Scientific American 1929-10: Vol 141 Iss 4

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AVIATION NUMBER SCIENTIFIC October 1929 HOW THE AUTOGIRO FLIES HOW SHALL WE DESIGN AIRPORTS? THAT “FATAL” TAILSPIN

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jj} j a) \ » “™ - \ Gordon 7, Mere gh oy Choose a Dodge Truck safely from specifications alone Thousands of Dodge Trucks are selected by experienced business men on the “say-so” of satisfied users. Thousands more are purchased after Other thou- sands are bought by those demonstration. whose own experience has been ample proof of the merit of these Dodge Trucks. Still there are many, many mechanically-minded users of Dodge Trucks who have made their choice on one basis alone —the facts dis- DODGE BROTHERS TRUCKS SOLD BY DODGE BROTHERS closed by specifications. And their basis of selection has been a safe one because any buyer conversant with truck engineering practice will ap- preciate the sound design and construction of Dodge Brothers Trucks. Your local Dodge Brothers dealer will gladly give you the specifications of any Dodge Truck. them with those of other Check them by an actual inspection of the truck Compare trucks. itself. Then form your own conclusions in your own way. We'll gladly rest our case on your experienced judgment. PRICES MERCHANTS EXPRESS— 109” wheelbase (4-cyl.) . . $ 525 COMMERCIAL TRUCK— 124” wheelbase (4-cyl.) . . 675 COMMERCIAL TRUCK— ne 124” wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 7/ 1-TON—133”" wheelbase (4-cyl.) . . 745 1-TON—133’ wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 845 1-TON—140" wheelbase (6-cyl.) a aera 1065 14%4-TON—150’ wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1345 14%4-TON—165" wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1415 2-TON—150’ wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1515 2-TON—165” wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1585 3-TON—135’ wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1745 3-TON—165” wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1775 3-TON—185’ wheelbase (6-cyl.) . . 1845 Chassis f. o. b. Detroit ae CHRYSLER MOTORS PRODUCT DEALERS EVERYWHERE Octo!

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n * 5 ~~ wwe Ss aS wa We October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN T-Beare v3 ar ila lea, tee. Brey, a he, What's a mere matter of PRICE when yow’re a mile or two UP N this new industry of ment manufacturers... Air- the skies where progress craft manufacturerscan’t af- depends upon unfailing per- ford to take achance on anti- formance and dependability frictionbearings. Neithercan and where low price is not manufacturersin other fields. a lure, “the highest — They merely think they can. bearing in the world” - Nothing is apt to cost perch SKF so much as a bearing craft and aircraft equip- \ that cost so little. SKF INDUSTRIES, INC., 40 East 34th St., New York, N.Y. aK “THE HIGHEST PRICED BEARING IN THE WORLD” BEARING PERFORMANCE... not PRICE counts with these Manufacturers Aeromarine Klemm Corp. Aero Products Corp. Aircraft Development Co. Aircraft Engine Co. Inc. Alliance Aircraft Corp. American Aeronautical Corp. American Cirrus Engines Inc. Army Air Service Axleson Aeroplane Engine Co. Bellanca Aircraft Corp. Bliss Co., E. W. Boeing Airplane Co. Brownback Motor Laboratories Bucklen, H. E., Co. Budd Wheel Co. Chevrolet Aviation Motors Corp, Consolidated Aircraft Corp. Crosley Aircraft Co. Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Co. Dayton Airplane Engine Co. Eberhart Aeroplane & Motor Co. Eclipse Aviation Corp. Fairchild Airplane Mfg. Co. Fokker Aircraft Corp. General Airplanes Corp. General Electric Co. Gillis Aircraft Corp. Goodrich Co., B. F. Goodyear Zeppelin Corp. Great Lakes Aircraft Corp. Guiberson Corp. Hamilton Metalplane Co. High Engineering Co. Kimball Aircraft Corp. Lee Motors Co. Lycoming Mfg. Co. MacClatchie Mfg. Co. Menasco Motors Co. Mercury Aircraft, Inc. Michigan Screw Co. Moth Aircraft Corp. National Steel Products Navy Bureau of Aeronautics Packard Motor Car Co. Pitcairn Aviation, Inc. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co. Rinehart Whelan Co. Rocky Mountain Steel Products Scintilla Magneto Co. Sikorsky Mfg. Co. Sperry Gyroscope Co. Steel Products Engineering Co. Stout Metal Airplane Co. Superior Machine Tool Co. Szekeley Aircraft & Engine Co. Taylor Instrument Co. Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co. Wright Aeronautical Corp. National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics Practically the entire Aviation Industry uses SKF Bearings 2347 273

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics By C. D. Hodgman ) N. A. Lange J Case School of Applied Science HE formulas and tables given in this admirable work have been chosen with discrimination and an evident knowledge of just what a research worker or the average seeker would be apt to look for in work along these lines. Many tables that do not appear in the usual Handbook are therefore given. By a special arrangement we offer the full leather binding for the regular price. $5.20 postpaid. Physics for College Students By A. A. Knowlton, Ph. D. EVER to our recollection have we presented a text of this kind which has had such a remarkable reception. The entirely new style of presenta- tion maintains one’s interest throughout, although the matter has not been made easy in the usual sense of that word. The subject is covered honestly—including the newer atomic physics. $3.90 postpaid. A History of Mechanical Invention By A. P. Usher, Asso. Prof. Economics, Harvard HERE are but two other histories along this line which have a permanent place. This work fills in the parts not stressed in the others, particular attention being given to the development of mechanical elements and trains of mechanism. An invaluable reference for the industrial library. $5.20 postpaid. The Dardanelles Expedition By W. D. Puleston, Capt. U. S. Navy ITH his characteristic amiability and fair dealing the author gives the true story of this “amphibious epic” and achieves such a success that both the English and German Commanders have pronounced this book eminently fair. It is used as a text in War Colleges the world over. All who wish a continued story, for the news reports we received were extremely fragmentary and distorted due to cable service and censorship, will find this tale of a disastrous adventure as absorbing as it is authoritative. $3.00 postpaid. For Sale by Sctentiric AMERICAN 1 == ww Fr Ff .%

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1929 October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN || Now First Published / A Completely New | ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA | N= in plan and purpose—entirely recast from cover to cover—the new Fourteenth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica is ready. This is the superb “humanized” Britannica which has captured the attention of the whole civilized world. Three years of intensive eflort—the co-operation of 3,500 of the world’s foremost authorities—the expen- diture of more than $2,000,000 before a single volume was printed—these are merely a few high lights in the preparation of the new Fourteenth Edition, The Last Word in wes as 2 st Ere ont eS BE ee. Bate wee Owe Oe Dh s et alone Hl ee NE Nell 5 eR 4) abn ae trated aft aces. of atin wes ee tee er ees Encyclopaedia Perfection This new Britannica immediately takes its place as the one pre-eminent American work of reference— the last word in encyclopaedia perfection. Never has there been assembled togeth- erin oneenterprisesuch a wealth oflearn- ing asisrepresented by the 3,500 builders of this great temple of knowledge. All the universities, all the learned professions, all the great industries, ali the pastimes have contributed to the mighty sum. Knowledge for All It is a law library for the lawyer, a med- ical digest for the doctor, a universal history for the historian, a commercial university for the business man—and a compendium of all the arts and sciences for the average reader. Here is “the cosmos between covers.” The whole whirling universe is brought within your grasp, obedient to your hand. Nothingistoo profound to bafile it, and nothing too familiar to escape its inform- ing touch. And on every subject it speaks with the same finality and authority. All the World’s Treasures of Art and Illustration Among the many new features that will astonish and delight everyone who turns these pages is the wealth and beauty of the illustrations. This feature alone marks a tremendous advance. All the world’s Read These Notable Opinions “The sum of human knowledge is here more available than ever before. It contains a multitude of subjects of practical importance.” J. ARTHUR THOMSON, Editor The Outline of Science “There is no question but that the best minds in science have contributed to this great Encyclopaedia.” Associate Editor The Scientific American “If I were wrecked ona desert island I can conceive nothing more to be desired than to be washed ashore witha set of your new work.” NCU NC: CER RAR MAIL This Coupon TODAY 1: ) r Note these facts Cost More than $2,000,000 Greatest Knowledge Book Ever Produced Over 15,000 Superb lilustrations Written by 3,500 of the World’s Most Eminent Authorities Remember—this is a new book. Only a small amount of text— material which could not be im- proved in any way —has been retained from previous mene treasures of art and photography have been laid under tribute to adorn and illu- minate the text. “The most exciting book of 1929,” asserts a leading critic, and the whole world is echoing that verdict. This is a Britannica year! Here is your ALBERT G. INGALLS Name This handsome bookcase table, made of genuine Brown Mahogany, is included with every set of the new Britannica. opportunity to join the thousands who will buy this new edition, now, while it is new—fresh from the presses. You owe it to yourself to learn further details re- garding thismagnificentseries of volumes. Extremely Low Prices And duetotheeconomiesof mass produce tion, the price is extremely low—the low- est in fact at which a completely new edition has been offered for two genera- tions! Easy payments, if desired—a de- posit of only $5 brings the complete set with bookcase table to your home. Send for FREE Booklet We have just prepared a handsome new 56-page booklet containing numerous col- or plates, maps, etc., from the new edition and giving full information about it to- gether with full details of bindings, the present low prices and easy payment plan. We want you to have a copy free and without the slightest obligation. The demand is great, you should act promptly if you are interested in owning a set of the first printing on the present favorable terms. Just fill in the handy coupon and mail today. PEP ERGITEERNEpEEEN INN EE mma, ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue, New York City. Please send me by return mail without any obligation on my i part, your 56-page illustrated booklet describing the new Four- teenth Edition of the Britannica together with full information | concerning bindings, low price offer and easy terms of payment. nN SA 9—Al i WILLIAM BEEBE Address. re zetz eel I i State J

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276 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Te ec October 1929

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Scientific American, October, 1929, Vo 141, No. 4, Act of March 3rd, 1879; additional entry at Dunellen, N York City. Copyright 1929 by Scientific At

od at the New York, N. Y., J. Published Monthly b Publishin Co. Great FI Post Office y Scientific 3ritain Rights na as Second Class Matter June 28th, 1879, American Publishing Co., eser under the 24 West 40th Street, New ved. Subscription Price $4.00 per year.

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1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 24 WEST 40th STREET October 1929 Edited by ORSON D. MUNN NEW YORK CITY Eighty-fifth Year IN THIS ISSUE Looking Ahead With the Editor me Se CET IOOONS «o.oo... oe 65s dwdn db mensiecbaneuwesien’s Back of Frontispiece—Dr. Hugo Eckener........... meet Frontispiece— Design for an Ideal Airport..............0eeeeeeee Aviation’s Patron Saint—By Carl Stearns Clanecy............. Will Rogers Famous Unofficial Ambassador, Has Been Endowed With This New Title Because of His Activities in Aeronautics From the Scrap Book of Science. Camera Shots of Scientific Subjects Our Point of View—Editorials Emile Berliner; Our Naval Adviser; Seeking Genius; Parity and the Public; Allan Curtiss Hoffman; Wooden Nutmegs How the Autogiro Flies—By Earl D. Osborn vis Labeet, 2 eee Non-technical Explanation of the “Flying Windmill” The New Queen of the Sea Description and Photographs of the North German Lloyd Liner Bre men Monkey-Shines—By Paul Griswold Howes In Which the Author Gives Some Interesting Facts About South American Monkeys How Shall We Design Our Airports?—By William E. Arthur... Service and Comfort for Air Travelers Must Be Provided at Landing Points Razor Blade Science—By J. Ferdinand Kayser Seger eee oak arees Why It Takes Only Five Seconds to Cut Your Whiskers Off That ‘Fatal’? Tailspin—By H. B. Miller. . Spies esis’ The Term “‘Tailspin” Is Often Erroneously Used. The Spin Is Not Necessarily Dangerous and Can Be Prevented The ‘“‘Lively’’ Ball—By Louis S. Treadwell..................... The Results of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Investigation of the Present Day Baseball What Is the Future of Aviation?—By Reginald M. Cleveland Vital Developments in the Industry Seem to Be Just Around the Corner Meteors—By Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D... Aeisedase CRA IAS Most Meteors Come to the Earth from Far Beyond the Seer System German Dornier Plane Carries 100 Passengers: Has 12 Engines. . Test Flights of the Do. X Have Proved That It Is a Practical Plane Naval Reduction and Parity By Captain Dudley W. Knox, U. S. N. Ret. It Is Necessary That a Suitable ‘‘Yardstick’’ Be Applied to a Prebleus A Large Meteor Falls—By Professor C. C. Wylie................ A Meteor in Iowa: How to Record Meteor Falls American Passenger Air Transport By Professor Alexander Klemin er ere rr re Growth of Passenger Carrying Airplanes Has Been Tremendous in the Last Two Years Greater Washington Starts to Rise—By Henry W. Hough...... Continuation of the L’Enfant Plan Is Being Actively Carried On From: the Archeologists’ Note TBook.......... ..6.......66 665 i cccenaan New Discoveries at Herculaneum; Egyptian Motives for Furniture; Uncovering Nemi’s Barges The Detection of Fake Antiquities Ee ere a PRE BY Der How Forgeries in Works of Art Are Discovered 279 290 293 294 310 313 316 318 324 330 Learning to Use Our Wings.... 336 SE I a a5 55.5.0, .0: 50s wredines 336 } Learning to Fly. . oa Lowering Parcels from the Air.... 336 A New Altimeter..... cio World’s Largest Seap jlane........ 337 A Single-Wheel —. ives ec eie 338 Mobile Mooring Mast........... 3838 ‘Aviation Law” .. 340 Pneumatic Tubes at ‘Croy don..... 340 More on the Armstrong Seadrome. 340 Scientific American Digest..... 342 Stone Carving by Sand Blast. 342 Synthetic Mupber... 6... 6.6065. 342 Banking by Auto.... tes 343 Shock-proof X-ray Appars NEMS .. 5s 343 Ghosts of Words ‘‘Walk”’ 357 Bees’ “Sweet Tooth” Measured. 358 Wire in Acid Acts Like Nerves... 358 The Month in Medical Science. 346 Accidents in Bathing............ 346 Heart Rate During Sleep........ 346 Chemistry in Industry........ 348 Sinon—Sugar Substitute...... 348 Petroleum Products in Insecticides. 348 Silver as Purification Agent...... 348 Chiorine Carrier... ........... . 3848 Bentonite Suitable for Pencils..... 349 ee ere 349 Autos Use Over 100 Chemicals . 850 Explosive Soap Dust. 350 Nickel Welded With Flux in Flame 351 Industry paleneinete to Use Waste Straw..... 351 Current Bulletin Briefs........ 352 The Amateur Astronomer..... 354 The Heavens in October....... 356 Commercial Property News.... 364 Mechanical Wonderland......... 364 Hair-Waving Apparatus......... 364 Patentability of Combination of Prior Practices Upheld. . . 364 Ornamental Mark Refused veel tration. . svelte ajeere 364 Thomas E. Murray. ince New Sulfur Mining Proc lie oc 365 Joint Use of Trademark......... 365 Commission Backs Druggists. . 865 Registration Denied............. 365 Photoelectric Comparator........ 3866 Liberal Policy of War Claims NE 5 oi. 5. 4:5 edlatae an cahelses alae 366 Patents Recently Issued....... 365 COVER Starting on page 290 of this issue is an article describing, in non-tech- nical terms, the operation of the autogiro. Our artist, Howard V. Brown, has _ selected this for his subject this month, and has ably de-_ | picted, in oils, a ‘‘flying windmill” in operation.

