went down the river a few miles to an old Syrian monastery, plastered like a swal- low’s nest against the middle of the wall of the Euphrates canyon, here only some four hundred feet deep, but very narrow. In the wall of the monastery was a Syriac Ellsworth Huntingtor Photo by CARVED IN SOLID LIMESTONE AT GERGER CASTLE inscription upon a large stone imbedded in the wall about six feet below the roof. The only way to copy it was to let one- self down by a rope over the side of the building. As I sat in a bight of rope, dangling in space, the guides on the roof cried out, “Look, look, down there in the river.” I looked, and there, far down below us in the yellow, muddy water, was the body of a man floating rapidly along. When I was pulled back to the roof, I inquired what sort of man he was. The guides only shrugged their

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156 shoulders and said: “I suppose the Kurds up the river killed him and threw him in. Perhaps they robbed him. ‘They often do that sort of thing.” In the village that night the servants remarked: “Do you know what the Kurds did while you were gone? They said. ‘The foreigner can’t fool us. He asked about that cave because he had read in the inscription that the treasure is buried there.. So they got a rope and let one of their number down. He pawed around in the dirt and at last was pulled up, and said that there was nothing there. “You're a liar,’ said the others. A second man was let down and brought the same report. A third had to be let down be- fore the Kurds believed that there was no money in the cave.” The Kurds are full of strange ideas as to ruins. One day the conversation touched upon the hardness of the mortar in a certain ancient wall. “Do you know why it’s so hard?” said one. “I'll tell you. This castle was built by a great king, who had an enormous flock of hens. When he was building the castle he had a huge trough built. Every night he gathered the eggs from twenty thousand hens and put them in the trough. The ONE THOUSAND FOR THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE next day his men broke up the eggs and used them to make mortar. That’s why the walls are so strong.” Credulous, fierce, and untractable as the Kurds are, they are nevertheless a people of true strength of character. Today they are a menace to the develop- ment of constitutional government in Turkey. They themselves are ruled partly by the patriarchal system, partly by the clan system, and ‘partly by the feudal system, and all have had bitter experience of the hated rule of a despotic monarchy. Now they are suddenly given an opportunity to live under con- stitutional government. Little they care for that; but if they once understood it they would probably be among. its staunchest supporters. For three thou- sand years they have lived the same wild, simple life, remote from all men and at strife with all men. Now, by no act of their own, modern ideas are coming to them. It is hard to foretell whether the recent changes in the government of Tur- key will have any effect upon them, or whether they will continue to be influ- enced only by the mountains and the hard conditions of their immediate environ- ment. MILES OF RAILWAY BUILT PILGRIMS AND NOT FOR DIVIDENDS * By CoLoneEL HE, Damascus to Mecca Railway has many remarkable features which distinguish it from other lines. Its principal object is to provide a means for faithful Moslems to perform their pilgrimage to the holy places of Mecca and Medina with a greater degree of comfort than formerly.t Its inception is due to the initiative of * Abstracted from the Geographical Jour + There are still many of the by camel, with its fifty-two stages from as part of the duty of pilgrimage. F. R. MAUNSELL the present Sultan, and the enthusiasm created by its first announcement brought in subscriptions from the faithful in all parts of the Islamic world. A _ special stamp-tax forms a solid annual contribu- tion to the expenses, somewhat less evanescent than other contributions may prove to be. Geographically, the line has provided the long, tedious journey rdships involved XUM

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tt RIMS * I UILT FOR PILC » ) RAILWAY | SNOSVNVG WOU AI Laduvd ATOH AHI 10 AYN LAVdAd UM

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‘ad x1 OR PILI -" 4 RAILWAY BUILT I VNIGAW WOT SNOSVINVA ONIAVA'T NIVUL LSU AHL JO ANNALAVAIG AW LS ce ed a1dury UPWUIO}VYO 92} JO wWoy]quis [euoieu 33 4Uu9d9S019 puUP IRIS 91 ONILVUAATAD DJIONT UM

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE co — _—_~ Sl (Lol AOVd WAS) NVVIN Pear . = onmmedil. ae ‘ . > LAASAG AHL NI ALIO V

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161 PILGRIMS FOR sSUILT AILWAY |! » 7 I (tor ANVd aas ) AV AVTIV4’ VOOUW AHL JO ALAOM TTI SNOTV SNMOL TIWdIDNIMA aH Jo ANO “MOWAT 1O MHTA V XUM

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,EOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL Hk 1 16 3 > ~ 1YBu yw 1aqpays punoy VIII JOF pUnog siusspid sy} sj1O}¥ IsayI eprsuT VOOAIN OL ALAOM NVAVAVO AHL ONOIV VIGVAV NI LMOM ‘IVDId A \ XUM

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Adee hie Al WLICCCd LOULIG Sure imside these forts the pligrims DOUNd fOr (UM RAILWAY a means of travel in a country with a fascination of scenery quite peculiar to itself and unlike any other part of the world. Instead of traversing populous countries and great cities, it seems to de- light in passing through immense soli- tudes—through a country peopled mainly by the spirits of the Arabian Nights, where little surprise would be occasioned in finding a roc’s egg in some inhospi- table, rocky valley, or in seeing a genie floating in a stream of thin vapor out of a magic bottle. The line commences at the traditional parting-place of the great pilgrimage, the Bawaubet Allah, or Gate of Allah, in Damascus. For the first few miles the line traverses the Hauran, running par- allel to the French Hauran Railway. From ancient times this district has been an extremely rich one, and the Romans used it as a granary. The deep, narrow ravines of the Yar- muk, the ancient Hieroymax, which the line follows in its descent to the Jordan, present several difficulties of engineering successfully overcome. Large numbers of Italian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Greek, and other European workmen had employed on the difficult rock cuttings tunnels, and viaducts of this section. The Jordan Valley, where the line crosses it, is 800 feet below Mediter- ranean level; but the difficulties of con- struction cease when the Yarmuk Valley has been successfully traversed, and the ascent to the sea is made by easy gradi- ents. South of Deraa the main line leaves the richer corn land and enters an upland, undulating country, the land of Bashan, producing abundant grazing in the spring. At that season troops of ga- zelle roam about the country, and the Bedouin, with vast herds of camels, are found close to the line. The landscape gets bleaker as the train moves south. The mountains of Moab are passed some distance to the west, and the trace is laid tar out in the desert, where the valleys are wide and easy to cross, and before they deepen into nar- row ravines as they enter the mountains. to be SOON BUILT FOR PILGRIMS 163 The old pilgrim route is followed very closely throughout, and at the stations the stone cisterns and reservoirs, to pro- vide a supply of water to the pilgrims, are noticed. Water becomes very scarce ; in a few places wells have been dug and water is raised by wind-pumps. For artesian wells some reason boring for does not seem to have been tried. One attempt was made in rocky ground, and when the drills broke no further attempts were made. As the line approaches tremely desolate country is Low ranges appear to the east, ently of sandstone or limestone forma- tion, although the ground is strewn thickly with black fragments of obsidian along some sections of the line. The ravines now trend eastward, to lose themselves in a wide depression in that direction, as shown in the recent maps of this country by Prof. Alois Musil. Maan is the first point since Amman where water is procurable in any quan- tity, either ‘from springs in the small town itself or from wells at the railway station. The place is a large railway center, with several stone buildings for officials, a small shop for temporary re- pairs, a hospital, and quite a good hotel— a substantial building, rather small in size. The small town, containing some good stone and mud houses, is not visi- ble from the railway, but lies beyond a hill nearly a mile off. Two copious springs supply the necessary water Date palms are reared; small gardens with various kinds of fruit trees and a few fields of corn are visible, but from a little distance the place is little else than a drab patch on a gray landscape. Its principal distinction is its proximity to the rocky city of Petra,* a ride of some eight hours to the west among the Moab hills. The climate of Maan is invigorat- ing, both in winter and summer, as the place stands 3,525 feet above sea-level, surrounded by the dry, invigorating air of the desert. The principal drawbacks are the severe Maan an ex- traversed. appar- * For a description of this wonderful rock city see Nat. Geoc. Mac., May, 1907.