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278 | SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929

POW E ad in Los Angeles .Largest Industrial City of the Eleven Western States ~ Pia The city of Los Angeles has broken all records for in- dustrial growth in the West. Low cost, plentiful water and power —owned by 1,300,000 industrially ambi- tious people—good factory sites, low overhead, favor- sO art Output Gains able labor conditions, all year mild climate and ideal

.. for the entire United States were .08%...California living conditions are re- 6.2%...Los Angeles 14.7% (Federal census 1925-27)—a PO er es pags reflection of the adequate supply of low-cost power supplied by the Department of Water and Power. pe aa easy Los Angeles Municipal power serves industries in this Address Business Agent, 207 South fq city which last year manufactured products valued in > ees Oe Ty excess of $610,000,000. F 4 MUNICIPAL ELECTRIC SYSTEM

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1929 Looking Ahead With the Kditor November—Industrial Number ROSPERITY has become the national pass-word, mergers have become a common topic of conversa- tion, combines and super-combines fill columns in the news, and even the average person has become invest- ment-conscious. Therefore, because of this growing importance of industry, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for November will contain many comprehensive industrial articles. We have on hand ready, for release an article on Wall Street’s dependence on the research laboratory, a second that describes a newly-invented synthetic rubber which is expected to exert a marked influence on the rubber industry, a third which explains in detail for the first time the General Electric refrigerator, a fourth which deals with a peculiar economic situation created by prohibition—-what to do with the great breweries—and how the question was solved, and others such as: soap making, the collecting of snake skins for shoes, a fireproof steel scaffolding, and a complex machine which tests paper in the making. Most of these will go into the November issue while those un- used will be held over for publication in future issues. Speed Record of the Universe IGHT travels about a million times as fast as sound in air and 10,000 times as fast as the earth in its orbit—faster even than electrons! What a speed record! Still, the record is hardly r.ore remarkable than the manner in which it is mesaured by man, to be explained by Dr. Heyl in these pages soon. Japan’s New Navy HILE talk of naval limitations continues among nations on both sides of the Atlantic, a great nation in the Pacific has quietly developed and built a remarkable navy. The fleet in question, that of Japan, will be discussed in an early article by a British expert who has also supplied paintings to show the odd ap- pearance of some of the various types of Japanese ships. Practical Amateur Earthquake Study OW would you like to build your own seismograph, one with which you can record earthquakes, near and far, and study earth tremors and shocks? You can do it for about 25 dollars. A forthcoming article about the machine perfected by a famous seismologist tells how you can get all the thrills of making one yourself. Every Issue Fully Illustrated Read this magazine carefully. If you like it, you will like succeeding issues also. Better make sure of getting it regularly every month. A subscription, costing only four dollars, brings 12 issues to you. acnaieininss aes ceia = fe Among Our Contributors Captain Dudley W. Knox, U.S. N. LTHOUGH now on ; ~~) | the retired list of | the Navy, Captain Knox is completing 37 years of ~ continuous active serv- —_— ' ice ashore and afloat. rs , He was graduated from ps the Naval War College Me, = in 1913 and served on the faculty in 1919. Dur- ing the World War he was on Admiral Sims’ staff in London. He is the author of many articles that have been published in various magazines and twice has been awarded the prized gold medal of the Naval Institute. Reginald M. Cleveland S an aviation feature on the staff of the New York Times, Mr. Cleveland is in the position of an observer who can see aviation in its broader aspects. First hand and authoritative information passes through his hands daily and he can, there- fore, present a true perspective of avia- tion. The industry is growing rapidly. and it is almost impossible to follow its developments fully, but in his article on page 313 Mr. Cleveland gives us a glimpse into its future and tells in a dispassion- ate manner what we may expect of it. J. Ferdinand Kayser R. KAYSER has done what many long-suffering male chins have silently and painfully hoped would be done—he has unearthed the truth about razor edges. In his edifying article on page 302, some sur- prising things may be learned—facts which are attested by the infallibility of the micro- scope, that may soon point the way to a painless shave. Mr. Kayser is a member of the Association of Metallurgists, England. Lieutenant (j.¢.) H. B. Miller, U.S. N. GRADUATE of Annapolis in 1924, Lieu- tenant Miller entered the Naval Avia- tion School at Pensacola in 1926 and soon afterwards won his wings. He served for 18 months in an observation squadron aboard the U. S. S. West Virginia, and for the past 16 months has been Engineering Officer of fighting squadron number 2 aboard the U. S. S. Langley. He has had experience with several types of fighting planes and thoroughly understands flight problems.

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280 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 "* "ACROSS THE SKY FOR $339 Features of Ford Plane All-metal (corrugated alumi- num alloys)—for strength, uniformity of material, du- rability, economy of main- tenance, and structural safety ... Tri-motored (Wright or Pratt & Whitney air-cooled en- gines, totaling from 900 to 1275 horse-power)—re« serve power for safety. Speed range—55 to 135 m.p.h. Cruising radiys, 580-650 miles. Disposable load—-3670 to 5000 pounds, High wing monoplane (single, stream-lined, cantilever wing )—for strength, speed, inherent stability, visibility, clean design ... 17-capacity (including pilot’s dual-control cabin)—Buf- fet, toilet, running-water, electric lights, ete. Durability—Uniform all-metal construction 1s insurance against deterioration. Price, $42,000 to $55,000 (standard equipped at De arborn) — Exceptionally low of multiple. unit on-line production methods, More stable than a yacht ... swifter than the wind ...a new exaltation... the thrill of an indescribable experience . .. complete, luxurious relaxation! oO™= a thousand people applied for passage on the first flight of the Transcontinental Air Transport between New York and Los Angeles ... inaugurated on July 7th last. There has never been a more auspicious beginning for a trans- portation line... never has greater care and forethought gone into the development of a transportation service. Because the vehicles employed must lift human beings out of their element to fly across the sky, it was necessary to leave nothing to chance ... it was vitally important to vodus ‘e every hazard to a minimum and to insure every possible comfort for travelers. The Pennsylvania Railroad and the Santa Fe co-ordinated their tremendous resources in technical equipment, in personnel, in transportation experience to insure the successful practical opera- tion of scheduled airplane flight for passengers from coast to coast ... broken only at night to prev ide more spacious sleeping accom- modation in Pullman trains below. The cost of passage, including meals aloft, is placed tentatively at $339. The planes are giant, tri-motored, all-metal Fords ... selected by the T-A-T because they are recognized everywhere as the most advanced type of commercial air transport already in successful operation in many parts of the country.... Three 400 erp ga Pratt & Whitney motors give high speed with safety and a great margin of reserve power. All-metal construction makes the - ines durable, weather-proof, uniformly strong, and fire-proof. The design is the result of over a million miles of flight, and is the most efficient for its purpose yet evolved. Each plane is furnished with wicker chairs. The interior is beautifully decorated. Hot and cold food and refreshments are served by an attendant. A lavatory with running water is well- planned for the comfort of passengers. One of the greatest of all possible human experiences may now be yours ... flying across the sky ... in safety and in luxury! Any ticket agent of the Pennsylvania Railroad or Santa Fe or allied Visitors are always welcome at the Ford Airport at Detroit systems will sell you transportation by air . . . just as he sells railroad FORD MOTOR COMPANY —_

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29 Dr. Hugo Eckener O even the casual reader of the news- papers, Dr. Eckener needs no formal intro- duction. His splendid record of commanding heavier-than-air craft through three east to west and two west to east crossings of the Atlantic is now a matter of brilliant aero- nautical history. Dr. Eckener was born in Flensburg, Germany, on August 10, 1868, and after university training, in which he specialized in philosophy and meteorology, he became a staff correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung. In 1909 he became manager of the Aviation Service Company, and in 1912 was made director general. It is said that at one time, when Count Zeppelin was experimenting with his original models, Eckener publicly ridiculed his ideas. Zep- pelin resented this, and bitter arguments ensued. Finally Eckener became imbued with Zepplin’s enthusiasm and delved into the new subject with great zeal. During the World War he was an instructor for com- manders in the naval airship department. In 1922 he became general manager of the Zeppelin Construction Works, and president of the same manufacturing company in 1928.

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Design for an Ideal Airport, Adequate in All Respects ITH connections for all modes of travel— ships at the pier at the left, steam and electric railroads under the bridges of the building, and highways routes—this airplane and seaplane base design represents the last word in airports. The depot itself possesses every facility in the way of offices, waiting rooms, et cetera, for the utmost convenience of passengers. Seaplanes land in the bay and taxi up to the pier, while air- planes land on the field and taxi under the bridges. Passengers are protected from the weather and planes. See the article on page 298.

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October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 283 FROM COWBOY’S SOMBRERO TO LEATHER HELMET Will Rogers is a firm believer in the airplane as a regular means of transportation, and he flies whenever possible. His quaint philos- ophy of life, incorporated in the article which we present below, reveals an outlook that is at once simple, far-seeing, and sincere Aviation’s Patron Saint The Proof of the Aviation Pudding Is in the Flying. Will Rogers, Famous Unofficial Ambassador, Is Furnishing That Proof in His Daily Business Life URING his amazing career from cowboy to diplomat, Will Rogers has garnered many distinctive titles. He has been billed as a _ broncho-buster, lariat- twirler, circus rider, vaudeville actor, musical-comedy comedian, monolog artist, film star, journalist, lecturer, writer of advertisements, after-dinner speaker, mayor, presidential candidate, congressman-at-large, and _ unofficial ambassador. None of these titles, however, has pleased him as much as the latest wholly honorary distinction that has recently been conferred upon him—that of ‘“Aviation’s Patron Saint.” The first to bestow this unique ap- pellation upon Will Rogers was “Casey” Jones, veteran pilot and president of the Curtiss Flying Service, who has flown Will over many a long aerial trip. Over a year ago, Mr. Jones declared: ‘‘After Lindbergh, Will Rogers is aviation’s best press agent. The industry owes him more than he is ever likely to collect. His wit, his ex- traordinary publicity resources, and his genuine enthusiasm for flying en- ‘years perfecting himself at it. By CARL STEARNS CLANCY title him to the nomination as patron saint of aviation.’’ Since then, many other bird-men have enthusiastically seconded this motion. The latest canvass of the country’s airports indicates Will’s election by unanimous acclaim. Aviators and ground men in every state declare: “We can always count on Colonel Lindbergh to do the right thing and on Will Rogers to say the right thing at the right time. They are two of a kind.”’ As an example, they point to Lindbergh’s action in taking to the air again immediately after his ‘‘mis- hap” with Miss Morrow in Mexico City, and to Will’s timely comment upon that event. The following day Will announced: “7 WAS just laying a wager that the minute Lindbergh’s arm was able he would take Miss Morrow and fly again when along came the paper saying he did that very thing this morning. I knew he would. Flying is Lindbergh’s business. He spent Because he tips over on his nose once out of a million miles, a lot of editorial writers start howling about it. “This thing of talking about ‘some- body’s life being too valuable to risk in an airplane’ is not only the bunk; it’s an insult to the men we ask to do our flying. Where does anybody’s life come in to be any more valuable than anyone else’s? Ain’t life just as pre- cious to one as another? We have heard that ‘can’t spare you’ attitude till we got a lot of men in this country believing it now. Say, get over that old ego. This country will replace you before the folks get home from your funeral. “So bravo, Lindy, you are a lot bigger tonight than you ever was bhe- fore, and that’s saying a lot. And bravo, little Miss Anne, you have helped aviation more today than you will ever know. And Mr. and Mrs. Morrow, bless your hearts for your splendid help. That’s why you gave your daughter to him, because you knew he could take care of her. “If flying is dangerous, pass a law and stop it. But don’t divide our na- tion between a class that should fly

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284 and one that shouldn’t. Aviation is not a fad, it’s a necessity and will be our mode of travel long after all the people who are too valuable to fly have met their desired deaths by the road- sides on Sunday afternoons.” Birdmen also proudly call attention to the frequency with which Will Rogers boosts commercial aviation in his magazine articles, on the lecture platform, and from the stage in his un- tiring endeavor to assist the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN so many fine municipal airports and rode over such a large number of scheduled airlines that he decided, upon his return to the United States, to tour the country on a lecture crusade to awaken Americans to their back- wardness in commercial aviation. On this tour he used aerial transportation as frequently as possible and often ended the fears of local reception com- mittees, after the last train had pulled October 1929 ever experience a ‘‘mishap.”’ Every- thing had gone smoothly until the mail plane in which he was traveling was about to land at Las Vegas, New Mexico, for a new supply of gasoline. Here, upon hitting the surface of the landing field, the plane’s right wheel crushed and the machine turned a somersault and landed flat on its back with its pilot and passenger upside down. No one was injured, however. Will merrily exclaimed: ‘This

American public to become air- [ minded. But Will goes even further. He sets everybody a personal example by practising what he preaches. That ‘“‘Av- iation’s Patron Saint” is a patron in person as well as by pen is shown by the log which he has kept of his own world- wide travels by air. R. ROGERS’ enthusiasm for aviation was born during his very first flight. This was made in an army plane in Washington in 1925. Since then he has flownnearly twenty- five thousand miles in a net- work of lecture tour and journal- istic hops over practically every state in the Union and across a dozen countries in Europe. He has ridden in planes and air- ships of every size and variety and nationality. Now, like Colonel Lindbergh, he never travels by train or motor-car if it is possible to get to his desti- nation by air. Some of Will’s flights have been notable both for distance and dar- ing. In 1926 he flew from Rome to Paris, and from London to Berlin twice, once via Paris and once via Amsterdam. From Berlin, he made an _ intrepid air excursion to Moscow. During this journey he had to spend a night in a single-motored Russian ship piloted by a dare-devil Bolshevik. He had enough nerve left, however, to fly back by the same route. Will had planned to fly south over the Balkans to Con- stantinople and back with Mrs. Rogers, but learned just before leaving Berlin that he would not be able to get back in time to catch his return steamer at Cherbourg. Instead, he and his wife flew from Munich to Zurich, where their two younger children were then in school, hired a private hydroplane, and made an aerial sight-seeing tour of the most famous Swiss peaks and lakes. Next, after descending the Rhine by steamer to Cologne, Will again dis- played his faith in the airplane by put- ting Mrs. Rogers and his children on an Imperial Airways Express and wav- ing them off to call on some friends in London, then hopped into a Junkers monoplane himself and flew direct to Paris on business. When in Europe, Mr. Rogers saw

j me _ 4 sl PILOT AND PASSENGER This photograph was taken at the completion of a record-making business trip from Los Angeles to New York and return in 81 hours, including the 18 hours spent in New York, and all incidental transfer stops in without bringing him with it, by a last minute arrival by plane. In the fall of 1927, Will flew from Mexico City to Los Angeles with no less a pilot than Colonel Lindbergh, the man, of all men, Will most ad- mires. Will’s joy was increased to the Nth degree when Lindbergh allowed him to hold the control stick part of the way. <A few weeks later, Mr. Rogers unwittingly established a new record by making the first round-trip passenger flight in regular mail-planes from Los Angeles to New York and back within four days. This was not a stunt flight. Will had to go to New York on business and he wanted to be back as soon as possible. LTHOUGH his air-tickets cost him eight hundred dollars, or twice as much as the train and Pullman fare, the air route saved him a full week’s time, and so more than justified its cost. Will Rogers’ confidence in the mod- ern airplane results from the fact that in all his years of flying, both in the United States and abroad, he has never met with a serious accident. And not until he started to fly from Los Angeles to the Republican Convention at Kansas City in June 1928 did he serves me right for not going to the Democratic convention in- stead.”’ His first care was to- absolve the pilot from all blame and whenever referring to the affair (in the future) he always spoke of it, not as an accident, but as “‘an incident.”’ That seemed to be Will’s un- lucky day, for at Cherokee, Wyoming, late in the afternoon, a section of the landing gear of another plane collapsed and spilled him out on his ear. After the second crash, Will re- marked: ‘Once in a while I’ve had a horse throw me where I’ve been underneath him and him topmost, but I’ve never been thrown like I was today. They’re getting easier, however. The first spill wasn’t so bad, and the second was almost a pleasure.”

HEN Will was ready to leave Hadley Field, New Jersey, on his first transconti- nental flight from New York westward, the weather prospects were exceedingly unpropitious. The ceiling was low and a mean drizzle shortened the visibility. William C. Hopson, an ex-army flyer, was the pilot scheduled for the run to Cleve- land. ‘‘Hoppie’’ didn’t like the looks of things, but Mr. Rogers was in a hurry to get back to Los Angeles. Be- foré long they got word that it was commencing to clear up out in Penn- sylvania, so Hopson decided to start. In spite of the fog, he made it through to Bellefonte, and then on to Cleve- land on schedule time. A year later, however, when flying the mail east- ward from Cleveland, ‘‘Hoppie’’ be- came lost in the fog, crashed into one of Pennsylvania’s mountains, and was killed. The next morning, Will Rogers, remembering his brave pilot, published the following tribute: “New York, Oct. 19.—It was a dark, rainy, cloudy day on the New York end of the transcontinental airmail. No planes through in two days. I wanted to get home to my family in California. I insisted on going. It wasn’t bravery—it was dumb ignor- ance and unlimited confidence in all airmail pilots. “T kinder feel like his skill saved my life that day. So ‘Hoppy’ old boy, here’s hoping you are piloting the best

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October 1929 cloud the Boss has got in His hangar up there, and that you don’t have to worry about low ceiling, engine miss- ing, head winds, or even the old rip- cord will pull in case— Yours, Will Rogers.”’ During both his 1926 and 1927 lecture tours, Will related his aerial adventures abroad, described the net- work of Europe’s airways and the safety of airplane travel as demon- strated by England’s, France’s, and Germany’s traffie and accident records, then pointed out the potentialities of airplane travel in this country and en- larged upon its pleasures and benefits. During those years, practically the only aerial passenger service this country afforded was that of the trans- continental mail planes. To-day, Will has the satisfaction of being able to praise the service of the numerous well equipped mail and passenger lines that have since been established. = HAT a great bunch of men we’ve now in the air,’”’ he ex- claims. ‘‘The pilots are all ex-army or navy men, so you don’t have to stop to figure which is safer, a plane or a car. All you have to do is to compare the intelligence of the men who pilot these planes with that of the average person who drives acar. You know, I am a coward at heart. I am scared of everything. But I’ve got so SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN body says much about the ground crew. Yet without them the airmail could not have been flown millions of miles last year with so few mishaps. I don’t advise flying with anybody that happens to have a thing that is shaped like an airplane. But I do advise with the utmost confidence, anyone flying with our real recognized passenger lines.” HEN asked if he ever gets “‘air sick,’’ Will replied: ‘“‘Now the air is just the same as the ocean. I’m making no alibis for it. If it’s windy and rough, you are liable to feel your stomach rising and falling with the plane. But if it’s nice and smooth, as it usually is on a pleasant day, there’s not a chance in the world of anyone’s getting sick. “But what you want to think about,” he continued, “is the fun of flying. Why, it’s like sitting astride a lively cloud and sailing over the earth with a marvelous ever-changing moun- tain-top view beneath you. In the east you get the colorful panoramas of spring’s tender greens and autumn’s gorgeous foliage. Out west you soar over magnificent painted deserts lone- some as the moon, except for the light- house keepers’ houses that look just big enough to keep matches in, near the occasional light-towers that mark 285 night flying, with the revolving search- light beams of the beacons to guide you below,—especially the thrill of sailing over a big lighted city at night. Below, you see hundreds of lighted rows of streets running in every direction, the dark outlines of the rivers and lakes, and the thousands of automobile headlights that dart around like bugs. And the greatest thrill of all is when you glide down, in ever narrowing circles, to a well lighted field at night, with planes coming in and leaving. It just reminds you of a carnival or of Coney Island. It makes you feel we are getting somewhere with our avia- tion. There is not much of a kick in coming into a railroad depot. All you see is the sides of other cars. But when you swoop down out of the dark- ness into all this flood of light and efficiency—-well, you’ll just have to experience the sensation yourself, that’s all! “Speaking of those tiny desert light- houses reminds me of the real folks I met in a praire lighthouse once. Most people don’t know such a thing as a lighthouse keeper in the middle of the prairie even exists. One time when I was flying from Beverly Hills to Chicago in a mail plane, we had to buck a head-wind so long we ran short of fuel and had to stop at an emergency Janding field next to one of these in- land lighthouses in the middle much confidence in these pi- of Wyoming to ‘gas her up.’ lots I just climb up in there like a baby crawling up into his mother’s arms. Why, these fellows are the most careful flyers in the world. They have flown long enough to know the danger of it. They never pur- posely take a chance. I al- ways figure their lives are worth more than mine. I’ve lived mine and had my fling, while most of theirs is still in front of them; so if they are willing to go, I am. They don’t have to take off unless they want to. It’s up to them. They are the last word. The company knows they will go if it’s physically possible to do so, and they let them decide. “In case of any kind of danger, these real pilots have half a dozen things up their sleeves to do. I will get in a plane and start for the Fiji Islands with an army, navy, or mail pilot if he thinks he can make it. One of the reasons why Lindbergh is such a great flyer is be- cause he came from the army and air- mail schools. The army, navy, and mail are the three sure-fire instruction branches. But it’s not only the men, it’s the equipment that makes travel- ing with them safe. Never forget the ground men. Successful operation depends upon careful inspection and skillful workmen at the hangars. No- Col. “TWO BEST PRESS AGENTS” Charles A. the route. Then you strike a valley with pretty little ranches all along the edges, and feel as if you were back on earth again. And here’s another great thing about air travel. Even if you go over a country one way and come back by the very same route, the whole thing looks different to you. It’s because you’re seeing it from ex- actly the opposite angle. Yet you will swear you didn’t come that way be- fore. “But, glorious as it is, flying during the day is like shtumming compared to ; Lindbergh and Will Rogers have been rightiy called the two best press agents in aviation today Well, there is where I met my first lighthouse keeper, a real honest-to-goodness one that works for Uncle Sam and stays there twenty-five miles from the nearest post office three hundred and sixty-five days a year, just to keep the tower light burning to guide way- farers on their route, the same as if he was out on a lonely is- land off a desolate rockbound coast. HE tower had a big re- volving light on top of it. At its base was a little power- house containing the electric motor that runs the beacon and all the lights that were around the field. These lighthouses are strung clear across the conti- nent to guide airmail pilots at night. Between New York and Chi- cago they are ten miles apart. In the west, they stand twenty-five miles dis- tant, but in between, just about every three miles, are small flicker lights. These are controlled by the sun’s rays and go on when the sun goes down. No one has to tend them. At least one light is always in sight, barring fog. “Well, here lives the keeper and his wife in a tiny box house, partitioned into three little rooms. They have no neighbors, but they know all the pilots on the run, their joys and their sor-

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KNOW HIM? Disguised by a flopping Panama hat, Will Rogers is given away by the nearby plane rows, and always watch for them to stop, or to wave at them when they pass. When night comes on, the keeper goes out and turns on the lights that outline the field, then the big tower light. Each keeper gets a hun- dred dollars a month from the Depart- ment of Commerce, with house and fuelfurnished. I found this lighthouse keeper’s wife a mighty cheerful and wholesome middle-aged woman. She wasn’t interested much in a permanent wave, or reducing, but she did bake some of the best bread and make some of the best coffee I have had in years. They have two sons in college and are two of the finest folks I ever met.”’ LTHOUGH accustomed to crack- ing jokes about other people, Will seldom plays them on himself. Last season, however, he unwittingly stuck himself into a most colorful pickle. On one of his lecture tour jumps—it was between St. Petersburg and Pensacola, Florida—thepilot lost his bearingseven in the day time and had to land in a field in order to find out the name of the adjacent town. This predicament so deeply impressed Will’s mind with the need of having all towns identify them- selves from the air, that he immediately began to campaign for this innovation. Later he even went so far as to publish an offer to pay for the paint used by every town which would label itself for the benefit of sky-riders. The response to this offer was nation wide and of startling proportions. Soon poor Will was snowed under with paint bills. Some towns jokingly pretended they thought he was bluffing and “called him” by requesting him to send the money in advance. “Well,” Mr. Rogers laments, ‘right SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN there is where I stepped into paint plum up to and over my financial neck. Say, Sherwin Williams didn’t have enough to have supplied the demand. I started with an awful poor idea of the number of towns in this country. I sure did mean well, but I just gnawed off more than I could chew. For instance, Pontiac, Michigan, sent me a bill for 98 dollars. I thought somebody must be going into the paint business up there. But they told me they had some pretty big building up there. If they’ve got buildings that big, however, I’m going to fly up there and land on ’em some day. The Saratoga ain’t that big, and all the Navy lands on it. “Yet Pierce City, Missouri, with three more letters in its name, sent me a bill for four dollars and a half. It is a nice beautiful little city down next to Oklahoma. You see, the nearer they get to Oklahoma the more honest and economical they are. “The Kansas City Chamber of Com- merce advised me that the state at that time was having a Paint and Clean Up Week and asked would I mind just in- cluding enough to paint and clean up Kansas. Now can you imagine me cleaning up Kansas? Can you imagine anybody cleaning up Kansas? Even Carrie Nation couldn’t do it. “Wichita Falls, Texas, put in a bill October 1929 too. No corruption. No scandal. They only want what it takes. From out in the west, Ontario, California, wrote: ‘This is a strong Republican district, and if too much oil paint is used we might be drawn into the oil scandal. So 25 dollars will cover every- thing.’ See, there is Chewraw for two dollars and Ontario for twenty five. One Democratic and the other Re- publican. Chewraw only wants to print its name. Ontario only wants to cover everything.”’ ILL’S altruism soon became too costly even for his plump purse, so he was forced to limit his offer to towns with four letter names, then to three letter names, and finally to the furnishing of the paintbrush alone. But the nation-wide publicity he secured for the air-man’s needs and the agita- tion he started completed his work. Recently, the Kansas legislature has passed a law requiring every town in the state to brand itself for bird’s-eye identification, and other states now have the same legislation under consid- eration. Will’s enthusiasm increases with the years. He declares he is going to keep on flying until his beard gets caught in the propeller. Now he is actively campaigning for ‘‘a municipal airport for every city!’ and “‘a landing fair-way - é LOOKING IT OVER “This thing of talking about ‘somebody’s life being too valuable to risk in an airplane’ is not only the bunk; it’s an insult to the men we ask to do our flying,” is Will Rogers’ viewpoint for only two forty. See, that’s the kind of people you meet in a Democratic state. The minute you get out of Re- publican territory you see honesty and square dealing creeping in. Brasstown, North Carolina, had enough sense of humor to paint their name in public and charge me only ten dollars for it. That’s fair, for there is a sprinkling of Republicans in that state, and you can see just a fringe of corruption creep- ing in. “Chewraw, South Carolina, wrote: ‘Send two quarts of yellow paint. Two bucks. Put up or apologize.’ See, that’s down south with the Democrats, on every golf course!’’ Here again he has set the example by making possible the use of one of the polo fields on his California ranch as a landing field. Surely, if anyone deserves to go down in history as the “Patron Saint of Avia- tion,’’ it is Will Rogers. Will Rogers tells above of the joys and convenience of flying. Starting on page 324 of this issue, Professor Alexander Klemin, of the Daniel Gug- genheim School of Aeronautics, gives the facts of aerial transportation as it is carried on in the United States today. —The Editor.

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Oc

tober 1929 From the Scrap-book of Science With a “‘chin’strap”’ microphone and a 24-pound transmitter strapped around his waist, Charles J. de Bever has been experimenting in broadcasting sensations of a para- chute jump at Roosevelt Field, N. Y.

‘CHUTE THRILLS BY RADIO

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

COLONEL LINDBERGH TOUCHES THE KE

Y As Technical Adviser of the Transcontinental Air Transport, Colonel Lindbergh recently touched a telegraph key which flashed the signal across the country for the start of the 48-hour airplane-train service across the continent. At the left is Governor Young of California, and at right Mayor Porter of Los Angeles AIRPORT ‘‘STOP-GO”’ ¥ The airplane traffic officer has made his appearance. At the Newark, New Jersey, Municipal Airport, where he handles traffic on the Newark-Boston Colonial airline, he stands in a position where he may readily be seen by pilots in the air or on the ground. If he holds aloft a huge red flag, it denotes ‘‘stop;” a blue-yellow checkered flag means “‘go”’

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT —PERHAPS One of the many practice stands for golfers which are said to be springing up along the highways near Chicago. The goifer brings his clubs, pays a moderate sum per hour, is given a pail of golf balls, and drives to his heart’s content. The caretaker or his assistants retrieve the balls later < ROOSEVELT HIGHWAY View of the new unit of the Roosevelt Highway from Canada to Mexico on the Pacifie Coast, between Oxnard, California, and Santa Monica, Cali- fornia, which was recently finished

When the Field Museum of Natural History wanted a sculptured figure of an Australian bushman for its collection of figures representing all races, ‘‘Clico,” four feet tall and claiming to be nearly a hundred years old, appeared in a circus just outside Chicago. Prevailed upon to pose, Clico was cast in plaster by John G. Prasuhn, a staff sculpter