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164 THE NATIONAL dust-storms. Rain is not uncommon in the spring, and then a tinge of green spreads over the landscape. The ancient fortress of Petra and now Maan owe their importance as standing at the gate f Arabia, and forming the last outpost of Syria and Western civilization before the long, dreary stages of the northern \rabian journey. lor countless ages—long before the present pilgrimages—this was the route by which the gold, frankincense, and \rabian found their way into Syria; but the Suez Canal and steamer transport by the Red Sea seem to have abolished all, or almost all, trade pros- pects, arél only the pilgrims remain. On leaving Maan it may indeed be said that all hope of dividend left behind, and the line enters a spirit world without pr ducts towns or even inhabitants. The stages south of Maan, the old pilgrim route, were the most desolate of all, and the Way was always strewn by dead and dying camels as the caravan toiled along. The line crosses a constant succession of small wadis. Some 50 miles south of Maan comes the most remarkable change in the land- and the veritable gate of Arabia and the home of the genie is at last reached. The line arrives quite suddenly at the edge of the curious escarpment known as the Batn-el-Ghrul, or the Hol- low of the Genie. Irom the station of the top of the descent, the SCapc Batn-el-Ghrul, at traveler can walk to the edge of the cliff and take in the immense extent of view which un- folds itself to the south. The escarp- ment is visible for some 20 sade to the east and is a sheer cliff without, it is said, a single passage of one lor some 15 miles to the west, also, the es- carpment is fairly well defined, until it merges in the high ranges overlooking the Gulf of Akaba. The pilgrim route follows the descent close nile the line and is comparatively easy. The principal descent is from 3.207 feet at 8 at the feet altogetier. summit iS ex- foot of the the summit to escarpment, or The view GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tremely striking and comprises a great inland depression, walled in by a contin- uation of the escarpment on the east, and glowing throughout in the most brilliant and striking colors. The prevailing note is bright red and yellow, changing to vio- let, purple, and black, so that every tint except green seems to be supplied. The escarpment is of sandstone, which seems to have worn away in some places to sand-drifts of all colors, but principally red and yellow. The spurs of the Tel- esh-Shahim, which run out parallel to the line, are covered with glistening black rocks, at first sight volcanic, but, as I was told by an engineer, they were really of sandstone blackened by the intense heat of the sun. The depression extends south for a distance of about 120 miles. feature is In this clear, dry air every visible. Inquiries regarding the country to the east gave it as an almost waterless although a route does exist from Maan to Jauf along which some scanty wells can be found. Towards the Red Sea the district is said to contain a few villages, and a sufficient supply of water from small springs. \n endless series of beautiful region, mirages unfold themselves as the train toils slowly along these two lines of. steel leading through an endless expanse of sand and rocks, varied with an occasional volcanic outcrop raising black-topped hills. \t Tebuk, 430 miles from Damascus, is the first oasis of any size, and here a depot has been formed, at which the railway can recoup itself before another long stretch of nearly waterless desert is entered and the next depot at Fl Ula reached. A group of buildings for the employés, a small hi ety shop, and a hospital with sixty beds form the prin- cipal part of the pA Tebuk consists of a group of date palms about a half a mile square, deriv- ing water from a large spring walled round in a concrete basin and watched over by another of the masonry forts which mark a pilgrim station. Alto- eether there were about sixty mud iouses, with a few walled gardens be- XUM

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RAILWAY BUILT FOR PILGRIMS 165 9- la 1€ n- MOUTAKA PILLARS IN ARABIA, SEEN FROM THE RAILWAY TO MECCA XUM

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 166 a bt NIVAL LSU dH L aqaS OL MNAAL OL AINOSD LYASAG AH INONA SMIAHS XUM

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167 SUILT FOR PILGRIMS RAILWAY daaAHS INIOMTAOVS Ad MOTAL LV aqvOwliva AO ININADO AHL YNILVAINODNVNI

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AZINE 1EOGRAPHIC MAG NATIONAL ¢ THE 168 (1Z1 w9vVd aS ) HVIVS NIVOSIN LV SHINO LAO-MOOU

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169 XIMS il UILT FOR PILG » ) RAILWAY LYASHA IHL NI TINVO GVOWTIVYN V ~e KUM

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} a ~x< SQOSVINVG WOM NIVAL LSTA AHL ONTINOOTAM VNIGHIN NI SLSHINd HOT -HIC MAGAZINE

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IM RAILWAY BUILT longing to the permanent inhabitants of Tebuk. All that were seen were of a distinetly negroid type, different from the nomad Bedouw. The surrounding coun- try is but sparsely inhabited by Arabs. Besides date palms, there are in the gardens a few lemon trees and pome- eranates, and outside are some few fields of wheat, cultivated principally as green fodder. ‘The Italian engineer in charge of this section had managed to make a garden in the sand, where by means of irrigation he grew most kinds of Euro- pean vegetables, but none of the inhabi- tants seemed inclined to copy his ex- ample. It seems certain that Mohammed visited Tebuk in his earlier wanderings, and tradition refers to Jebel Sherora as the Pulpit of the Prophet, probably from its commanding position overlooking all the surrounding country. The rainfall in this country is ex- tremely capricious, and perhaps two or even three years may elapse before there is any appreciable fall here, although at Maan there appears to be always some rain in the spring. Of animal life there appears to be very little. An antelope, which the Turks call a wild cow, but which looks to be Ory. beatrix, is to be found in this district, but only in small numbers. The large troops of gazelle seen north of Maan do not roam here. It is said that the ostrich is occasionally found, and the skin of one specimen is preserved in Maan station. The desert air is extremely dry and clear, always invigorating, and even the great heat in summer is not as insupport- eble as in a damper climate, where the thermometer is probably lower. Climate has, without doubt, a great effect on the human character and intellect, and the nervous, high-strung temperament of the \rab is to a great extent the creation of his environment of desert, with its splendid mirages to fire the imagination and sparkling air to keep the nerves al- ways alert. South of Tebuk want of water 1s again a great difficulty, and the small > FOR PILGRIMS 17 posts have to be supplied daily from the train. At Medain-Salih the valley widens a little, and here are found some rock-cut tombs similar to those at Petra, but far fewer and less ornate. Traces of a town exist, but there is nothing now visible except the usual fort of the pilgrim. Here again, as well as at Tebuk, the site would seem a favorable one for trying artesian wells, but no attempts have been made to prove their success or otherwise. The permanent way has been laid throughout by Turkish soldiers, but the station buildings, all of very solid ma- sonry, as Well as bridges and culverts, of which there are a great number, have been constructed mostly by Italian work- men, with some Greeks and Montene- grins. As many as three or four hun- dred Italian workmen were employed at one time on the works near Tebuk, and so little did fanaticism come into play that they built the fine new mosque at Tebuk. Subsequently they instructed some Turkish engineers, who continued the work from EI Ula to the Holy City itself. It is difficult to think of this railway becoming a great highway or developing any great trade with Central Arabia, as the section from Maan to Medina traverses an unproductive country with- out possibility of development, and the interior of Arabia has no surplus prod- ucts to dispose of. In any case, when the line reaches the sea, at Sherm Ra- bigh, it is probable that any trade, either export or import, to Medina or Mecca will pass through that port in prcierence to the long land journey. The following summary of distances shows the extent of the line: Damascus to Maan eiivig 285 miles 7 PG GDI sey .eiecena oes 0) RO Loge 4 9 A er 600 $0 MCG 4 cise 820 RGU MIRGCCRY vod vacate cans 1097 The gauge of the line is the somewhat curious one of 1.05 meter (3 feet 5% inches), which was necessary, when the line was first commenced, to correspond

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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZ'NE MOSLEM WOMEN IN with the gauge of the Beirut-Damascus line, over which the rolling stock had to be brought. The branch to the Mediter- ranean, at Haifa, was constructed sub- sequently. The rolling stock has been obtained principally from Belgium, with the exception of the engines, which are made by a German firm. The rails were supplied by the American Steel Trust, by a French firm domiciled in Russia, and by the firm of Cockerill, in Belgium. The engineers in charge of were also of various nationalities— French, Poles, Hungarians, while the guiding spirit in the construction has been Meissner Pasha, a very able Ger- man engineer. But these the general direction has been under Marshal Pasha, to whom the greatest sections etc. besides Kiazim A VILLAGE ASIA MINOR Or credit is due in bringing the line success- fully into Medina, and to Hajji Mukhtar Bey, a brilliant Turkish engineer, who has absorbed all modern methods of con- struction, and completed the last section into Medina without European assist- ance. In conclusion, it is difficult which to admire the most, this far-reaching con- ception of His Majesty the Sultan—to build the line and thus to further the in- terests of his religion and bind together the outlying portions of his empire—or the silent, unswerving devotion of the ‘Turkish soldier who has carried the mat- to a conclusion, and who watches without complaint over miles of line through a country almost without water or inhabitants. 1 ter XUM

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SCENES IN HE, quaint pictures of the people and country of Central Asia given on pages 172-193, were sent to this Magazine by Mr H. W. Hicks, of New York, a member of the National Geographic Society. Nearly all the illustrations are from Mr _ Hicks’ camera. They admirably portray every- Minor, ASIA MINOR Asiatic provinces of the Ottoman Empire, described by Mr Ells- worth Huntington in ‘The Mountaineers of the Euphrates,” published in this num- ber, and in “Sunshine in Turkey,” by President Howard S. Bliss, which ap- peared in the January number of this Magazine. day life in the wv & Soo Ipy ARE Li ee a vd -Eeverum °Kaisar ieh Batn el Ghrul oJauf == | ;Veb Sherora vet NE = = i. YY y 5 4 ? La) Eee = dy & ea Za] “\ Medain Salih ° Hayil = ElUla s > a: = 2% 4 oAneysa j = 2: ~ = 4 4, 4 | % ‘ \ o* N. “O ae ag > an PY = — Mince o spun baer al et arput . ores Vans AG en) Ler “DiaTe Ni ¥ SYRIAN DESERT { Medinz oe fedina ErRiado ™ ‘ herm -Rabigh A; — Ne 7 Q “=> Mekla 100 0 100 200 300 miles t = _ e——__— SKETCH MAP OF ASIA MINOR AND OF THE DAMASCUS TO MECCA RAILWAY The section from Medina to Mecca is not quite completed

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174 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A BULLOCK TRAIN HAULING GRAIN TO MARKET \ YOUNG ARMENIAN COUPLE MOVING TO A NEW HOUSE The cart wheels are set tight on the axle, which revolves instead of the wheels XUM

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SCENES IN ASIA MINOR = 2 = es 7 x e ] Pe sda or " ? eh a 7 , " ont we al - i] me ; 05. ; * ¢ ie Se ee Abe A MULE TRAIN CARRYING GRAIN ON THE SHEPHERD AND ANGORA

ee 4 { ‘ 7 +. et { nae ¥ . ~ + . te « 3% , — , “ * eS 4 a ie Che. sy ae] Os * j ee A , a 5 34 ms ‘a a = ae a Ce ta ce * ~~ . <_ m Pod 4 ’ ae al + PLAINS OF ASIA MINOR GOATS

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176 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE on x FF a ; 1s os a0 ? m kel SD \ VILLI Hy CARAVANSERAL WILERI RAVELERS ARE HERDED WITH THEIR PACK TRAINS 1 CAMEI RADTN \KING THE NOONDAY REST XUM

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lPHE EUPHRATES RIVER NEAR THE WESTERN BORDER OF MESOPOTAMIA: AN ANCIENT CASTLE ON CLIFF ON LEFT IN THE GORGE OF THE TIGRIS RIVER: TAURUS MOUNTAINS This is the location of the most famous and richest copper mine in Turkey

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178 THE Nz TWO ARMENIAN CHI \TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE LDREN IN AN AMERICAN SCHOOL IN ASIA MINOR BLIND ORPHANS IN THE AMERICAN SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND: > \ + A te. be, RES LEM, XUM

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UM SCENES IN ASIA MINOR A TURKISH WOMAN CARRIED ON A NATIVE LITTER HOSPITAL: AINTAB WOMEN WAITING FOR TREATMENT IN THE AINTAB TO THE LEFT, ARMENIANS ON RIGHT AMERICAN CHRISTIAN DISPENSARY : MOSLEMS ON 1 ( 9

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180 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oN: 6, so acea nee THE CARPENTER SHOP IN THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL: URFA ARMENIAN ORPHANS FROM THE MASSACRES OF ISQ4-5 IN SCHOOL SUPPORTED BY THE SECOND ARMENIAN -EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF AINTAB

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VILLAGE WOMEN SORTING COARSE IN ASIA MINOR NATIVE GRAIN, WHICH AND DRIED VILLAGER WOMEN SPINNING NEAR URFA HAS BEEN BOILED 181

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182 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE \ CARTLOAD OF GRAPES: ASIA MINOR ARALS, ONE WEARING KURDISH COSTUME AND THE OTIIER A SIII PILERD'S PUR wre Aer WIS AP RAPA E 6 Suse ALE OUTER XUM

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JM TURKISH SCENES IN ASIA A ¥ A TURKISH POLICEMAN TROOPS WHO ARE BEING TRI AND TWO \TED IN HOSPITAL: TWO DAYS NOR’ MINOR TURKISH DRI THE CENTRAL TH OF ALEPPO VERS TURKEY COLLEGE 183

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ARABIAN BOYS IN A LONELY KAHN ON THE DESERT OF MESOPOTAMIA SCENE IN A GREGORIAN CHURCH SCHOOL IN MESOPOTAMIA Note priest in background XUM

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~egepes PIG Oe MARASH ARMENIANS OF n ¥ 7 = TURKISH MAKING UM

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186 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CITY WALL AND PRECIPICE SURROUNDING DIARBEKIR ANOTHER VIEW OF THE WALL OF DIARBEKIR XUM

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JM KURDISH MOSLEMS ON PLAINS OF SURUJ, NEAR AINTAB Mud houses of conical shape are found only in this region of Western Mesopotamia TRAVELING IN ASIA WHERE, THE ROAD ARE BAD

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RAPHIC MAGAZINE CTIONAL GEOG THE NA’ iSS YONIW VISV NI NMOL HSIMNUYOAL V NI VU TGdVS GAMNACIONTINA INV GHdINVALS ONIMVIN ; ) 4 b % ical aA s Pn eee ee XUM

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JM SCENES IN ASIA MINOR 189 TURKISH SHOES AND SLIPPERS MAKING

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4 4 AZINE XAPHIC MAG z] EOC ‘ I THE NATIONAL ¢ 90 ] 7% Le - ROL Re a, iit YONIW VIS\ SE Eee aie yg, ~-ININNIdS GNV “INILVAS “ININNIOD POYNUT AVON MOT NALIOS ON TH AM XUM

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) XN IN ASIA MINOI ENES SC YONIW VISV NI NMOL HSIMYNL V NI dOHS WIEVLADAA V UM

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“4 ‘ 192 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE: ASIA MINOR TAN NERS: TURKISH XUM

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193 SCENES IN ASIA MINOR HSVYVW NI NAWMAOM OL HONN'T ONIAWUV o SAOE UM

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A JACK IN THE BOX An Account ot the Strange Performances of the Most Wonderful Island in the World By CapTain F. M. Muncer, Senior Caprain U.S.R.C.S. HI, following relating to recent 3. During the winter of 1905-00 there changes that have taken place in) appeared a new peak about half way the Bogoslof volcano of the between the old islands. When this peak Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the accom- developed it formed connection with panying photographs, may be of interest Tire Island and left a passage between to the readers of the N \TIONAL GEO- it and Castle Rock in which the least GRAPHIC MAGAZINE: depth of water was five fathoms. ‘This 1. Bogoslof voleano was discovered peak was surveyed by officers from the about 1790 by the Russian admiral of United States revenue cutter Perry, in June, 1906, and was named Perry Peak neencete (see page 195). t. During the winter of 1900-07 another peak appeared, absorbing in its uplift about half of Perry Peak, and fill- ing in the space to Castle Rock, thus | bof making one island of the group. Mag. E iNet ihe 5. July 4, 1907, officers from the United States revenue cutter J/cCulloch : ae made a survey of this peak and named y 5d) it McCulloch Peak. This peak was 2,000 ra dhs, feet through its base and 495.feet high ‘el (see page I90). G October 15, 1907, the McCulloch ; again visited the island and found + \ station Point MeCulloch Peak had disappeared, and a7 where it stood a large harbor had formed, with outlet to the sea near Cas- CASTLE ROCK Bae tle Rock. 7. It is thought this peak exploded September 1, 1907, as on that date, at 5 p. m., a dense black cloud passed over Unalaska Island, covering the land with that name; it was then but one island, ..1, fatli a devil , sthenaely led Castle Is] ashes, tailing to a depth of three-six- now called Castle Isl ; salle cna lls teecssrnee de teenths of an inch on the board walks > yur o ft , tT ILQH_R- - 1-1 ° ° . ° o e Bs uring sie Winter OF I1Ss6-« ‘fs a Win Thiuliuk, sixty miles from Bogoslof. island appeared two and one-half miles 8. July, 1908, officers from the United —: northwest from Castle Island, States revenue cutter Rush made a which was named Tire Island. A nar EMD BOGOSLOF ISLAND IN SEP ER, 1908 he ") l survey of the island and found great row neck of land connected these two changes. Perry Peak had disappeared ; ve of land extended from Fire place, and by 1900 there was a passage Island to Castle Rock, having an eleva- betwee n the two with not less than seven tion of about three hundred feet at the islands, but a gradual subsidence took 4 hjeh rid fathoms of water. hese islands are highest point: the entrance to the harbor probably thrown up from a deep-sea near Castle Rock had filled in, high land volcano, as they come from great depths, formed to the west, and an entrance the 1,000-fathom curve being less than opened.to the west-northwest. near Fire four miles to the northwest. Island. ee Ee