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 OUR POINT OF VIEW An Inventor Passes A CAREER of remarkable achieve- ment ended on August 3 with the death, in Washington, of Emile Ber- liner, inventor of the gramophone, the first disk record talking machine, and of the telephone transmitter from which has evolved the radio micro- phone of today. Mr. Berliner was 79 years of age. An immigrant from Hannover, Ger- many, in 1870, Mr. Berliner sold glue, painted backgrounds on photographic enlargements, was a traveling sales- man, and in 1877 became a store clerk in Washington. His inventive genius soon manifested itself when, after ex- perimenting in his spare hours, he in- vented the loose-contact transmitter which placed the telephone on a com- mercial basis three years after its in- vention by Bell and Watts. Then came the gramophone and his inven- tion of the present method of dupli- eating disk records. He worked on a helicopter before the Wright brothers’ success with the airplane, traced the cause of high infant mortality to raw milk, invented the first light-weight internal combustion engine for air- craft, and developed acoustical de- vices. Mr. Berliner was, as the saying goes, a man of parts; his versatile genius is reflected in a large number of remark- able inventions in everyday use all over the world. He was the recipient of high honors and several medals, and wrote many articles and books. An article concerning Mr. Berliner and his many inventions was published in the pages of the July, 1927 issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. Our Naval Adviser HERE is no subject of more abid- ing interest to our readers than their military forces, their Army and their Navy. The development of these two services must keep abreast of the industrial development of our country and yet in time of peace we are prone either to forget entirely these two sister services, or to take their efficient state of preparedness for granted. The difficulty many civilian readers have in following the technicalities in- separable from modern military wea- pons is doubtless responsible for their apparent lack of interest in military matters. Inthe past the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN has from time to time offered its readers articles on the mili- tary which, although strictly accurate, were stripped of technical terms and readily understood by its readers. In order to continue to keep pace with military developments and to maintain our traditional reputation as dissemi- nator of authoritative military informa- tion, we have added to our list of cor- responding editors, Captain W. D. Puleston of the U. S. Navy, who will serve as Technical Adviser in Military Matters. Captain Puleston was graduated from Annapolis in 1902, from the Naval War College in 1915, and from the Army War College in 1925. He served in connection with the Naval War College Staff in 1915 and 1916, and in CAPTAIN W. D. PULESTON, U.S.N. all naval grades from Midshipman to Captain has spent 17% years at sea. During the World War, he served in 1917 on the staff of the Comman- der-in-Chief of the Asiatic Fleet as Fleet Gunnery Officer, and in 1918 in command of the destroyer Cushing in the war zone. For his war service he was honored with the award of the Navy Cross. Captain Puleston in 1916 collabor- ated with Admiral Knight in preparing a history of the Naval War College, and has reviewed several books for the United States Naval Institute. In 1926 he published “The Dardenelles Expedition,’”’ a condensed study of that amphibious undertaking which has gone into two editions and which has been recently accepted by military students as authoritative and by civil- ian readers as clear and concise. This book has been pronounced correct in all essentials by General von Sanders and General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B., the opposing leaders—truly a unique tribute to its fairness of exposition. Captain Puleston’s treatment of the expedition in the Dardenelles is suffi- cient justification for expecting that he will be equally unbiased and _ illu- minating in what he writes—on Army and Navy matters—for these pages. Coupled with this is the fact that his varied experience afloat and ashore qualifies him to keep SCIENTIFIC AMER- ICAN readers accurately informed of their Navy. His connection with SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN as Technical Ad- viser on Military Matters has received the approval of his superiors. We count ourselves fortunate. Seeking Genius OO often or, we might say, practically always the embryo genius is left to find himself; he is seldom sought out, given special at- tention, and his intellect nurtured to maturity as it should be. The result, perhaps, is that after a severe struggle against handicaps, he may or may not attain the eminence that is right- fully his. ‘‘At present,” recently stated Professor N. E. Gordon of Johns Hopkins University, ‘‘we are simply dependent upon the chance possession of wealth, health, perseverance, social rank, and self-denial to save the highly endowed for the progress of our race.” Possible future geniuses in chemistry, however, are going to be sought out and given more individual attention at Johns Hopkins. Mr. Francis P. Garvan, president of the Chemical Foundation, has endowed a “‘super- chemists” chair at that university and already nine students are ready to embark on the new course under Pro- fessor Gordon, in the fall. Nominated by chemical companies in the states of their residence, these men are to be left to the research of their choice without outside dictation. Later, 48 students will be selected in like manner, one from each state, their attributes being judged by the following per- centages: health, 7.8; creative ability, 13.7; book ability, 7.3; intellectual honesty, 11; perseverance, 8.9; faculty of observation, 10.1; enthusiasm, 8.9; conduct 7.8; character, 9.2; and college standing, 15.3. How these figures were arrived at has not been told but to us they seem a fairly efficient group of ratings. Relative values indicated are in- teresting, particularly as we note that health is but a poor second from the bottom of the list and is an even tie with conduct. College standing seems somewhat high since our observation has been that often this is the direct Octo resul ratec tion We | per high and beca man genil havi as a for muc dete T intel men and haps post a le: ticul limi susp Ame thes thos by t limi in | deg! witl all ; folle they T low mal to | eve) in 1 seve por: Scu cles kno in | veil aro} con adn and to f neg ay sur clos stil linc anc Bri cru sup con fice cia’ Sta

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October 1929 result of book ability, which is here rated lowest, and not at all the indica- tion of superior imaginative intellect. We believe, further, that imagination, per se, should be given a relatively high rating in this list. Social rank and wealth are not included, obviously because, although these would give a man certain freedom from handicaps, genius is very often found among those having neither. Whether the ratings, as a whole, will prove a touchstone for the discovery of genius, only much experience in using them can determine. Parity and the Public HERE is today no question that has a more significant bearing on international comity than that of arma- ments. The question of limiting armies and navies has threatened more, per- haps, than anything else, to nullify the post-war efforts of nations to create a leading sentiment against war. Par- ticularly has the discussion of naval limitations engendered distrust and suspicion of the motives of England and America among not only the peoples of these two nations but also among those who are not so vitally affected by the problem. The extent to which navies shall be limited, how great should be the cut in peace-time armies, and just what degree of preparedness is concomitant with the spirit of the Kellogg Pact are all moot questions and as difficult to follow in their many ramifications as they are difficult of solution. The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN will fol- low the efforts of the naval yardstick makers closely and promises its readers to keep them thoroughly informed of events as they transpire. Its interest in naval affairs is no new departure; several decades ago when we had tem- porarily lost our sea consciousness the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN published arti- cles by Mahan who, aithough well known in Europe, was almost unknown in his own country. It hopes that the veil of secrecy so carefully thrown around the 1921 conference will not be considered necessary by the present administration. Both Great Britain and the United States are accustomed to freedom of the press; eventually all negotiations must be made public, and a yardstick that can accurately mea- sure men-of-war can not be hid in a closet. Rightly or wrongly, many Americans still consider that they voluntarily re- linquished naval supremacy in 1921 and that, in the meanwhile, Great Britain has built up her strength in cruisers until she has recovered actual supremacy. No good will come from concealment of further American sacri- fices even if it leads to temporary offi- cial accord. Britain and the United States are both accustomed to form- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ing their own public opinion and neither can be long imposed upon by government statements. So the gov- ernments of both countries will be well advised to avoid such closet diplomacy and to remember that the British and the American public can bear the plain-spoken truth. Further, no lasting concord will exist unless founded on parity, neither country will brook second place, and both are navy-minded enough to re- member that Germany’s second-best navy could not keep open Germany’s ports during the World War. If Brit- Allan Curtiss Hoffman T becomes our sad duty to record the death of Allan Curtiss Hoffman which occurred on July 21, 1929, at his home in Englewood, New Jersey, after a short illness. Associated with SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN in 1913 as Adver- tising Manager, after previous experience in magazine publica- tion, he became Secretary of the Scientific American Publishing Company in October, 1918, and Secretary-Treasurer in 1924. His active business connection ceased in June, 1928, but he re- mained a Director to the time of his death. During the past year he has been executive Vice- President of American Cirrus Engines, Inc. Of amiable and pleasing per- sonality he readily made friends and held them. To all tasks he brought enthusiasm and concen- tration which urged to a thor- ough analysis and his counsel was readily sought throughout a wide acquaintance. As a gov- ernor of the Englewood Hos- pital he directed all the pub- licity of the successful endow- ment drive two years ago, and during the war was very active in the Liberty Loan and Red Cross drives. He leaves a wife, a married daughter, and a son just gradu- ated from Yale. We embrace this opportunity to affirm our appreciation of his wige counsel and warm friendship which will be greatly missed. ain is dependent on the high seas for food, the United States depends on outside sources for rubber, manganese, and many other articles essential to her daily life; if Britain has com- merce on the Seven Seas so has the United States, and if the British mer- chant marine exceeds,.then the Ameri- can cargo exposed to enemy capture is equal to that of Great Britain at present and is fast exceeding it. Our stake on the ocean, subject to belliger- ent interference even when we are neutral, is too enormous to confide longer to the protection of any other navy than our own. 289 Finally, we cannot escape the con- viction that Great Britain will make a most serious error if it endeavors for any specious reasons to relegate the American Navy to second place, for even if it should succeed for the mo- ment, the lapse of a few short years would reveal the disparity to keen American eyes, and then the American public would be forever convinced that it is worse than futile to negotiate further with Britain. And this con- viction would have an ill effect on British-American relations that would be difficult to over-estimate. Nor should the British people quickly for- get that had the United States pos- sessed a stronger navy in April, 1917, they would certainly have been spared some anxiety and perhaps the last year of the war. Wooden Nutmegs VEN long before the supplanting of the itinerant peddler of New England by automobiles and modern merchandising methods, wooden nut- megs had passed the heyday of their “popularity”? and housewives refused to be taken in by the petty penny- grabbing peddlers. Yet in these days of universal enlightenment, wooden nutmeg methods are still more vi- ciously applied to the selling of many articles, one of the most important being ordinary eyeglasses, or spectacles. The eyesight of thousands of persons is being jeopardized by spectacles sold by unscrupulous mail order houses, according to the Society for the Pre- vention of Blindness. The Society brands the operations of these firms as “both a fraud and a menace.” Obviously, without a proper examina- tion, it is impossible to fit glasses to the eyes of the individual, but these quack firms glibly advertise that their “splendid glasses will enable anyone to read the smallest print, et cetera, and prevent eye strain and headaches.” The spectacles they send on orders are simply magnifyirg lenses in cheap frames and will not fit any eyes except by the merest chance. The deplorable result of wearing these magnifiers is that many disease conditions which ordinarily result in total or partial blindness may be temporarily con- cealed and not be discovered until it is too late to correct them by legiti- mate fitting of glasses or other means of eye treatment which are readily available. The public is warned not only not to use such spectacles but also to discourage their use by others. No one was really harmed by wooden nutmegs—in fact they have furnished much amusement even to those who were credulous enough to buy them— but mail order spectacles are danger- ous and those who sell them are among the very vilest of quacks.

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290 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 4 All photographs courtesy Pit sirn-Cierva Autogiro ¢ This unusual photograph of an autogiro in flight was taken when y Faulkner was piloting it over Pitcairn Field, Philadelphia, CG. 4, THE AUTOGIRO IN FLIGHT Pennsylvania. Notice the cable connecting the four vanes. could be dispensed with in flight, but is necessary when starting October 192 " ~ «fi ee This How the Autogiro Flies’ A Non-Technical Explanation of the Operation and Performance of the Aircraft Dubbed the “Flying Windmill’ ROP an airplane vertically and it will move forward, even though it is held in a hori- zental position which prevents it from assuming a normal gliding angle. If one wing of the airplane be put on backwards and the plane again dropped, it will spin around. This is the essential fact to be re- membered in considering the principles of the autogiro. The aerodynamics of the machine are in reality extremely complicated, but if one remembers that it is an upward current of air directed against the under sides of the blades of the rotor which causes its rotation, it is much easier to understand how and why the machine flies. The forward motion of the autogiro only indirectly causes the rotor to turn. The turning motion is produced because the rotor is tipped back to the angle of flight and a certain part of the air flow caused by the forward motion strikes the blades from underneath and causes them to turn. If the rotor or windmill, as it is popularly called, were kept absolutely parallel to the air, it would slow down “Reprinted by permission of Aviation. By EARL D. OSBORN Contributin: Editor of Aviation ps ——_— HANGES in any art, when they portend revolutionary developments, are always in- triguing, but when the _ back- ground of the subject is com- plicated, it is seldom that the inwardness of it is brought out in such a manner that the lay- man can grasp the fundamentals. Here is an exceptional case. The author of the accompany- ing article has explained the ecperation of the “flying wind- mill” in such a way that one need not have a_ thorough knowledge of aerodynamics to understand. It is early as yet to predict a future for the autogiro, but its evolution will be interesting to follow, and it is entirely pos- sible that its principle of opera- tion, or discoveries made in the course of experimental work, may play a large part in the future of commercial and civil flying.—The Editor. but, as soon as it did, the autogiro would start to sink and the air would again strike it from underneath and cause the speed of rotation to increase. The only way, barring accident, in which the rotor can be stopped in flight is by putting the machine in a dive which is so steep that the rotor will be abso- lutely vertical and in line with the path of descent. i e start the rotor turning, the ma- chine has hitherto been taxied along the ground. As the mast about which the rotor turns is raked back in relation to the fuselage and the line of propeller thrust, the rotor is tilted with its rear lower than the front. When the machine moves forward, the angle causes part of the wind to strike the blades from underneath and this starts the rotation. When the blades get ro- tating fast enough (about 80 or 90 revolutions per minute), the machine is ready to take off. The climb is accom- plished by having the machine tilted to a considerable extent in regard to the line of flight. If the stick is pulled too far back and the angle becomes too steep, the machine will begin to settle, but this merely increases the upward action of the wind against the bottom

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ober 1929 nce The which is by which abso- path » ma- axied bout ck in ne of with n the ingle the tarts t ro- r 90 ne is -om- .d to the - too too ttle, vard tom October 1929 of the blades, causing them to rotate faster. When the desired altitude is reached the plane is leveled off, but the rotor is always kept at a slight angle to the path of flight. In the first models of the autogiro, which were built more than nine years ago, the blades of the rotor were fixed. On all subsequent models, the blades have been fastened to the vertical shaft through the medium of universal joints which allow the blades to move up and down and also to move closer together or farther apart. The universal joint, like the joint on an automobile drive shaft, allows movement in any direc- tion but prohibits rotation. Once the rotor has started to turn, centrifugal force tends to hold the blades out hori- zontally or rather at right angles to the shaft. The centrifugal force also tends to keep the blades equally spaced around the circumference of the rotor. How- ever, when the rotor is turning very slowly, or when it is idle, the blades would droop to the ground and might bunch together. (For storage, the blades are all folded back and arranged parallel to the fuselage.) To prevent the drooping and bunching while start- ing the rotor, it has been necessary to hold each blade up by a cable which runs to the top of the mast. It has also been necessary to keep the spacing of the blades by means of cables and shock-absorber cord between each of the blades. As soon as the rotor starts turning, the centrifugal force keeps the blades in the proper position and the cables could be entirely dispensed with, which would increase efficiency and improve the looks and simplicity of the machine. Especially when taxying, to start the turning of the rotor, care must be taken to see that too much stress is not put on the cables. HE fact that the rotors are hinged on a universal joint is a point the significance of which is not immediately grasped by those whose minds have been accustomed to think along lines of airplane structures. It means that the blades of an autogiro do not have any very great bending stress as do the wings of an airplane. Practically all the stress isin tension. The blades lift, but the lift is transmitted to the autogiro through means of centrifugal force. The lift of the blades tends to move them up to a vertical position while the centrifugal foree tends to hold them horizontal. The effect is much as if the autogiro were fastened to the middle of a rope. If the two ends of the rope were pulled apart, the machine would be raised up but the strains on the rope would be only tensional. When the autogiro hits a severe bump or is pulled suddenly out of a dive, the lift of the wings becomes greater than the cen- trifugal force and the wings rise up momentarily above their normal posi- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN tion, but the forces on the hinges re- main tensional. In the autogiro, the angle of inci- dence (that is, the angle at which the blades are set in relation to the fuse- lage) remains the same but the angle of attack (that is, the angle at which the blades meet the air) is varied by allow- ing the wings to move up and down. The result is that the blade which is going down wind has approximately the same lift as the blade which is going against the wind. The details of the aerodynamics involved are extremely hard to grasp, even scientists seeming to differ, but the general principle is that the blade going against the wind rises and receives more wind from the top and less from the bottom. This de- creases its angle of attack which de- creases its lift. When the blade starts going down wind, centrifugal force moves it down again, which means that more wind strikes it from underneath increasing the angle of attack and thereby increasing its lift. The wings are also hinged so that their spacing can be changed and the blade moving against the wind tends to catch up to the other blades. The autogiro which Harold Pitcairn demonstrated at Langley Field recently was brought over from England. The fuselage used is that of a two-seater Avro fitted with a Wright Whirlwind engine. Improvements are being in- corporated in the autogiros at a rapid rate, and, in later models, the fuselage has been shortened and it is possible to start the rotor turning by pulling back the control stick, thus throwing the 291 slipstream up against the rotor blades. In Pitcairn’s machine, it is necessary to taxi around the field at a slow rate until the rotor starts turning at a suffi- cient rate to allow a take-off. This is a delicate proposition, for until they get going fast, a bump while taxying will tend to break the cables supporting the blades. Also, the blades get a rough motion and it is necessary for the ma- chine to be stopped before the take-off in order to let them smooth out. About three quarters of a mile of slow taxying is required before the rotors gain their required 90 r.p.m. (There is a tacho- meter on the rotor.) Judging by eye, which is a hard thing to do, the take off with one person is about equivalent to that of a good OX biplane with two. The forward speed, however, is slower and although the rate of climb is not rapid, the angle of climb is probably better than that of an ordinary OX plane with an equal load. It is figured that the autogiro is about as inefficient at these low speeds as an airplane would be which had the same plan form. Especially in planes of low wing load- ing, that is of low landing speeds, the efficiency drops off very rapidly as the aspect ratio is decreased. At higher speeds, this does not make so much difference in efficiency and it is claimed that the autogiro becomes very efficient theoretically at high speeds. HE best angle of climb seems to be achieved at about 45 miles per hour and the best rate of climb at about 60 miles per hour. The slowest speed at which Pitcairn’s machine can LOOKING UP AT THE AUTOGIRO Piloting a ship of this type is a novel experience for one accustomed to ordinary airplanes. At the point where an airplane would stall, the ‘‘flying windmill’ merely settles evenly