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XUM

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A JACK IN THE BOX 197 ie . _ r ~ ee Po, D. PHOTO TAKEN JULY 4, 1907, WITH THE PEAKS BEARING NORTHWEST 1. Perry Peak. E. PHOTO TAKEN JULY 4, Peak. t. McCulloch Peak. 2. Perry Two months after McCulloch Peak 1907, WITH THE PEAKS BEARING SOUTHWEST these photos were taken McCulloch Peak exploded and its ashes were scattered on the islands to the southeast for a distance of 70 miles. At Unalaska, 60 miles away, there fell 3/16 of an inch in one hour, then followed a fierce rain. The navigator of the Rush made survey of the harbor and found it to be about one mile across, with from four to twenty-five fathoms. of .water; black sand bottom; temperature of water, 406 I’. The shore to the south of the harbor was steaming (photographs C., F., and sketch ). 9g. In September, 1908, the WeCulloch visited the island and found the south- west portion smoking; shoals had made out from the northeast and east sides, and patches of discolored water were ob- Photos from Capt. a M, Munger. served to the north and northwest. Bad weather and rough sea prevented further survey. : 10. The following relative to forma- tion is quoted from the report of First Lieutenant B. H. Camden, U.S. R.C. S., who surveyed the island July 4, 1907: “The formation grated rock, basalt, feldspar, scoria, tufa, pumice, obsidian, trachyte, other igneous rock, and volcanic mud, all more or less consists of disinte- discolored with a deposit of sulphur.”

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AZINE ~ I RAPHIC MAC “OG x] IONAL C 4 I + NA’ 4 4 THI 198 {( Ds | V ‘QOOI ‘A wd t AU ld ul TO SHIN OAS aN\ INVALS ALI a jo ceam ol he se vir ae) MOLA aS SIU} LOL AN ' LONE RS INIATA LUOL] ‘purys] SHAD NW'IOS

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199 BOX N THE I A JACK uung yaqoy Aq Ojoyg ‘spief poipuny Moyq Pe UTYIIM SUIIINIIO JINJeU JO SUOIS]MAUOD JUONHdIIZ oy} JO Josoytpur ATION Sutidsyo Iayy Iea1 Ay) ‘puvys] Jo[sosog jo uonszod pjo ayy uo GQNV'ISI WILSVO NO DNILWYOdSIG SNOIT VaS ‘O19 ] | KUM

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CONDITIONS IN CUBA AS REVEALED BY THE CENSUS* By Henry GANNETT N the autumn of the population of Cuba was taken. The primary purpose of this census was to obtain, by means of non-partisan machinery, a list of the persons qualified to vote, to serve as a basis for the then approaching municipal and national elee- tions. Lecause such was the primary purpose, the census was not extended to include the industries of the island, but related solely to the population. ‘The questions asked differed but little from those employed in the Cuban census of 1899 and in the census of the .hilip- ines. The results of this census were tabu- lated by the United States Census Office and a report, printed in Spanish only, is about to be issued. From the results | have brought together a few of the more striking facts. The civil organization of follows: The island is divided into 6 provinces, and these provinces into 82 municipali- ties. These municipalities are in turn divided into 1,069 barrios, the “barrio” being the smallest political subdivision of the island. There are no cities, towns, villages, or boroughs, as we understand those terms. The urban parts of the Cuba is as municipalities are not separated from the adjoining rural parts. It is possible, however, in the case of most centers of population, to make an approximate sep- aration by means of the barrios, certain of the barrios of a municipality being mainly, if not entirely, of of rural inhabitants. composed urban or A REMARKABLE NATURAL INCREASE IN POPULATION The population of Cuba on September was 2,048,980: at the \merican , lavates “enc 30, 1907, census preceding, taken under next before the American Paper rr ad IQ07 a census of \ssociation of Geographers, January 2, administration, in 1899, at the close of the Spanish-American War, the popula- tion was 1,572,797. The rate of increase in these eight years is not less than 30 per cent, or at the rate of 39 per cent per decade. ‘This is a very rapid rate of increase—greater than that of any country with which I am acquainted. This increase has not been brought about by immigration, for in the eight years the net immigration (that is, the excess of arrivals over departures) num- bered only 75,000, and the element of foreign birth increased from II per cent to 11.2 per cent only, but it has been brought about almost entirely by the ex- cess of births over deaths. During the years of revolution, when a large part of the men away from their homes fighting for freedom, marriages and births were very few, and at the close of the war there were great arrears to be made up. The natural result followed— an astonishing birth rate, which is shown in the fact that by the last census the number of children under five years of age, who, of course, have been born since the war, accounts for three-fourths of the increase in population. One peculiar phenomenon of this in- crease is that the rural population has gained much more rapidly than has the urban—a condition which rarely exists, as in nearly every country in the world the drift of population is toward the cities. The urban population, including all places of 1,000 inhabitants and over, was 43.9 per cent of the total population. In 1899 it was 47.1 per cent. If the urban population be limited to towns of 8,000 inhabitants, the proportion was 30.3 per cent. The chief cities are Habana, with 297,159 inhabitants, or about one-seventh were 1909

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CONDITIONS IN CUBA AS REVEALED BY THE CENSUS 201 of the population of Cuba; Santiago de Cuba, 45,470; Matanzas, 36,009; Cienfu- egos, 30,100; and Camaguey, 29,616. The number of inhabitants per square mile in the island as a whole was 46.5, or about the same as in Missouri, Virginia, or South Carolina. The foreign-born population formed 11.2 per cent of the total. Of this ele- ment, four-fifths were born in Spain and less than 3 per cent in the United States ; Chinese and Africans were more numer- ous than United States people. The slave trade was officially abolished early in the present century, but that it continued as a contraband traffic until comparatively recent years is shown by the fact that nearly 8,000 negroes on the island re- ported themselves as having been born in Africa. Among the people born in Cuba the sexes were very nearly equally divided, while among the foreign-born more than four-fifths were males. THE COLORED POPULATION IS NOT HOLD- ING ITS OWN As to color, about seven-tenths of the population were white, the remaining three-tenths being colored, including ne- groes, mixed, and a few thousand Chi- nese. As in the United States, the colored element is increasing less rapidly than is the white population, owing here both to a smaller birth rate and a larger death rate. The native whites formed nearly three-fifths of the entire popula- tion. Some of the features of the distribu- tion by age are of interest. The propor- tion of young children, as has already been noted, was very large, those under I year forming 3.2 per cent of the whole population, while in the United States they formed only 2.5 per cent. Those under 5 years of age were 16.8 per cent, contrasting with 9.5 per cent in the United States. On the other hand, the proportion of people of advanced age was small; those over 50 years of age formed only 10 per cent, while in the United States the percentage was 13.2 per cent, The children of school age, 5 to 1/7 years, present a curious phenomenon, the number being actually 11,500 less in this census than in that of 1899. The war and the accompanying reconcentration caused the death of vast numbers of young children, most of whom were under the school age. The survivors are now 8 years older and constitute a large proportion of the scheol-age class, while the numerous children born since the war have hardly reached the school age. At the recent census the children of school age formed only 26.4 per cent of the population, while the same class in 1899 was not less than 35.1 per cent, and in the United States was 33.8 per COTE. Among the aged there is apparently the same tendency to exaggerate ages as exists in this country and elsewhere, and this tendency is of course more marked among the ignorant classes. In Cuba 0.2 per cent of the whites reported them- selves as 80 years of age or more, while of the colored not less than 1.2 per cent were so reported. Of the white popula- tion who reported themselves to be over 100 years, the number was too small to be expressed in a percentage, but of the colored 0.1 per cent reported themselves as centenarians. The average age of the Cuban was 23.4 years, which is strongly contrasted with that of the United States—26.3 years—a difference of almost 3 years in average age. The males of voting age formed 27 per cent of the population, or very nearly that of the United States, which is 28 per cent. The native-born males of voting age, who practically con- stitute the voting strength of the people, formed 21 per cent of the population. MARRIAGES IN CUBA The conjugal condition of the Cubans presents some points of interest. ‘There are practically no divorced persons, since the Roman Catholic Church does not tolerate that condition. There is a class, however, which is not recognized in this country, to which the name of “consen- sual union” or “consensual marriage”