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292 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN THE VANES ARE HELD BY CABLES Wires from the vanes to the top of a short mast hold the blades up and prevent them fouling the fuselage or stabilizers when starting. Note the universal joints placed near the mast fly level is about 30 miles per hour. Unlike the airplane, there is no danger in flying the autogiro at this low speed; if the speed is reduced too much, the machine merely settles. If on a take-off it is found that an obstruction will not be cleared, the pilot, that is, one who has been flying autogiros and not air- planes, merely cuts the gun, pulls back the stick and waits for the machine to settle. The high speed of the autogiro demonstrated at Langley Field was about 90 miles per hour. This, how- ever, was not at full throttle. As the speed increases, the up and down movement of the blades increases and, in the present model, the blades would hit the horizontal stabilizer were they allowed any more downward motion. Were this not the case, it is claimed that the present machine would do 110 miles per hour. This would give a better speed range than is obtained in ordinary airplanes. It must also be remembered that the pres- ent autogiro is rather a crude contrap- tion and little attempt has been made to streamline many of its parts. HE autogiro controls handle in much the same way as those of an ordinary airplane. Banking is neces- sary on turns as the rotor is equally efficient when traveling in any direction and would skid indefinitely. The ailerons and tail surfaces remain par- tially effective even though the ma- chine isin a practically vertical descent. The down-wash from the rotor is such that streamers attached to the stub wings go back horizontally showing that the stub wings do not reach the stalling angle. Although the machine can descend practically vertically, a forward speed of 25 or 30 miles per hour is usually maintained. The maximum gliding angle is about half that of an ordinary airplane—in other words, somewhere between four and five to one. This restricts the choice of land- ing grounds but, on the other hand, it is possible to land in a smaller area. The descent is a combination of a glide and a settling motion. When the plane comes within 15 or 20 feet of the ground, the stick is pulled back sharply. The tail skid hits first and the machine settles about two feet until the shock absorbers come into action. These have a play of about 15 inches and it is expected to increase this to 24 inches. The maximum rate of settling in a ver- tical drop is figured at about 16 feet per second, approximately the same speed as that of a parachute, and this should require about 18 inches of shock absorber travel. The landing very much resembles that of a bird. In the Langley Field demonstration, the usual run was about 40 feet in practically still air and with shock absorbers which did not allow a vertical landing. October 1929 It is hard for one accustomed to think along airplane lines to adjust his mind on the autogiro. As pointed out in the opening of this article, the rotor needs practically no forward motion to keep it turning, in fact, it is very eyvj- dent that in descent, the turning speed of the rotor increases. Structurally, too, the airplane and autogiro are en- tirely different. The fuselage of an air- plane is supported through its wings, which are cantilever structures, where- as the fuselage of the autogiro is sup- ported through members in tension, These differences are of great impor- tance and value. T first glance, one is strongly prejudiced against the autogiro because a rotating windmill does not look as if it were a sound piece of mechanism for the support of a heavy structure. It looks clumsy and foolish in the air beside an airplane. It is also inefficient at low speeds. On the other hand, it ean fly slowly with no danger cf stalling and it can descend practically vertically. From 50 to 85 percent of airplane ac- cidents are blamed on bad piloting. This is another way of saying that piloting requires too great skill and practise. The autogiro is essentially easier to fly than an airplane. It can- not bestalled orspun. There is no diffi- culty about overshooting a field. The angle descent is so steep that this re- quires no delicate judgment nor esti- mating of distance. If there is a crash, it will be at such slow speeds that little damage is likely to occur. Due to its ability to fly slowly without danger, the autogiro can be flown in much thicker weather than an airplane. To those who have become accus- tomed to flying airplanes, their first flight in an autogiro is apt to be a little startling. When the autogiro is throt- tled back and the machine apparently stops in the air, it is hard to realize that this is a normal and safe procedure and not a stunt requiring great skill. We have become so accustomed to the necessity of landing fast and of judging height accurately that it is hard to visu- lize how much easier it would be to fly and how many more people would undertake it if these two elements could be eliminated. The autogiro has set new standards of performance which are bound to stimulate flying. AFTER Mr. Osborn, contributing editor of our contemporary Aviation, flew in an autogiro and wrote the illuminating article which we reprint above, Harold F. Pitcairn, of _ the Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company, took occasion, in a letter to Mr. Osborn, to amend and amplify several of the statements made. In order to present all sides, we are printing Mr. Pitcairn’s letter in our “Learning to Use Our Wings” department.—The Editor. Octol had The wate thus Th wide The! two like She oil ¢ appl The the thus feasi is pl the surp to tl are |

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er 1929 ed to ist hig 2d out rotor ion to y evi- speed rally, re en- iN air- vings, vhere- $ sup- nsion, npor- ongly ogiro 3 not ce of leavy Olish 3 also other unger cally e@ ac- ting. that and ially can- diffi- The Ss re- esti- ‘ash, ittle 0 its , the eker cus- first ittle rot- atly hat and We the ‘ing isu- fly uld uld set ich ing on, the ont the 0k to the ent n ’e ur October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 293 The New Queen of the Sea HEN the North German Lloyd Bremen arrived at the wal Ambrose Channel lightship on the afternoon of July As 22nd, down went the theoretical ‘blue pennant” ME of the Mauretania into the lee scuppers, for she ME } had been beaten by eight hours and fifty-two minutes. P The time of the new vessel from Cherbourg break- water was 4 days, 17 hours and 42 minutes, thus docking passengers within five days. The Bremen is 938 feet long, 98 feet wide (beam) and is a 50,000 ton vessel. The most extraordinary features are the two squat streamline funnels shaped like the cross section of a raindrop. She is an oil burner using 830 tons of oil a day, the steam pressure being applied to the four geared turbines. The smoke is carried up the sides of the boat in chambers to the stacks, thus making immense public rooms feasible. Every known safety device is provided and the arrangements for the comfort of the passengers are un- surpassed. The Bremen is a challenge to the other steamship lines and they are already busy at the drawing board. THE “BREMEN”’ This liner crossed in 4 days, 17 hours and 42 minutes, beating the Mauretcnia’s record by 8 hours and 52 minutes. Return trip, 4 days 1414 hours BOAT-LAUNCHING GEAR The massive boat-launching devices will operate even if the ship is disabled and is listing badly AIRPLANE CATAPULT The airplane catapult on the upper deck enables mail to be sent from the ship 500 miles at sea, saving valuable time—New York to Berlin in 514 days CARGO HOISTS the boats do not While cargo is subsidiary to the passenger trade, it is speedily handled by electric winches. There are many motors on board A PROMENADE The boat-launching gear is so arranged that interfere with the passengers. Safety is a feature of the Bremen

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294 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 Monkey-Shines A Naturalist’s Account of Everyday Monkey Life at Home in the Dense Hot South American Jungles By PAUL GRISWOLD HOWES Curator of Natural History, The Bruce Museum of Greenwich, Connecticut Photographs by the Author A typical scene in the country of the monkeys, inhabited by spider monkeys, Beesas, Sakis, and Red Howlers. HERE had been a continued tapping sound for some time in the forest just ahead, a strange noise as if someone were flinging down missles from the high avenues of the jungle world. Now in a shower, again not so concentrated, the missiles pattered down through the leaves to the spongy floor of the forest where all further sound was en- gulfed in a humid embrace. Stealthily I picked my way ahead, under the lowest growth, selecting each spot for my feet, where no twigs, snap- ping as I progressed, would announce my presence to the extremely acute ears of whatever jungle creatures I was about to see. In fifteen minutes I had reached a spot so close to the bom- bardment from above that I could see the leaves jump as each missile dropped There are no anthropoid apes in the western hemisphere; only monkeys through them from an unknown source. The trees were gigantic, smooth- barked things, reaching almost into the skies, it seemed, and carrying a thou- sand parasitic plants upon their branches that trailed hundreds of lianas and bush ropes to the forest floor. Weight, great weight, had ac- cumulated in their struggling arms; the perpetual dampness, the heat and the wind-blown spores, and the bird- carried seeds of parasites had accom- plished their work; and now after years of playing host to these parasites they had found it necessary to throw out gnarled and rippling buttresses in every direction to support the un- natural heaviness which they felt. The missiles continued to fall and tap the leaves. No sound disturbed the air save the call of the ‘‘gold bird” and the falling nut shells. The forest was strangely silent. Then from the emerald world above I strangest, most blood-chilling ery in al] the New World jungle. Looking up, I saw a troupe of red heard the | howling monkeys directly above, in | the highest branches. They stopped their feast and bombardment of nut shells, and the great golden-red leader of the band had commenced that awe-inspiring chorus for which these animals are justly famous. He stood upon a thick limb, upon all fours, tail out and curled about a smaller limb, head down and eyes glaring di- rectly at me, although I knew he had not seen a single move in the forest be- low. His lips rolled back over fright- fully stained teeth, and from his throat issued a series of ghastly belehes. Then from a low growl, the voice rcse and rose and its power increased to the vol- ume of a lion’s veice at its best. The younger males now came in, one by one, until the whole troupe, as if in a frenzy of rage and challenge, rent the jungle with their fearful music. The chant rose and fell, rose and fell, and finally died out, leaving the listener with asensation of sudden and awful silence. N the howler troupe were females with babies. One clung to its mother’s breasts like a little human thing of the tree-tops. The mother would hold it in tight to her, pressing it back of the neck with her big but tender hand. Two larger youngsters played about in their lofty home, run- ning back and forth upon the smallest limbs, unconcerned at the dizzy height. The great bull leader of the band must have been very heavy. He stood as high as an ordinary table, and his long hairy red arms stretched out an- other two feet above his head. The fur of his back was the same wonderful golden-red as his arms. It ran all the way around his black ugly face and formed a pointed beard over his great swollen throat, where is situated the sounding box that produces the re- markable roars for which these mon- keys are famous. The soles of the howler’s hands and feet are of course bare, and it is an in- teresting fact that a portion of the tail on the under side is also bare and heavily padded with skin, for use as an extra hand in progressing among the branches. One of the most inspiring things in had 0c the ing bal the hor fec the me int ins ber or wit bee bee pla sur siti tre

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er 1929 » forest ym the ‘d the V in all of red ve, in had | dment en-red nenced which 3. He fours, maller ng di- 1e had est be- fright- throat Then se and 1e vol- The me by if in a nt the The ll, and 2r with ilence. o>males to its juMan nother essing ig but igsters >, TUN- rallest eight. band stood id his ut an- The derful ill the e and great d the 1e Te- mon- is and an in- 1e tail » and as an g the gs in October 1929 the South American forests is the roar- ing of the howler monkeys during the dead of night, especially when rival bands are challenging each other. To the ears of the novice it bears all the horror and frightfulness that a per- fectly good jungle should have, but to the experienced explorer, it simply means ‘“‘howlers’”’ and one of the most interesting animals of the forest. Howlers are possessed of a strange instinct which causes the other mem- bers of a troupe to try to kill a wounded or disabled member. At Camaria, on the Cuyuni River in British Guiana, I witnessed this strange habit. We had been hunting along a road which had been chopped out of the solid jungle. N a tall tree bearing a fruit with an inky juice, a troupe of howlers and a number of smaller monkeys were feeding. One of our party wounded a howler, who let out a roar of pain and sat motionless where it had been struck. At first the others had been too frightened to do anything but dash for safety, but at the second cry of pain from their wounded member, two males turned back and with a savage rush attacked the wounded monkey. They tore into him with all the pitiless savagery and heartlessness that is characteristic of jungle dwellers. They roared and scuffled and bit, and the wounded monkey shrieked in agony. The sun shone down on three fiery bodies motivated by who knows what, to do this thing, undisturbed by the presence of man, their most deadly enemy. We put a stop to it all with our rifles. To observe the smaller Saki mon- keys, I constructed blinds in suitable places. Fruit trees in bearing are the surest lure for monkeys, and a blind situated below or near one of these trees is a likely place for the student A PET SAKI MONKEY He was taken when very young, and supplied valuable. information concerning the food of his own species SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Fs OLD MALE BEESA MONKEY Small wonder that the myth of the “old man of the forest’ took root among the Indians and refused to die of animal life. Monkeys willsoonfind it. It is certainly true that to a certain extent, monkeys travel over accus- tomed avenues. It is only natural that animals as cunning as these are should see to it that the avenue of escape is a good one. I noticed that, in coming to a certain fruit tree, the Sakis almost invariably approached from a certain direction. Moreover, they undoubt- edly followed a certain course, because certain limbs and lianas were used time and time again. From my blind, by keeping ex- tremely quiet, I could watch all their actions. I found the Sakis in the wild, not unlike the Sakis in the zoo. Their actions and pranks were endless. The troupes talked continually in curious little whines, and these soft words were apparently used more in keeping the troupe together than any- thing else. Chatter and louder words were used only in squabbles or at the sight of something pleasing or displeasing. The clatter of alarge troupeofadvanc- ing Sakis is unmistakable, for they throw down an endless barrage of dis- carded things. As an experiment in the avenue theory, I tried va- rious methods of frighten- ing the troupes away. My first experiment was to produce an unusual, but not too startling noise, and this I did with my voice, imitating the soft whinny of a horse. At the instant of the sound every monkey froze in his tracks, looking wild- eyed and bewildered. I repeated the noise with the same result. No one 295 seemed to recognize it or know what to do about it. A third trial brought re- sults. Some member of the troupe coughed out a single note and in an in- stant every member had turned about and the whole crowd retreated rap- idly but in orderly fashion into the forest, taking the well known avenues over which they had come. The second experiment was equally interesting. I imitated the loud barks of a dog when a troupe was quietly feeding almost over my blind. In this case there was no hesita- tion or delay until the sound was heard again. The monkeys immediately beat a more or less panicky retreat, and I wondered if they really knew that the bark of a dog usually means men. The third experiment was to frighten the monkeys violently by discharging my gun. This always threw the troupes into complete panic followed by a mad dash into the forest, and while an oc- casional individual would give a wild leap for the nearest branch, or tumble down through the foliage for a few feet before catching hold of something again, most of the monkeys even in their mad haste would follow the recog- nized route as closely as possible. There are no apes in South America and whether these smaller monkeys of our American jungles possess intelli- gence or not, is not an easy matter to decide. It would seem to the writer that they do to a certain limited ex- tent, as the following instances will show. BLACK Capauchin female mon- key with her tiny baby were dis- covered in the top of a tall tree. This tree had come into heavy bearing re- cently and was a splendid one near which to observe all kinds of jungle folk who came to it in response to the sweet pungent odor that it cast over the surrounding forest. Mother was a sleek fat lady, hungry but lazy. Well, she had a perfectly good baby, so why not make use of him? Apparently she felt that she had sacrificed plenty in order to bring this child into the world and now he could make a sacrifice or two for her. Most of the fruit was borne upon delicate stems near the tips of the branches. Mother would venture as far as she dared, eating what she could reach and when a branch would bend consider- ably under her weight, she would put her baby down on the limb. Detach- ing him from her, she would urge him out after the delicate morsels of fruit. The little fellow would pick the fruit

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296 here and there, safe in the tiniest branches. He would eat one or two pieces, but most of them would be packed into his cheeks until they stuck out as though he had‘ the mumps. When his pouches were well filled and he was about to sit down to enjoy his labors, mother would haul him to her by the tail, force open his mouth and take pos- [oo snentinaseemnaseninnsnsiuannnbsianneiians | Courtesy New York Zoological Society SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN before swallowing them. Smooth cat- erpillars were especially relished, but hairy ones he would not touch. We soon learned what was good monkey food and what was avoided by them. When the monkey would spot a stinging ant or any other par- ticularly noxious creature, the reac- tion would be so _ violent that he HOWLER AND HOWLER’S SOUNDING BOARD In the howler’s throat, at the base of the tongue, the hyoid bone is greatly This peculiar development accounts enlarged and specialized, as shown. for the great power of the animal’s voice. session of its contents without apology. On the other hand a Saki brought to us by Indians when very young ex- hibited little ability to figure things out for himself. He was given a vial in which a cockroach had been placed and the vial had been corked up. His first reaction was to eat the insect, but the glass foiled his repeated efforts. Next he held the tube in one hand and tried to pick the roach up with the other. This was repeated over and over again. When the monkey had decided that it could not be done, he neither smashed the tube nor tried to pull the cork, but simply threw it aside in disgust. OWEVER, we did find out from this little fellow what sort of food the Sakis eat, a discovery of no little importance to the success of the col- lector of living animals. Taking him out upon a string, he would be allowed to go where he pleased. He would begin to search for insects at once. Every leaf would be turned, every inch of ground and every limb would be scrutinized with minute care. He would catch and eat insects that we never seemed to be able to see until he would reach out for them. Some would be devoured whole, others he would strip of their wings or other hard parts (Slightly larger than natural size) would emit a_ strange noise and run part way up a tree out of the offend- ing thing’s reach. Among certain of the South American Indians there is a persistent story that somewhere in the dark jungles lives a strange creature called the Old Man of the Forest. They seem to believe that he is a great hairy fellow witha white beard, and white hair upon his face, and that he is in the forest for no good purpose. It is a myth, of course, yet there is some foundation for the story, because of a_ very strange creature that does roam the tree tops of Guiana and whose re- semblance to an old man is very strik- ing. This animal is known as the Beesa monkey. He is not large, but his black or grayish-black hair is long and shaggy. His bluish eyes peer out from a black face that is enclosed be- tween pure white burnsides and a heavy beard. It would be easy to see how Indians in the past might have handed down the myth of the old man of the forest, or even how an extra large Beesa to- October 1929 day might serve as a basis for the tale. He is a weird and unexplained creature at best, this Beesa of the tree-tops, The Beesas are capable of leaping with great agility and yet with little or no noise. In little family groups they go about, perhaps a mother and father and baby, quietly minding their own business and feeding upon vegetable matter of various kinds. eed ge fable of South America, and especially of Colombia, is that of the monkey ladder. Even reputable men have claimed to have witnessed this remarkable thing but, even so, it is doubtless purely im- aginary or is repeated in good faith as told by “someone else.” The story goes, that on certain of the big planta- tions where bananas are raised, the monkeys come from far and near to pillage the trees. They wait cunningly in hiding until the laborers guarding the fruit from their attacks, momen- tarily relax their vigilance, when a sorti is made and the fruit. secured. These plantations are situated along the edge of a small river that cuts off all the monkeys dwelling upon the far side of the stream from the fruit sup- ply which they love so well. They do not like to swim, yet they can not re- sist bananas, and so something has to be done about it. How do the monkeys solve the problem? It is all very simple, according to the myth. They gather in numbers at a selected spot where two convenient trees are growing, one on either side of the river. The monkeys now ascend the tree on the far stream bank, form- ing a chain of their bodies, one below the other, and when the chain is as long as possible, they commence to swing themselves back and forth by moving their bodies and by grasping leaves and bush ropes. They swing harder and harder and faster and faster, like a huge pendulum, back and forth, back and forth, until the end monkeys catch a branch upon the tree across the river. The waiting monkeys upon the other Oct side wh mo lets acr bra

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r 1929 > tale, ‘ature -tops. Y with or no ey go ather - own table erica, la, is Even have but, im- th as story anta- , the ar to ingly rding ymen- en a Z. along ts off 1e far sup- ey do ot re- as to ikeys o the

October 1929 side now cross the living bridge and when the last has gone across, the first monkey upon the far side of the stream lets go and the whole ladder swoops across the stream and crashes into the branches and foliage on the other side. UCH is the story of the monkey S ladder. As to its possibility, the reader will have to form his own opin- jon. Monkeys are pathetic little actors when in trouble. If their misery comes at the hands of man, they seem to feel the pain even more acutely, as though their torment came from the hands of a big brother. In sickness they become very quiet and dis- heartened. If in captivity, they look wistfully out through the wire or bars, as if a vision of the green sunlit jungle, with its free wild life and its good things toeat, was ever before their eyes. They brood, bow their heads, and bring pity into the hardest hearts; for, after all, they are more like us than any other creatures on earth today. No one who has studied them closely, either at home in the forest or as pets in civiliza- tion, can doubt what happened at that last branching of the tree of life. If such a doubt is still entertained by anyone who has only seen the later stages of monkey life, let him see the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN embryo of one of these fellow creatures. There will be no doubt then. Except for the long tail it is an unborn human being in every detail. Beyond the sacrum in man, at the end of the verte- bral column, are four rather consoli- dated vertebrae called the coccyx. These bones are the vestiges of a tail, and when we remember this fact and what I have just said about the em- bryos of the animals, we realize how infinitesimal must be the chromosomal difference that makes one embryo a human being and one a monkey. Down in the jungle of Columbia, along the tepid, yellow Magdalena, our party was hunting birds for the American Museum of Natural History. The old, stern-wheel steamer had put into a village and had refueled with log wood, and now her irate captain was blowing his whistle for us not to delay him any longer. He was a good fellow at heart, and in reality the delay of the steamer worried him less than the probability of losing us as com- panions. He was intensely interested in our daily bags and he did not want to miss the joy of seeing and handling all those brightly colored birds. Collecting was exceptionally good and we were taking our time. High up in a ceiba tree one of the party saw something moving that resembled ¢

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eet gore |} a ae

- La

A SUITABLE SITE FOR A MONKEY GYMNASIUM Trees, vines, and creepers—a typical scene in the South American jungle in moist ground, a sitvation frequented by the smaller monkeys. Taken from one of the author’s blinds

fore were unattainable. 297

Co rt New York Zoological Societ DEATH MASK OF HOWLER The fur and beard are a beautiful golden red, the face black, and the teeth horribiy stained from the juices of jungle fruits. The specimen was shot in British Guiana squirrel, but in a minute it had hidden itself among the heavy foliage. We wanted squirrels for the collection and so a shot rang out and a small body went down, spinning as it fell into the undergrowth. Laboriously we cut our way in with our bush knives, and then stopped short in horror, realizing our blunder. It was not a squirrel, but a tiny marmo- set that faced us, brave beyond words in the face of death and these clumsy giants. Worse yet, a trickle of deep red blood rolled down the tiny thing’s breast, where it had clesped a green leaf to the agonizing hole in its tender flesh. Its large eyes looked up at our towering asking dumbly for mercy, its little face full of despair and agony, but not a trace of hatred. Never had any men felt so low or so miserably unworthy. It stared and stared, and no one could do anything but stare back, something tearing at our hearts and no one able to deliver a coup de grace. bodies, T last the little hand relaxed and F the stained leaf fell to the ground. Those big bright eyes closed slowly as in sleep, but forever. <A tragedy had occurred in the jungle, a tragedy momentous to three human beings, for a tiny, trusting brother had gone west through our blunder. A beam of light and a photoelectric cell constitute the main elements of a new balance scale that is being used to determine the weight of paper in the process of fabrication. This scale gives the machine operator facts that hereto- A description of it will be published soon.—The Editor.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 ee ca] A HANGAR FOR AN UP-TO-DATE AIRPORT A grand-stand structure in conjunction with a modern hangar with Air races, air circuses, and even everyday aeronautical long spans. activity find eager throngs at every airport. to accommodate large numbers provide an additional source of income Proper seating facilities How Shall We Design Our Airports? “Landing Fields”” No Longer Suffice; Complete Airports With Every Possible Facility Must Be Designed and Built ITH aviation in so early a stage of the formative period, it is not possible that there could be unanimous agree- ment upon all its problems, for most of them are of an experimental nature. However, there is unanimous agree- ment among the leaders of the aviation industry as to the importance of proper airports. All will admit that the ports have not kept pace with the technical advances of aircraft. The airport is the link between air and land transportation. It is there, even more than in the air at the present time, that the success of aviation will be de- termined. It is there that the confi- dence of the prospective air passenger is built up. Adequate terminals are in some ways more important to the emerging aviation industry than to the long established railroad industry. Although the greatest growth of com- mercial aviation in this country dates back only to the recent transatlantic flights, more than 1500 airports are in *Manager, Airport Division, The Austin Company, Cleveland, Ohio. By WILLIAM E. ARTHUR* operation, and the number will prob- ably be greater than 2500 by the close of this year. The country is overlaid by a network of airlines from coast to coast, and every community, in order to stay on the map, is faced with the literal necessity of establishing an air- port. The race to establish airports is similar to that between alert communi- ties to get on some railroad or another half a century ago. HE earliest method of establishing an airport was for a community to set aside a level piece of land and call it an airport. Some of these fields were satisfactory as long as flying was done by light ships in fair weather. But the advent of heavy transport ships of five tons and more, flying on schedule win- ter and summer almost regardless of weather, quickly rendered such fields obsolete. A fair picture of the airport situation throughout the country is contained in the experience of the Transcontinental Air Transport, preparatory to linking New York and San Francisco with a two-day air-rail passenger service. So great an obstacle was the matter of air terminals and landing fields that the company was filled with dismay. A year was required to make the airports on the two air jumps adequate for large transport planes. One of the reasons for the tardy de- velopment of airports equipped to ac- commodate present-day transport oper- ations has been that in most com- munities there simply has been no one with sufficient knowledge of the technical problems to lead the way. Another obstacle is typified by the ex- perience at Croyden Field, London, England, where a 600,000-dollar invest- ment had to be scrapped simply through obsolescence and 1,000,000 dollars additional spent to bring the field up to modern requirements. But these obstacles need no longer stand in the way. Over the past few years there has accumulated a teste} and proved supply of engineerin? knowledge in relation to airport desig: and construction, which is adequate f the problems of any community an

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, So of air the A 20rts large , de- ) ac- yper- -om- no the vay. , ex- don, rest- aply 000 the ager few ste rin? sig > fi an October 1929 anticipates the advances inéaviation for a good many years to come. The greatest immediate problem facing the entire aviation industry is that of increasing revenue, and that problem should be given careful con- sideration in planning any airport. One thing that is not sufficiently well known is that a properly lecated and designed airport can usually be placed on a self-sustaining basis. In time, it can be made to show an actual operat- ing profit, if administered by a capable airport manager unhampered by selfish political influences. Nearly every airport has a large num- ber of possible sources of profit in addi- tion to the customary leasing of space to airline operators, flying schools, aircraft factories, and accessory mau- facturers for hangars and other build- ings. Much income can be gained from various concessions which can be established at the port. For example, restaurants, refreshment stands, cigar stores, barber shops, news stands, and telegraph offices can be housed in the administration buildings and passenger depots. Grand stands and roof-garden restaurants for sight-seers are sources of revenue. A hotel and shops of vari- ous kinds ean be incorporated in the building group. Facilities for the dis- play and sale of aircraft can be included in the hangars and administration buildings. HOOSING an airport site is a much more complicated and diffi- cult procedure than merely selecting a level field. While a good airport must have a level field, all level fields do not make good airport sites. The most im- portant step in the establishment of an airport is a preliminary survey. Such a survey must cover a multi- tude of details. A few of these are the location of the port with respect to the city, highways, railroads, and street cars; meteorological conditions, such as flow of air currents; hazards and approaches; fog conditions and smoke haze; fire protection; parking areas, and the geographical advantages of the city for various airways which may be brought into the port. The prelimin- ary study should take into considera- tion the proposed ultimate develop- ment over a period of years, and the plan should be elastic enough to allow for unforseen deviations from the origi- nal development program. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AT CLEVELAND AIRPORT This recently completed hangar is of canti- lever construction with cantilever door operation. One of the largest in the world, it has a 200-foot clear door opening which may be extended indefinitely, i.e., both side walls may be removed. A section of the door in the open position is shown at right Before actual construction is started, a comprehensive plan of initial develop- ment should be worked out, including drainage, landing, and take-off areas, airplane traffic control, lighting and signals, automobile and pedestrian fa- cilities, and the grouping of the build- ings. The various drafts caused by roofs of buildings make the proper arrangement of hangars and other structures vital to safe flying. Large investments sometimes have failed to produce safe airports because soil research has not been linked with hydraulics in the drainage system. Too much of airport drainage has been guess work. The characteristics of the soil should be studied, before drainage is installed, to determine the rate at which it will absorb water. Soil treat- ment and drainage are especially vital in the “‘all-over”’ type of field. Despite the fact that hard-surfaced runways have the disadvantage that only one runway can be used at a time, they are necessary where weather con- ditions at certain periods of the year render the field too soft for heavy planes. Runways should be so con- structed that, should the pilot miss them because the airport is blanketed with snow, or for any other reason, he will not encounter ditches and similar hazardous, accident-causing obstacles. There are numerous ways of treating runway surfaces, varying in cost and efficiency from merely grading, rolling, and seeding the surface to paving it with vitrified shale paving brick laid in a cement mortar bed on a heavy con- crete base. Which to use depends on the original surface and the require- ments of airplane traffic—and also the finances of the community. A turf runway has a low first cost and a high maintenance cost. It re- quires time to establish and is easily damaged by tail skids, but produces minimum glare under flood lights. It is resilient, and a fair surface for wheel braking. Brick, while having a high first cost, furnishes extremely long life with low maintenance cost. It is mudless, dust- less, has good visibility, is a fair baek- All illustrations courtesy The Austin Company A substantial depot of pleasing design, with comfortable waiting room; also facilities and concessions for the convenience of the public. FOR THE SAFETY OF PASSENGERS Safety of passengers and protection from the weather is assured by an underground passage-way to loading runways and to the railroad