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202 has been applied, referring to man and woman living together, having waived the marriage ceremony. ‘The reason for this condition is the large fee demanded by the church for performing the mar- riage ceremony, which the poorer class is unable to pay. This class of consensu- ally married persons is found in most Spanish-speaking countries, but it is probably larger in Cuba than elsewhere, being 8.8 per cent of the population, while the proportion of legally married was 20.7 per cent. This proportion, whether we consider only the legally married, 20.7 per cent, or both kinds of marriages together, 29.5 per cent, was much smaller than in most countries, and contrasts strongly with the propor- tion in the United States, 360.5 per cent. Consensual marriages were vastly more common among the colored than among the white inhabitants. Of the whites, 25.6 per cent of the total were legally married and but 4.8 per cent were con- sensually married, while among the col- ored people less than 10 per cent were lawfully married, while 17.4 were con- sensually married. It is popularly supposed that Cubans, like all Latin races, marry young, but as far as the figures show they marry but little, if any, younger than the people of the United States. The single persons comprised 66.8 per cent, or about two- thirds of the total, and the widowed 3.9 per cent. In classifying the single per- sons by age it appears that the proportion minimum in middle life and then increases. This is a result of con- sensual marriage, for as one partner of dies the survivor enters single instead of the reaches a such a union the ranks of the widowed. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE EXCELLENT PROGRESS IN EDUCATION The public-school system, organized under the first intervention in Cuba, is producing excellent results. Of the pop- ulation 10 years of age and over, 56.6 per cent could read, showing a decided gain in that respect since 1899. Of the native whites, 58.6 per cent could read, and of the colored 45 per cent were simi- larly educated. The proportion of liter- ates was naturally much greater in the cities than in the country, and highest of all in Habana. Of the whole population, 37.7 per cent were wWwage-earners—a_ proportion but slightly less than in the United States, where it was 39 per cent. Of all males, 65 per cent were wage-earners, and of females, only 7.5 per cent. Child labor was prevalent; of boys between Io and 14 vears of age, 27.8 per cent were wage- earners, and of those between 15 and 19 years, not less than 87.1 per cent, or about seven-eighths. By distributing wwage-earners among certain great groups ot avocations, one gets an idea of the relative importance of the industries which they represent. Thus, farming, fishing, and mining, col- lectively, employed 48.5 per cent, or nearly one-half of the wage-earners ; do- mestic and personal service claimed 16 per cent; manufacturing and the me- chanic arts, 16.3 per cent; trade and transportation, 17.6 per cent, or about one-sixth each; and the professions claimed 1.6 per cent. It appears that trade and transportation, manufacturing, and domestic and personal service em- ployed about equal numbers, and collect- ively they claimed about the same num- ber as farming, fishing, and mining. XUM

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A WASTEFUL NATION ILLIONS of dollars are thrown away each year by the American people, according to the first re- port of the Conservation Commission, submitted to President Roosevelt on Jan- uary 22, 1909. ‘The report contains an impressive series of figures, which have been prepared. very carefully by the most expert authorities of the United States government and may be regarded as con- servative. The following paragraphs are reprinted from the report for the information of the readers of this Magazine. The figures are so extraordinary that they need no comment: The mineral production of the United States for 1907 exceeded $2,000,000,000, and contributed 65 per cent of the total freight traffic of the country. The waste in the extraction and treatment of min- eral products during the same year was equivalent to more than $300,000,000. The production for 1907 included 395,000,000 tons of bituminous, and 85,- 000,000 tons of anthracite coal, 166,000,- 000 barrels of petroleum, 45,000,000 tons of high-grade and 11,000,000 tons of low- gerade iron ore, 2,500,000 tons of phos- phate rock, and 869,000,000 pounds ot copper. The values of other mineral products during the same year included clay products, $162,000,000 ; stone, $71,- 000,000; cement, $56,000,000; natural gas, $50, 00,000 : gold, $90,000,000 ; sil- ver, $37,000,000; lead, $39,000,000, and zinc, $26,000,000. OUR IRON ORE SUFFICIENT FOR 50 YEARS ONLY The available and easily accessible supplies of coal in the United States ag- gregate approximately 1,400,000,000,000 tons. At the present increasing rate of production this supply will be so depleted as to approach exhaustion before the mid- dle of the next century. The known supply of high-grade iron ores in the United States approximate 3,840,000,000 tons, which at the present increasing rate of consumption cannot be expected to last beyond the middle of the present century. In addition to this, there are assumed to be 59,000,000,000 tons of lower-grade iron ores, not avail- able for use under existing conditions. The supply of stone, clay, cement, lime, sand, and salt is ample, while the stock of the precious metals and of cop- per, lead, zinc, sulphur, asphalt, graphite, quicksilver, mica, and the rare metals cannot well be estimated, but is clearly exhaustible within one to three centuries. The known supply of petroleum is es- timated at i5,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,- 000 barrels, distributed through six sepa- rate fields having an aggregate area of 8,900 square miles. The production is rapidly increasing, while the wastes and the loss through misuse are enormous. The supply cannot be expected to last be- yond the middle of the present century. The known natural-gas fields aggre- gate an area of 9,000 square miles, dis- tributed through 22 States. Of the total yield from these fields during 1907, 400,- 000,000,000 cubic feet, valued at S62,- 000,000, were utilized, while an equal quantity was allowed to escape into the air. The daily waste of natural gas—the most perfect known fuel—is more than 1,000,000,000 cubic feet, or enough to supply every city in the United States of more than 100,000 population. OUR WASTE IS ON THE INCREASE The consumption of nearly all our mineral products is increasing far more rapidly than our population. In many cases the waste is increasing more rapidly than the number of our people. The consumption of coal is over 5 tons and the waste nearly 3 tons per capita. At the beginning of our mineral de- velopment the coal abandoned in the mine was two or three times the amount taken out and used. Now the mine waste aver- ages little more than half the amount saved. The chief waste is in imperfect combustion in furnaces and fire boxes. Steam engines utilize on the average about 8 per cent of the thermal energy

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204 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of the coal. Internal-combustion enginés utilize less than 20 per cent, and in elec- tric lighting far less than I per cent of the thermal energy is rendered available. Some lignites and other low-grade coals are readily gasified, and, through the development of internal-combustion engines, check the consumption of high- grade coals. Peat is becoming import- ant; it is estimated that 14,000,000,000 tons are available in the United States. Its value is enhanced because of distribu- tion through States generally remote from the fields of coal, oil, and natural gas. The building operations of the coun- try now aggregate about $1,000,000,000 per year. The direct and indirect losses from fire in the United States during 1907 approximated $450,000,000, or one- half the cost of construction. Of this loss four-fifths, or an average of $1,000,- 000 per day, could be prevented. There is urgent need for greater safety to the miner. ‘The loss of life through mine accidents is appalling, and prevent- ive measures cannot be taken too soon. The national government should ex- ercise such control of the mineral fuels and phosphate rocks now in its posses- sion as to check waste and prolong our supply. The total land area of continental United States is 1,900,000,000 acres. Of this but little more than two-fifths is in farms, and less than one-half of the farm area is improved and made a_ source of crop production. We have nearly 6,000,000 farms; they average 146 acres each. The value of the farms is nearly one-fourth the wealth of the United States. The number of persons engaged in agricultural pursuits is more than 10,- 100.000. We grow one-fifth of the world’s wheat crop, three-fifths of its cotton crop, and four-fifths of its corn crop. We plant nearly 50,000,000 acres of wheat annually, with an average vield of about [4 bushels per acre; I00,000,000 acres of corn, yielding an average of 25 bushels per acre, and 30,000,000 acres of cotton, vielding about 12,000,000 bales. We had on January I, 1908, 71,000,- 000 cattle, worth $1,250,000,000; 54,- 000,000 sheep, worth $211,000,000, and 50,000,000 swine, worth $339,000,000. The census of 1900 showed $137,000,000 worth of poultry in this country, which produced in 1899 293,000,000 dozen eggs. There has been a slight increase in the average yield of our great staple farm products, but neither the increase in acreage nor the yield per acre has kept pace with our increase in population. THE YIELD PER ACRE MUCH LESS THAN IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY In addition to the land awaiting the plow 75,000,000 acres of swamp land can be reclaimed, 40,000,000 acres of desert land irrigated, and millions of acres of brush and wooded land cleared. Our population will increase continuously, but there is a definite limit to the increase of our cultivated acreage. Hence we must greatly increase the yield per acre. The average yield of wheat in the United States is less than 14, bushels per acre, in Germany 28 bushels, and in England 32 bushels. We get 30 bushels of oats per acre, Ingland nearly 45, and Germany more than 47. , The loss to farm products due to injurious mammals is estimated at $130,- 000,000 annually; the loss through plant disease reaches several hundred million dollars and the loss through insects is reckoned at $659,000,000. ‘The annual losses from disease among domestic ani- mals are: Horses, 1.8 per cent; cattle, 2 per cent; sheep, 2.2 per cent, and swine, 5.1 per cent. Most of these farm losses are preventable. The product of the fisheries of the United States has an annual value of $57,000,000. Fish culture is carried on by the nation and the States on an enor- mous scale. Most of the more import- ant food species are propagated. Fish from fotest waters furnish $21,000,000 worth of food yearly. Our wild game and fur-bearing ani- mals have been largely exterminated. To prevent their complete extinction the States and the United States have taken XUM

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A WASTEFUL in hand their protection, and their num- bers are now increasing. Forest game yields over $10,000,000 worth of food each year. Fach citizen of the United States owns an equal undivided interest in about 375,000,000 acres of public lands, exclu- sive of Alaska and the insular posses- sions. Besides this there are about 235,- 000,000 acres of national forests, national parks, and. other lands. Good business sense demands that a formulated. The commission — be- will serve as a definite land policy be national solsnne vation lieves that the following basis therefor: I. Every part of the should be devoted to the use subserve the interests of the public lands which will best whole people. 2. The classification of all public lands is necessary for their administra- tion in the interests of the people. 3. The timber, the minerals, and the surface of the public lands should be disposed of separately. 4. Public lands more valuable for con- serving water supply, timber, and natural wonders than for agriculture the people beauties or should be held for the use of from all except mineral entry. 5. Title to the surface of the remain- ing non-mineral public lands should be granted only to actual home-makers. 6. Pending the transfer of title to the remaining public lands they should be administered by the government and their use should be allowed in a way to prevent or control waste and monopoly. The present public land laws as a whole do not subserve the best interests of the nation. ‘They should be modified so far as may be required to bring them into conformity with the foregoing out- line of p' icy. WASTE IN FORESTS We take from our forests yearly, in- cluding waste in logging and in manu- facture. 2 3,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood. We use each year 100,000,000 cords of firewor vd: 40,000,000,000 feet of lumber; more than I ,000,000,000 posts, IND NATION poles, and fence rails; 118,000,000 hewn ties; 1,500,000,000 staves; over 133,- 000,000 sets of heading; nearly 500,- 000,009 barrel hoops ; 3,000,000 cords of 165,000,000 cubic feet native pulp wood ; and 1,250,000 of round mine timbers, cords of wood for distillation. Since 1870 forest fires have destroyed a yearly average of 50 lives and $50,- 000,000 worth of timber. Not less than 50,000,000 acres of forest is burned over yearly. The young growth destroyed by fire is worth far more than the merchant- able timber burned. One-fourth of the standing timber is lost in logging. The boxing of long-leaf pine for turpentine has destroyed one- fifth of the forests worked. ‘The loss in the mill is from one-third to two-thirds of the timber sawed. The loss of the mill product in seasoning and fitting for fourth. tood in the feet of use is from one-seventh to one- Of each 1,000 feet which s forest, an average of only 320 lumber is used. We take from our forests each year, not counting the loss, three and a halt times their vearly growth. We take 4o for each 12 cubic feet feet per capita, and S feet per acre 260 cubic cubic grown; we take while Germany cubic feet. \Ve tax our uses 37 Irance 25 forests under the general property tax, a method abandoned long ago by every other great nation. [resent tax laws prevent reforestation of cut- over land and the perpetuation of exist- ing forests by use. To protect cur to reforest land _ best growth will require tree area larger than Pennsylvania, Ohio, and \West Virginia combined. An annual tax upon the land exclusive of the value of the timber, a tax upon the timber when cut, is well adapted to actual conditions of forest investme ent, and is practicable and certain. farms from wind and suited for forest planting on an itself, and Under right management, our forests will yield four times as much as now. We can reduce waste in the woods and 1 ill at least one-third, with present W e Can pe rpet- in the m as well as future profit.

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206 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE uate the naval stores industry. We can practically stop forest fires at a cost yearly of one-fifth the value of the mer- chantable timber burned. WATER POWER NEGLECTED The sole source of our fresh water is rainfall, including snow. Our mean an- nual rainfall is about 30 inches; the quan- tity about 215,000,000,000,000 cubic feet per year, equivalent to ten Mississippi Rivers. ht the 70,000,000,000,000 cubic feet annually flowing into the sea, less than I per cent is restrained and utilized for municipal and community supply; less than 2 per cent (or some 10 per cent of that in the arid and semi-arid regions) 1s used for irrigation; perhaps 5 per cent is used for navigation, and less than 5 per cent for power. The water power now in use is 5,250,- ooo horse power; the amount running over government dams and not used is about 1,400,000 horse power ; the amount reasonably available equals or exceeds the entire mechanical power now in use, or enough to operate every mill, drive every spindle, propel every train and boat, and light every city, town, and vil- lage in the country. SAVING OF LIVES Since the greatest of our national as- sets is the health and vigor of the Ameri- can people, our efficiency must depend on national vitality even more than on the resources of the minerals, lands, forests, and waters. The average length of human life in different countries varies from less than 25 to more than 50 years. This span of life is increasing wherever sanitary sci- ence and preventive medicine are applied. It may be greatly extended. Our annual mortality from tubercu- losis is about 150,000. Stopping three- fourths of the loss of life from this cause and from typhoid and other prev- alent and preventable diseases, would in- crease our average length of life fifteen years. There are constantly about 3,000,000 persons seriously ill in the United States, of whom 500,000 are consumptives. More than half this illness is preventable. If we count the value of each life lost at only $1,700, and reckon the average earning lost by illness as $700 a year for grown men, we find that the economic gain from mitigation of preventable dis- ease in the United States would exceed $1,500,000,000 a year. This gain, or the lengthening and strengthening of life which it measures, can be had through medical investigation and practice, school and factory hygiene, restriction of labor by women and children, the education of the people in both public and private hygiene and through improving the ef- ficency of our health service, municipal, State, and national. The permanent welfare of the nation demands that its natural resources be conserved by proper use. To this end the States and the nation can do much by legislation and example. By far the greater part of these resources is in pri- vate hands. Private ownership of nat- ural resources is a public trust; they should be administered in the interests of the people as a whole The States and the nation should lead rather than follow in the conservative and efficient use of property under their immediate control. But their first duty is to gather and distribute a knowledge of our natural resources and of the means necessary to insure their use and conservation, to impress the body of the people with the great importance of the duty, and to pro- mote the cooperation of all. No agency, State, Federal, corporate, or private, can do the work alone. XUM