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300 COMPLETE IN EVERY DETAIL: A UNIQUE DESIGN bridges for discharging or taking on passengers. can reach the loading point only through the bridges and down stairs Side elevation of a modern depot which provides maximum safety, Airplanes taxi into position under the comfort, and convenience. ground for markings, and is not damaged by tail skids. Runways of rolled cinders and crushed stone or slag, while having some advantages, give off flying par- ticles which damage wing fabric, motors, and propellers. Other methods of sur- facing runways are with concrete, Tarvia re-tread, Tarvia penetration macadam, and sheet asphalt. ITH the rapid progress that is being made in all branches of aviation, the design of hangars is ad- vancing and must continue to advance. Airplanes are being designed which are larger than any now in use. In five or ten years, wing spreads of more than 100 feet probably will be common on non-stop transports flying from coast to coast. Therefore large clear spans are of paramount importance. This is bringing into prominence the cantilever type of roof design, which permits enormous floor areas unob- structed by pillars and other supports. The cantilever type of roof also permits expansion, should the hangar have to be enlarged. Cantilever type doors also are coming into greater use. They are made in sections, each of which may be operated singly, or in conjunction with any or all of the other sections. The open cantilever door acts as a canopy in front of the hangar. Cantilever roof construction and can- tilever door operation are combined in a single building for the first time in a hangar which The Austin Company recently completed at the Cleveland Airport for lease to transport operators. The hangar is 120 feet deep with a 200- foot clear door opening, and has a 20- foot clearance under the trusses. The ~ nN, TT ea es aa ab Pt Be SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 unobstructed floor area could accom- modate a ship of 190-foot wing spread, which is three or four times as great as the spread of the average transport plane now in operation. However, tubular steel sliding doors are perhaps the most popular doors now in use because of their simple operation, good appearance, fire-resisting qualities, and the amount of daylight they admit. There are a number of other types of doors, and a large number of considera- tions entering into the choice of the most efficient door for each hangar. Hangar problems vary with each air- port and each locality. Heating alone presents different problems in different sections of the country. The hangar problems of the transport operator differ from those of the aircraft manu- facturer. In any airport, the hangars should be located so that the taxying of planes over long distances may be avoided. One general objective should be aimed at in the grouping of buildings. That is the separation of factory build- ings, hangars in which repair operations are carried on, flying schools, and mili- tary hangars from the administration building, passenger depot, and all structures engaged in purely transport business. Aside from convenience, there is a psychological reason for this. The sight of repair operations on planes, of military maneuvers and student fly- ing is not an attractive sight for pros- pective passengers. This grouping should be worked out in the preliminary plans for the port. Aircraft manufacturing plants pre- sent problems new to industrial build- ing. They necessitate designs permit- ting economical straight-line produc- These passengers tion, at the same time allowing the maximum amounts of daylight and clear floor space. The aviation industry simply has been too busy with the multitude of other problems to have given much thought to passenger terminals. Yet adequate passenger facilities are needed to build up passenger traffic, for this offers the industry the most immediate and important channel for the in- creased revenue which is so imperative. HE American public is receptive to the idea of air travel, provided it receives the encouragement it has a right to expect in the way of comfort and safety, in addition to time saved. The traveling public of this country is accustomed to, and insists on, a degree of comfort unknown to any other country or age. When aviation was in the novelty stage, a trip in a plane was regarded as an adventure, and hard- ships were cheerfully accepted as part of the game. Air travel, however, is no longer a game. It is regarded by an increas- ingly large percentage of the traveling public with the same matter-of-fact attitude as railroad travel. In air travel, as in rail travel, the public is demanding not only comfortable wait- ing rooms and conveniences, but safety control of passenger traffic. The psychology of the first class rail- road terminal is one of inspiring confi- dence. This psychology would be even more desirable at the airport, where every first-time passenger is more or less nervous. Moreover, if a business man takes a plane to keep a business ap- pointment in a distant city, he wants to feel comfortable and be presentable tio pu ge th Ca int gr sp wi ar to

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1929 the and has e of uch Yet ded this liate in- tive. tive ded aS ¢ fort ra 2as- ing act air - is nit- ety ail- nfi- yen ere or ess ap- nts ble October 1929 on arrival. He doesn’t want to present himself with shoes muddy and clothes pedrabbled by rain from wading over a wet landing field to or from his plane. He doesn’t want his nerves on edge from a narrow escape from death while hurrying across an unguarded runway. The trouble is that, with few excep- tions, all our airports are at present purely freight stations. The passen- gers are in much the same position as if they were required to scramble over the tracks at a freight yard to board a crack passenger train. This lack of terminal provision for air travelers is in striking contrast to the safety features and Pullman luxury of the newer types of passenger planes. OST transport lines feel—or have felt until quite recently—that passenger revenue does not as yet justify the expenditure of the large sums required to establish adequate passenger facilities. I believe that they are reversing the normal order of the cart and the horse. The establishment of such facilities will bring about an increase in passenger business and the growth of revenue from that source. The large sums the transport lines are spending for improved passenger planes will avail them nothing if passengers are not attracted to the air terminals to board the planes. The railroad terminal principle of handling passenger traffic has been adapted to airport conditions in plans which have attracted widespread in- terest throughout the country. In de- pots constructed according to these plans, passenger traflic, completely con- trolled, would pass from the street door through passenger concourses directly into the cabins of their planes without once leaving cover. One type of air passenger depot under SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN these plans could consist of several units, serving the purpose of piers for the support of spans of a covered con- course bridge. The space between the piers and beneath the span would form covered loading areas for the planes. When the passenger alights from his cab under the marquee at the station entranee, he would enter a general waiting room, purchase his ticket, and ascend to the passenger concourse on the mezzanine level. When his plane was announced, he would descend one of the stairways built into the piers and walk through a railed-in passageway to the open door of the plane, directly to his seat. In a word, the passenger traffic will be controlled in much the same fashion as the loading of an ocean liner, where a gangplank makes en- trance at prohibited points impossible. S planes taxi to and fro between the loading areas and the hangars, there would be no danger, as at the present type of airport, of hitting a visitor or passenger strolling across the taxiways. No one could gain access to the field except those having business there, any more than passengers at a modern railroad terminal may stroll along the tracks while waiting for their train. A variation of this idea is to have the passenger concourses located in sub- ways instead of overhead bridges. Both the subway and bridge idea could be combined in the same depot. The main idea is to keep the passengers com- fortably sheltered and off the field. Another problem which eventually must be met by the airport is the co- ordination of air transportation with other modes of transportation—rail- roads, street railways, motor busses, and steamers. The growth of air travel is already bringing about the convergence a Nes ~ weyrer 4 COVERED Wi AREA ae | { \— covereo ano Room MEZZANINE FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN SUFFICIENT UNTO ITS PURPOSE Plan of the depot shown on the opposite page. It will be noted that every conceivable convenience has been provided; also a hospital, customs bureau, radio room, et cetera 301 of other modes of land travel at the airport. The rail vehicles may be brought in through subways, and the passengers may change from one mode of trans- portation to another by crossing over on concourse bridges from one section to another in the joint terminal. Or the rail vehicles may use the ground level and the passengers, underground concourses. These arrangements, of course, will depend in each case on local conditions. As air travel increases in popularity, accessibility to the airport will be more and more sought by the public. This may result either in the city tending to grow out around the airport or the buy- ing of land in the heart of the city for the establishment of separate passen- ger stations, leaving the locations on the outskirts for freight airports and garage and repair operations. The latter alternative depends a good deal on the development of the planes them- selves. If the landing speed can be re- duced from the present 40 to 60 miles an hour to 20 or 25 miles, and the dis- tance of the take-off reduced by half, the passenger airport in the heart of the city would be more feasible because less area would be required. HE industry has been experiment- ing with autogiros, helicopters, catapults, various braking devices, and other methods of accomplishing the reduction of landing and take-off dis- tance, but it is safe to say that it will be a long time before they are com- mercial possibilities. When the time comes that smaller landing fields are required, the area at the present air- ports will all be needed for the addi- tional hangars and other buildings necessitated by the increase in opera- tions. It is quite impossible to make any long-term predictions about an _ in- dustry so new and energetic and filled with the pioneer spirit as is aviation, but for all practical purposes airport expansion and improvement need not be retarded through fear of too rapid obsolescence. No alert industry hesi- tates to replace equipment before it is worn out, if new equipment shows a net savings in output. If improvements at an airport produce large returns on the investment in developing the in- dustry, aside from paying actual profits, they have well served their economic purpose, even though they become obsolete in a few years. This article, of course, make no at- tempt at a detailed and exhaustive treatment of its subject, but simply aims to indicate in a general way some of the more salient facts in connection with what the writer considers to be at the present moment the most impor- tant phase of aviation. The subject will be a vital one for a good many years to come.

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0c 302 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 | Razor Blade Science’ Why It Takes Only Five Seconds to Cut

One type of blade—hollow ground

Your Whiskers Off By J. FERDINAND KAYSERt Member of the Association of Metallurgists (Great Britain)

URING the last few years the ing three operations: Rough grinding illuminator is used and the blade is so present writer has examined by means of an emery wheel. Finish mounted that the plane CD, in dravw- an and tested several hundred grinding by means of a very fine- ing B, is at right angles to the optical int razor blades made bothinthis grained emery wheel, or by means of axis, an appearance similar to that ea country and abroad, and, itis proposed hardened and polished steel wheels shown in photograph 8—magnifica- dis to describe and illustrate the various dressed with a preparation of stearine tion about 37 diameters—is obtained, ag types of cutting edges encountered and and chromium sesqui-oxide. A final If, however, the blade be so inclined 1S the modus operandi of wear. Noneofthe stropping process. that the plane EF is at right angles to Tk blades examined were specially pre- When examined at a very low power, the optical axis, then only does one va pared, but were purchased from re- say not more than 10 diameters, all obtaina photograph of the true cutting in tailers. In every instance, at least 12 safety razor blades appear to have a_ edge, as illustrated in photograph 9— col blades from one source, and of one and _ similar cutting edge, which, in the ma- magnification about 37 diameters. int the same type were examined, and fi- jority of cases, seems to be formed by Photographs 10, 11, 12 and 13 illustrate wl nally used for shaving purposes. the intersection of two plain flanks. A a good edge of this type at about 7, 22, be One type of safety razor blade is al- more detailed examination at various 148 and 296 diameters respectively. dir most identical to a hollow-ground long magnifications, from 15 to 400 diame- set razor, in-so-far as cross section and ters, shows, however, that cutting AZOR blades with an edge as illus- in trated at C, in drawing, are more ar seldom encountered. Fs | \ The true nature of the cross section is, / \ /| os 4 50 Hairs however, not obvious from that photo- | * } | / \ 25,000 Hairs (5mm) graph, but is clearly shown by photo- | [| | | | / \ graph 15, also at about 22 diameters "| | | | e magnification. Photograph 16 shows | | | the extreme edge at a magnification of | | about 296 diameters. In this particular a | | 500 Hairs case, the actual cutting angle was ap- _—~ — _———_— (50mm) : proximately 18 degrees, while the two -: : . secondary flanks were inclined to one pe A, B, C, and D are the author's four classifications of cutting edges another at an angle of 101% degrees. dr geometry of cutting edge are concerned. edges vary greatly, and it is possible to In spite of the rarity of this type of : It is illustrated by photographs 1 and place them in one of four classes, which, edge, the writer has found that it is in 2, at about 23 and 22 diameters re- generally speaking, remain sharply de- @lways remarkably uniform, and the fx spectively. fined. blades shave smoothly and have a al The majority of safety razor blades The simplest cutting edge is formed reasonably long life. me are, however, manufactured from cold by the intersection of two plain The drawing D, illustrates a further tir rolled strip and are ground and finished flanks, as illustrated in the drawing, at type of edge, Which Js_ said to be 64 after being hardened and tempered. A. ‘The microscopic examination of hollow-ground.”’ While it is true that le The thickness of the strip varies from blades with such a cutting edge pre- the secondary flanks are concave, the th six thousandths of an inch to twenty sents no difficulties to even an un- term hollow-ground , IS misapplied, pa thousandths of an inch, according to skilled microscopist. A typicalexample 8, in the razor trade, it is used to de- fo the type of blade. Methods of pro- of a good edge of that type is illustrated scribe razors with cross sections similar i ducing the edge vary, but, whatever in photographs 3, 4, and 5, at about 7, to that illustrated in photograph 1. the exact process adopted, it can usu- 22, and 148 diameters magnification The blades with this type of edge, “ ally be roughly divided into the follow- respectively. The included angle of which were examined, proved to be far cl me x the cutting edge is usually about 18 de- from uniform. That is well illustrated tir (Londog ted by «permission, from Zhe Engineer ees, All blades of this type have, by photographs 17, 18, and 19, all at - tSee “‘Among Our Contributors,” page 279 however, by no means so perfect a about 11 diameters magnification.