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UM WALTHAM WATCHES The Waltham Factory the Pioneer The Largest in the World Progress Quality @ THe Watruam Wartcu Company Is THE Oupest WatrcH Company on the American continent, the Waltham factory having been built in 1854. The only other watch com- pany that at all approaches it in age and continuous existence was an off shoot from the parent Waltham factory and was estab- lished in a Western State in 1864. Q Tue Capiral oF THE WaLTHAM WatTcH Company Is LARGER, the assembly and the value of its automatic machinery is larger, the factory is larger, the number of its em- ployees is larger, and the daily output is larger than that of any other watch manu- facturing concern that ever existed. @ Every PERMANENT ADVANCE IN AMERICAN W aTCHMAKING during the past half century has originated with the Waltham Watch Company. “This company,” to quote Cham- bers’s Encyclopedia, “has revolutionized the industry it transferred from the old world to the new.” @ THere Has Never BEEN IN THE WorRLD’s History oF WaTCHMAKING a grouping of expert labor and marvelous machinery like this, nor anything like the unity of results shown by the sixteen million accurate and durable Waltham Watches that have been produced. WALTHAM WATCH COMPANY .. WALTHAM, MASS. Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated

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} bok = : - ‘ Ss ies a eae ATE, HOUs, ELLE NELL=wRIGH?’ j STON-CHICAG® — COFFEE haunts of men o] and from these gatherings comes the proverb a good talker is a CENNOUSEUT UV] COT] ee. HOUSES were the wit and fashion, The popularit coffee is unquestic T otes good fellowship and in- to mental and physi there is no questi are speaking about ‘‘really fine’’ coffee such as is our splendid ‘“‘WHITE HOUSE” COFFEE and if YOU would coffee drinking not on urable tisf I but the invigorating effects whicl romote energetic action, don’t, we beg of you, allow your grocer titute something else. Be id ask for *‘White House’’ coffee and GET it. Soldonly in 1, 2 & 3-lb Sealed Tin Cans DWINELL-WRIGHT Co. PRINCIPAL COFFEE ROASTERS BOSTON & CHICAGO GUARANTEE IT faction t ure al eee eres Classified Advertisements Minimum of Expense i Combines Dignity, Directness, and a ] National Geographic Magazine, Washington, D.C. j os For Terms, Address Advertising Manager, The & 6 Ps Fe Ss FF SF OS Os OF sO OS ENGINEERING EXPERTS—MINING, MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL, CIVIL H. E. SMITH, Mining Engineer, Box 335, Ft. Smith, Ark. General and Secret Investigations made in the Lead and Zine Fields of Missouri, Oklahoma, and Arkansas for non-residents. MARTIN FISHBACK, Mining Engineer, El Paso, Texas, U.S. A. Phones, 140, 788 P. O. Box 701. Cable: “* Fishback.’ Codes: Western Union, Moreing & Neal. 2eliable examinations and reports. Plans for economic development of prospects and mines, and supervision of operations. Special field: New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico. 3ank references furnished and required. LEE LATROBE BA1 EMAN, Consulting Engineer. 20 years’ experience, Farming Specialist, Irrigation, Drainage, and Reclamations. 5 made on projected developments. Special Field— Louisiana and Texas Gulf Coast Region. Address, 55 West Eighty-second St., New York City. NORVAL J. WELSH, Mining Engineer. Specialty “The examination, organization, and develop- ment of zold, silver, copper, and lead mining properties throughout the Republic of Mexico and the Southwest. Terms on request. San Antonio Club, San Antonio, Texas. The Engineers’ Club, New York, N. Y. MAP MAKER Specialist in making MAPS, CHARTS, DIAGRAMS, ETC. to order for all purposes. E. C. BRIDGMAN 86 Warren St., New York PATENTS AND TRADE-MARKS ALEXANDER & DOWELL, Attorneys at Law, 918 F St. N. W., Washington, D. C. (Established 1857), make Patent Causes a Specialty; Procure Patents and Trade- Marks; Render Expert Opinions on Patentability of Inventions and Validity and Infringement of Patents; Practice in all Federal Courts. Will send Book *T”’ of Information on request. Oe Fs i PS Oe Ps PF SF HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS @ Reads every paper of impor- } tance published in the United States, and through its European } agencies in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna every paper of impor- i tance published in Europe and } the British Colonies. One sub- scription on any given subject will ] brine notices from the United States, and if desired, also from } European papers. } WRITE FOR TERMS NEW YORK 110-112 WEST 26TH ST. 6 es es ee a | r & Ps ts Ps Ps Ph Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated Surveys and reports.

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UM Remar ~«m 7? The Only Work of Its Kind In the History of Literature ERE’S an interesting and splendidly illustrated set of books that should be owned by every man or woman who likes to study human nature. It is the only standard work that describes the women of all races and nations. In its pages you may read how the women of China, or Samoa, or India, or Sweden live—how they keep house—how they marry—how they treat their husbands—and the vast col- lection of photographs reproduced in these volumes will show you how they look. Curious forms of courtship are described ; the psycholog- ical characteristics of women are discussed; the toilettes of women are depicted, and the fashions range from the laces and frills of the Parisienne down to the scanty skirt of the Fijian belle. This is a standard, authoritative work, written by such men as Prof. O. T. Mason, of the Smithsonian Institution; Dr. Grunberg, of the Berlin Museum; Mr. Archibald Colquhoun, the famous traveler—but it is as interesting and readable as a story book. A Magnificent Gallery of Women of All Lands. A History of Woman. A Thrilling Library of Travel. Customs of Marriage and Love-Making The ‘‘WOMEN OF ALL NATIONS” is printed on sumptuous, fine surface paper, and is bound in handsome hali-leather bindings. The volumes are large quarto. The work is superbly illustrated with hundreds of photo- graphs never before used. [These photographs were brought from every part of the world for this purpose. Among the pictures is a series of magnificent plates in color. This superb work has been brought out by | 2 00 Cassell & Company, the London and New ad York Publishers, after several years of preparation. Alimited edition has been allotted for Amer- ican distribution. The price of the two volumes Sets at $12.00 These sets at $12.00 are an unusual bar- gain for connois- seurs whoappreciate fine printing and illus- trating. The work is not only unique intheliterary sense, but alsoasa beautiful is $12.00. Order direct from the publisher, and , hes . fs eae example of the printing art. order now—to be sure of a set. Address, Gund chad, thaaiy cedar. Hank drait for $12.00 with your order. The books will be forwarded to you at once, all delivery charges paid. Cassell & Company Established 1848 43-45 East 19th Street NEW YORK NAME \DDRESS

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Congressional Juformation Burra RESEARCH IN ALL LINES BUSINESS INTERESTS REPRESENTED AT WASHINGTON For eleven years we have been in the business of preparing for clients in this country and abroad authentic information on important statistical, legal, historical, and legislative subjects. We furnish advices concerning matters pending in Congress, the Courts, and the Departments. We transact business at Washington for clients anywhere in the world. Weare equipped in our staff of specialists and valuable office archives to render promptly any service desired. When you need information or any service, suppose you advise with us about it. | CONGRESSIONAL INFORMATION BUREAU, ATTENTION TO LEGAL MATTERS NOILdIYDS3S0 AYSAR SO HOYUVESSY BOND BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. CLAUDE N. BENNETT, Manager.

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A Land of Sunshine and Flowers of babies and bull fights, where matches are held up instead of down; where outside doors are locked at ten o’clock ; where the weather forgets to change and the people use their housetops as gardens. This is Mexico--the Egypt of America, a country so odd, so different, that a trip there is one of the delights of a lifetime. Now is the season to see Mexico at its best. **Sights and Scenes in Old Mexico,’’ a dainty little book, is replete with interesting facts about the Egypt of the New World. It’s free. Write for a copy today. How to Go to Mexico The principal highway to Mexico lies through St. Louis. Most roads run through trains to St. Louis, and the M., K. & T. Railway runs through sleepers from St. Louis to the City of Mexico without change. The route lies through Fort Worth, Waco, San Antonio, Torreon, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, etc. Ask your ticket agent to sell you a ticket via St. Louis and the Katy. For rates and full information write W. S. ST. GEORGE General Passenger and Ticket Agent, M., K. & T. Railway 958 Wainwright Building, ST. LOUIS Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated

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“ THE “* MARIMBO,” THE NATIVE PIANO, ANGOLA, AFRICA The National Geographic Magazine for March WILL BE A SPECIAL AFRICAN NUMBER CONTAINING re seven-color map of AFRICA, 15x20 inches, setting forth the wonderful natural resources of this great continent, so rapidly being developed commercially, showing just what sections produce the uncounted riches in rubber, ivory, gold, and diamonds, marking the boundaries and sphere of influence of each European possession, as well as indicating all railway and telegraph lines constructed and proposed. The March issue will contain 100 interesting African pictures of native life in all parts of the continent, and among other articles one by SiR HARRY JOHNSTON, the greatest living authority on the geography of Africa, entitled ‘‘President Roosevelt’s Probable Route Through British East Africa.’’ The African number will enable the reader to follow the march of the Big Game Hunters and see at a glance just where the big game abounds. There will be a LIMITED extra EDITION of this important num- ber, and orders for extra copies should be sent in at once on order blank below, with remittance, the price being 25 cents each. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C.: I enclose herewith $ , for which please mail me March African number to address indicated. Very truly, NAME RESIDENCE CITY copies of the

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Meet me at the College Inn, under the Albany, New York’s Leading Rathskeller, a place to eat, drink and be merry. Music ROBERT P. MURPHY, Proprietor HOTEL ALBANY THE WATERPROOFING FELT 41st St. and Broadway, N. Y. In the last Pittsburg flood, the high- Remodelled, Handeomely Furnished est in its history, practically every New Throughout building in the submerged district was flooded, excepting one, the DIA- MOND NATIONAL BANK BUILDING, which remained tight, dry, safe, and uninjured. The bank oflicials were so gratified that they placed a sign on the building announcing the dry- ness of their structure. The foundation of this building was Ww aterprooted in 1904 with 5 lay- ers Of ‘SHYDREX’’ IMPERVIOUS FELT, r i 7 3 ot etiecessosa bee OEE UM WO tig icin: be FRURgSGAGGSGKG ERAGE A (2 Tht cemented together with elastic ‘‘Hy MSKUMMALCECEERRA DELLE E eres DREX’’ COMPOUND. HvWMANALAGGS RRA A { i Ri The Penna.-B. & O. tunnel under USSSA" etn ss rer Ti | net Washington is waterproofed with ts , “Vr 99 ; ‘“* HYDREX. Da Every building foundation, from an engi- neering and sanitary standpoint, should be waterproofed and insulated, and thus made weigh In the heart of the City dry, warm, and safe. 500 Roome babe ieee HYDREX FELT & ENGINEERING CO. European Plan. Cuisine Unexcelle ctechicimwme Ada iy eae ee Genomes Cole, Ladies Restaurant and CHEMISTS AND MANUPACTUBERS 0 Plenty of life—but home-like. 120 Liberty Street New York $1.00 per Day and Up. Send for Booklet éWigAGo tn aiciediaiitasie ' DRAWING | "I Urge Upon All Catholics HIGGINS’ boar an _ MUCILAGE a Sticks paper, leather, cloth, etc., to each other, and to wood, glass, Prayers" or metal. Good for library work. Sioned D (xe "E> ae igne ” nies AT DEALERS GENERALLY CHAS. M. HIGGINS & CO. Manufacturers onpeaxcuest §. 271 Ninth St., Brooklyn, N. Y. This volume is convenient n size, handsomely bound in Turkey Morocco, with limp back. It is the Official Cath- olic Prayer Book, embracing every practice, rite, ritual, pre- cept, faith, hymn, and psalm, as well as the Epistles and Gospels. It is sold by all book- sellers or will be sent for five days’ examination. Price, $2. With name stamped on cover, $2.25. For sale. by all booksellers. Murphy Co. Dept. G, Balto., Md.: Please send the ** Manual of Prayers,” for which | enclose $2. Money to be refunded if | donot like book and return it within 5 days at your expense See that the name John Murphy Co. is on the title. Address With name stamped on cover, $2. 25 Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated

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| OUN D Volumes of the National Geographic Magazine for 1908 @ No magazine in the world prints so many wonder- fully unique illustrations or so many stimulating and instructive articles as the National Geographic Magazine @ The Magazine for 1908 makes a volume of 950 pages, with more than six hundred unusual pictures Bound in 4 Morocco, cloth sides, $3.50 Bound in Buckram or Cloth . . $3.00 @ A limited number of bound volumes for the past year, 1908, can be obtained by ordering at once @ We can supply the 1908 volumes only; no previous year available for distribution. Use order blank below NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, lOTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C.: I enclose $ , for which please forward me Volume for 1908, bound in NAME ADDRESS CITY AND STATE XUM

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UM For the Benefit of the Forty Thousand Members of the National Geographic Society whom we know to be the GREATEST PLEASURE TRAVELING CLASS IN THE COUNTRY the Magazine has inaugurated A BUREAU OF TOUR TRIP INFORMATION We receive so many requests from our large number of members and subscribers for trip and tour suggestions that the necessary steps have been taken to secure this information without cost. The members and subscribers are therefore invited to write us for data regarding plans for spring and summer trips and tours, to mountain or seaside, at home and abroad. Book Department We are able to furnish valuable information regarding Books. Just what one should read in order to bring closer the places to be visited on the trip or tour—not only books of a geographic natuYe, but fiction bearing on such points, the name, the author, the publisher, and the price. Address, TRAVEL BuREAU, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C. N.B.— Always enclose postage for reply.

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CRomler? ~ 1909 Model Forty-four, Four-Cylinder, 34 H. P. Price $2,250 HE. offset crankshaft, straight-line drive, safety starting device, large brakes, © big wheels, and tires—these features were the vital factors in the Rambler success of the season just past. Its performance in the hands of every Rambler owner has surely confirmed this. These features increase the power, flexibility, and efficiency, assure safety, enhance the appearance of the car, improve the riding qualities, provide unusual clearance, and minimize tire trouble and expense. @ In addition to certain refinements for the owner’s comfort and convenience, the new Rambler features for 1909 include the Rambler spare wheel with in- flated tire (extra charge), triple action springs, adjustable steering column, provision for magneto, convenient brake adjustment, and adjustable clutch spring. One high- power, seven-passenger model, with | 23-inch wheel base and tire size 36 x 4%4 inches, will be added to the Rambler line for 1909. Other details of this model similar to Model Forty-four. THE CAR OF STEADY SERVICE THOMAS B. JEFFERY & CO. MAIN OFFICE AND FACTORY z as KENOSHA, WISCONSIN Branches and Distributing Agencies : Representatives in all Leading Cities CHICAGO MILWAUKEE BOSTON NEW YORK SAN FRANCISCO Your courtesy in mentioning the Magazine when writing will be appreciated er

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eet weer JM WE PRINT THIS MAGAZINE JUDD & DETWEILER, Inc. PRINTERS of BOOKS, CATALOGS Etc. @ A SPECIALTY of BRIEFS and RECORDS | Soe 4 Oe 420-422 Eleventh St. N. W. WASHINGTON, D.C. OUT-OF-TOWN WORK SOLICITED a ae SPRATT’S DOG CAKES ARE THE BEST AND CHEAPEST Send for FREE Catalogue, ‘‘Dog Culture,’”’ which eontains practieal shapters on the feeding, kenneling, and general manage- ment of dogs; also chapters on cats oe SPRATT’S PATENT (AM.) LTD Newark, N. J. St. Louis, Me. San Francisco, Cal. Cleveland, Ohio. Boston, Mass. Montreal, Can.

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THE WASHINGTON LOAN AND IT RUST COMPANY WASHINGTON, D. C. CAPITAL - - : $1 ,000,000.00 SURPLUS AND PROFITS, OVER $850,000.00 CHARTERED BY CONGRESS OF U. S. AND UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY ,CCOUNTS AND PAYS INTEREST ON ALL C SOLICITS OUT OF DEPOSITS ACTS AS EXECUTOR AND TRUSTEE UNDER WILL AND IN ALL FIDUCIARY CAPACITIES BUYS AND SELLS FOREIGN EXCHANGE JOHN JOY EDSON, PRESIDENT INVITE ATTENTION TO THEIR SELECTIONS AND IMPORTATIONS I Mail Orders Receive Prompt Attention Correspondence Solicited WOODWARD & LOTHROP Importers and Retailers DESIRABLE MERCHANDISE, COMPRISING IN PART Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready-to-Wear Outer and Under Garments for Men, Women, Girls, and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Bridal Trousseaux, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Handkerchiefs, Embroideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather,and Fancy Goods; Ster- ling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, Cut Glass, China, etc., for Wedding, Birthday, and Anniversary Gifts. IOTH, 1ITH, F, AND G STREETS N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C. N YIIM ee —— a

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