Immediate edge of hollow ground blade cutting edge, and that is well illustrated by photographs 6 and 7, each of which has a magnification of about 37 diameters, and neither of which edge would give one shave. The majority of safety razor blades have a cross section of the type illus- trated in the drawing B. Unless care is taken in mounting them for ex- amination most fictitious results can be obtained at some magnifications. If a “cover slip” or a “prism” vertical Typical cutting edge with plain flank | i

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er 1929 € is so draw- »ptical » that nifica- ained. 1clined gles to PS One ‘utting yh 9 neters, istrate fy Gey ely. s illus- > more al ex- ph 14, ‘ation. ion is, yhoto- yhoto- neters shows ion of icular iS ap- e two to one grees, pe of it is d the ve a rther o be > that , the plied, o de- milar yh Ls edge, e far rated li at ‘ ’ October 1929 came as 3, except more highly magnified Before describing the modus oper- andi of the wear of safety blades, it is interesting to consider the work which each edge has to perform before being discarded or re-stropped. The aver- age shaving area of a normal-sized man is of the nature of 40 square inches. The distribution of hair over that area varies in different individuals, and also in one and the same individual. A concentration of 645 hairs per square inch is, however, as high as is ever met with, that is a total of 25,000 hairs to be cut per shave. Assuming that in- dividual hairs have a circular cross- section of approximately one 250th inch in diameter, and that 25,000 were etes * j The same asin 4, magnified 148 diameters packed together as illustrated in the drawing at E, the area of the cross- section they would occupy would amount to about four tenths of a square inch; say, a single big whisker about five eighths of an inch in diameter, not allowing for the voids as in E. After numerous observations of shaving times, and assuming a distribution of 645 hairs per square inch and a total length of cutting edge of two inches, the total time during which the edge is actually cutting through hairs has been found to be of the nature of five seconds. The edge of a good blade does not on an average ever give more than ten clean shaves, and hence its useful cut- ting life is only 50 seconds. The rate at which a razor traverses the face is of & An example of type A (see drawing) SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN the nature of from 20 to 40 feet per minute. There are so many variables in shaving that the above figures must be used with caution, but for the present they are put forward as a concrete ex- ample of the approximate amount of “work” a razor edge is called upon to perform. In the majority of cases safety*razor blades are discarded when blunted, but certain types can be Not good, even for a single shave Mounted with cutting edge out of focus Mounted with cutting edge in focus 10 A good edge properly mounted stropped readily, and the edge contin- ually renewed. The majority of safety razor blades are made from straight carbon steel containing 1.1 to 1.3 percent carbon. One of the makes of blades examined was, however, made from a high alloy steel of the following approximate analysis: carbon 1.35 percent; silicon 0.8 percent;chromium 12.0 percent; molyb- denum 1.0 percent; cobalt 1.1 percent. The microstructure of the plain car- 303 The same edge as in 10, magnified 22X bon steel blades consists essentially of globular cementite embedded in a structureless matrix. The size and distribution of the cementite globules varies greatly. A typical example of the structure of a good blade at about 296 diameters is shown in photograph 20. The edge there illustrated had been used five times and was still in good condition and gave a further five clean shaves. Photograph 21 at the same magnification illustrates the struc- ture of another blade, which had to be discarded after two shaves. The struc- ture in the above two cases was devel- loped by etching in two percent nitric acid in alcohol for one minute. #} 4 at aia eat The same edge as in 12, magnified 148X The blades made from the high chromium steel show a somewhat anala- gous structure, but the matrix appears to be sorbitic’ and the non-etching car- bide corresponding to the cementite of the straight carbon steel blades has not a pronounced globular structure, and is not as uniformly distributed as is the cementite in the carbon steel blades. A typical structure developed by etching in 10 percent nitric acid in alcohol for ten minutes is shown in photograph 22 at about 296 diameters. The particu- cular edge photographed had given approximately 15 shaves, but, then 1“Cementite; Sorbite.”” Steel is not a simple, homo- geneous substance like glass but is composed of grains and crystals of different constituents, of which the above are common examples. Cementite is iron carbide; due to its presence. and toughness on the steel. the hardening qualities of steel are chiefly Sorbite confers tensile strength The Editor. Hh | The same edge as in 12, magnified 296X ‘

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304 Third classification; like C in drawing dragged badly, and was discarded. The study of the wear of cutting edges is complicated by the fact that a blade which will no longer shave one individual may function quite satis- factorily when used by another with a Same classification as shown above beard of different texture. At onetime, when the writer was testing blades made from chromium steel of the anal- sis previously mentioned, he found that, while he had to discard average blades after approximately 15 shaves, another person with a muchstiffer beard could continue to shave with them for at least another 50 times. Photograph 23 at about 296 diame- ters magnification illustrates a defect in a blade which had worn to such an extent that it was found to drag un- comfortably. Another part of the same edge, after etching in two percent nitric acid in alcohol, is illustrated in photo- graph 21, to which reference has been previously made. Although it is not very clear in the photograph, visual examination through the microscope showed that, in general, globules of cementite projected from the cutting edge exactly as described by Desch and Roberts, who suggested that the property of keeping an edge depended upon the size and uniformity of dis- tribution of the particles of cementite. HERE is no direct evidence that the cementite globules in a proper- ly hardened razor blade biank are sen- sibly harder than the matrix, and it is unlikely that the action of shaving would erode the latter and leave the cementite projecting from the edge. At least 50 percent of the blades examined were found to shave satisfactorily, and yet the size of the cementite globules and their distribution varied considerably, even in blades from the same source, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, . (London), 1923, No. 1, page 249. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Without exception, however, good safety razor blades exhibit a perfect edge at 400 diameters and have a Firth Diamond hardness of 650 to 800. Wear never takes place uniformly along the edge. In the case of a good blade, one usually finds that the edge remains more or less perfect for the the first few shaves—see photograph 20 —and then commences to break down in patches, such as are illustrated in photograph 23. Finally, the whole edge tends to disintegrate, leaving cementite globules projecting, and in some parts developing pits. Careful examination of many hundreds of blades has shown that the cutting edge of a normally hardened blade does not show the slightest tendency to become Same as at left, except magnified 296X rounded or wavy. In fact the chief destroying agent seems to be corrosion. The finish which the final stropping process gives to a cutting edge is such a perfect polish that corrosion can be resisted for a considerable time, but if once the edge becomes damaged, either while shaving or being dried, a small freshly fractured surface is exposed, from which corrosion might be expected Fourth classification; like D in drawing to extend and produce the type of defect illustrated in photograph 23. That suggested explanation of the cause of failure is supported by the fact that if, instead of wiping a razor after use, it is kept in an anti-corrosion liquid, its life is usually at least doubled. It is also further supported by the fact that the chromium steel blades, pre- viously mentioned, which are more or less stainless, give remarkably long lives. The chromium steel blades wear differently from a carbon steel blade, in that, in those examined, the carbide particles have not been found to pro- ject from the cutting edge, but rather appear to have fallen out. Whatever the exact modus operandi of wear, the October 1929 mechanical result is, nevertheless, the same, whatever the composition of the steel, and the question as to whether a properly hardened blade will shave de- pends partly upon the geometry and condition of its cutting edge and partly upon the texture of beard to which it is applied. HILE numerous good blades are procurable, it is obvious that many manufacturers do not control their product microscopically, other- wise blades similar to those illustrated in photographs 6, 7, 17, 18, and 19 would never be allowed to leave the works. A magnification of from 15 to 30 diameters already shows a very great deal, and it should not be im- possible, even in factories producing hundreds of thousands of blades per week, to examine a considerable per- centage at some such magnification. The smallest defects which will render a blade useless are not apparent at less than 200 diameters, and the present writer prefers to use 400 di- ameters magnification. In the case of a new blade, however, it will be found that if the cutting flanks and edge ap- pear uniform and free from defects at 30 diameters, the blade will be as well ground and finished as is possible with the particular machines in use. Safety razor blade makers are faced with the- same problems which con- front the manufacturer of high-speed tools and other cutting implements when they desire to test their product. It is a comparatively easy matter to measure the initial ‘‘sharpness,’’ but it is quite another matter to measure ( ° 3 72 ¢ ; i Jj tails i The same blade as in photomicrograph 17 the cutting durability and to obtain a figure of merit which will be a true criterion of shaving efficiency. In a paper by Honda and Takahasi, (Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1927, page 357) a sharpness testing machine is fully described. In that Lie. fae. , tae Aa Same as in 18, except different position © >» ee Se ee ee ek ee ae

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1929 the the er a > de- and irtly it is 3 are that ntro] ther- ‘ated d 19 ' the 5 to very - im- icing ; per per- yn. will arent | the 0 di- se of ound e ap- ts at well with faced con- speed nents duct. er to but asure

t ' October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Globular cementite, structureless matrix test, to quote from the original paper, “the cutting edge of the implement is brought into contact, under a definite pressure, with a narrow band, com- posed of sheets of paper about an inch in thickness, and a definite amount of forward and backward motion is given to the implement. The number

This worn one dragged uncomfortably of sheets cut during this motion is taken as a measure of the sharpness of theimplement.”’ A table is given show- ing the sharpness of various cutting implements, including a safety razor blade after the first, tenth, twentieth, fiftieth, and hundredth cut. The number of cuts required to reduce the intitial sharpness to half its value was defined as the life or the durability of the edge under test. According to the figures given, a safety razor blade cut through 85 sheets of paper at the first cut, and its durability was 3.5. T one time the writer contemplated making a somewhat similar ma- chine, but found that a safety razor blade was completely ruined long before it had passed through anything like the number of sheets of paper quoted by Honda and Takahasi, as the number parted at the first cut. Unfortunately, the type of paper used in the original tests is not mentioned, but the author found that a blade which had been used to cut through 50 pages of the present journal would not shave at all. So far as our present knowledge goes, it hence appears that the only satis- factory test for a safety razor blade is an actual shaving test, and as shaving is carried out so quickly and willing assistants who are prepared to test blades are always to be found in any works, good progress can be made without any special testing machine, although one would, of course, be desirable in order to put production on a really scientific basis. In many factories it is the custom to No good after only two shaves test each individual edge, the test usually consisting of a test of cutting capacity. A hair is held between the thumb and finger of the left hand with one free end, and all edges must snip the hair cleanly when flicked across it. Satisfactorily hardened blades should also pass the same test after being pulled over a piece of soft horn with a pressure which is something of the nature of one to two ounces, the actual length of cutting edge bearing on the horn varying from one to three six- teenths of an inch. Those figures must not be taken too seriously, but are

Photomicrograph of blade before shaving some rough idea of the nature of a test which is largely adopted. HE following comment, which ap- peared in a subsequent number of The Engineer, was written by H. A. Curran, A.I.C., A.R.C., Se. I. <Ac- companying it Mr. Curran published several of his own photomicrographs, and for the convenience of our readers these have been given serial numbers in continuation of those of the pre- ceding part of the article. Mr. Cur- ran states: I have read with keen interest Mr. Kayser’s valuable article on safety razor blades. Very few papers on this subject have been published, although undoubtedly a considerable volume of work has been done. One is led to conclude that the results obtained are

“*The best blade I have ever encountered” 305

treasured in secret archives under treble lock and key—a fact greatly to be deplored. The dissemination of scientific knowledge is the best and surest way of making further progress. There is one point on which I would like to touch, and that is the shape of the edge at high magnifications. To quote Mr. Kayser: ‘Without ex- ception, good safety razor blades ex- hibit a perfect edge at 400 diameters. ”’ This is a very broad and sweeping state- ment, and, if it were true, would be an extremely valuable generalization. I have had blades within the range of

Same blade after 15 shaves. Still good hardness specified showing very regular edges at 500 diameters, which would not yield a single comfortable shave. On the other hand, I have had blades, showing extemely irregular edges’ at 200 diameters, which give _ perfect shaves time and again. Consider micrographs at 200 diame- ters of the same section of a single blade. Figure 24 shows it before shaving and Figure 25 after shaving 15 times. This blade was tested on every type of beard I could find, the user in every case praising it as giving a most comfortable shave. After each shave, the blade was wiped with a soft cloth, washed in absolute alcohol, and then oiled. It was not polished, stropped, or honed. The last shave I had with it was as comfortable as the first. Compare the edge before shaving and after 15 shaves. The difference if any, isimperceptible. The edge is very far from being perfect, especially when we remember that all irregularities in it would be doubled at 400 diameters. This is not an isolated instance. I have had dozens of these in the course of a year. As a matter of comparison I enclose a micrograph, Figure 26, of the best blade I have ever encountered. Alas! I was forced to destroy it in the cause of science by cross-sectioning it.

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306 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 We Sigs ‘a t SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN by Robert E. G Jr T is possible for the best pilot to have his plane go into a tailspin under certain conditions but such occasions are rare. This illustration shows how a plane, piloted by a well-trained aviator and climbing a bit too steeply, reaches a critical point, falls away to one side, and goes earthward, spinning about a point somewhat to the rear of the engine. Falling like a leaf, the plane follows a close A Tailspin and a Safe Recovery spiral path downward but since it has plenty of altitude, it is flattened out into a safe glide under control long be- fore there is any real danger of a crash. If the altitude had been less or the pilot less experienced, the result in such a case would be a disaster. It is difficult to make an ordinary photograph of a tailspin look real, so this com- posite was made to illustrate the article on opposite page. ots rt CO fs” co @ wl =.

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r 1929 itude, ng be- titude sult in ake an 3 com- page. October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 307 ed States Navy official photograph Student fliers for the military services are put through many intentional practise spins so that they will get the feel of the NAVY TRAINING PLANE maneuver and learn how to come out of it. plane can be brought out of a spin and under control easily This training That ‘Fatal’ Tailspin Most People Have the Wrong Idea of the So-called Tailspin; It Is Not Necessarily Dangerous and Is Preventable . LANE Crashes to Ground!’ Too often we have observed this headline in the daily news- papers. Somewhere in most of these stories the following words occur, ‘“‘ . . . the plane suddenly went into a nose dive and crashed.” Co-in- cidental is the fact that these crashes occur during the process of a landing or a take-off, in the majority of cases; also, the fact that the pilot was new or inexperienced. The average person has, no doubt, connected these facts without being able to interpret them properly. Just what did happen? Had the reporter of these mishaps been more observant or possessed a bet- ter knowledge of aeronautics, he would have further noticed two peculiarities of the “‘dive’’: first, that immediately preceding the disaster, the nose of the plane rose abruptly and, secondly, that the ship then began to rotate either right or left about its longitudinal axis. These symptoms show clearly that the crash was caused by a “‘spin.”’ HE original name for this man- euver was the “‘tailspin.’’ This is a misnomer. People are led to be- lieve that the tail of the plane is down- ward during the spin. This name was derived from the fact that when the plane is in this condition of ‘‘no con- trol,” the tail of the plane whirls dizzily around the engine end. The name “spinning nose dive’ is more indicative of the ship’s true action. *See “Among Our Contributors,” page 279. By H. B. MILLER* Lieutenant (j.g.) United States Navy During the spin, the nose of the plane is down about 70 degrees below the horizontal. The plane then spins or whirls around a vertical axis which usually intersects the ship between the pilot and the engine. Sometimes, how- ever, this axis is projected a consider- able distance forward of the plane. Thus, a flat projection of the plane’s spinning area may be quite large. It resembles closely the whirling descent of a maple leaf in the autumn. The airplane as we know it at present is classified as a “heavier-than-air’’ ONE CAUSE OF TAILSPINS The ‘‘skidding turn.” Without banking his plane the pilot attempts the turn B, skids to C, gets the side-thrust D on the fuselage, and his resultant direction is E machine. This is in opposition to the dirigible and other ‘‘lighter-than-air” craft which are supported in the at- mosphere by the buoyancy of their inflation gasses. Airplanes are supported during flight by the reaction on their wing surfaces of the passing air currents. These currents are create1 by pulling the plane forward through the air by means of a power plant operating a propeller. Gravity may be used for the same purpose by gliding the plane. Altitude, of course, must be sacrificed in this case. This is similar to the coasting of an automobile down hill. In other words, an airplane must move forward at more than a certain critical speed to maintain itself in the air. HE minimum speed at which any type of plane will support itself in the air is called its “stalling speed.” If the speed of the plane is reduced below this critical or stalling speed, it will fall like any object that is heavier than air. Due to the peculiar arrange- ment of wing and tail surfaces, it ro- tates as it falls. This is the spin. Loss of flying speed is brought about in various ways. Generally, it is a re- sult of climbing the plane too steeply. The engine may not have sufiicient power to pull the plane forward at flying speed at this extreme climbing angle. The plane stalls and spins as a result. Similarly, a low-powered car will not climb too steep a hill. Or perhaps the pilot is climbing his

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308 ship to the utmost, but still at flying speed. Suppose the engine fails for any one of a dozen reasons. With no power to pull it forward at this steep angle, the plane immediately loses its slight safety factor of forward speed. It whips off into a spin beiore the pilot is able to nose over in order to pick up flying speed for a safe glide. These two conditions cause practi- cally all of the crashes on the take- off. Note that the engine for the case. True, it is a put t pilot’s door. The ship woul 1 is not the first contributor, reason crash in the the fault lies directly at t have been safe if the pi not climbed so steeply. / The cool-headed and pro- ficient flyer keeps his ship’s nose low until he has gath- ered safe flying speed. Then, and only then, does he be- gin to gain altitude. If his engines should cut out, he These on has sufficient surplus speed to place his ship in a safe glide preparatory to landing. > VERY plane has a definite glide kK ratio depending upon several fact- ors; that is, weight, wing area, et cetera. The average ship will have a ratio of approximately seven to one. In other words, for every foot of altitude the plane has, it will glide forward seven feet. If the plane 100 feet in the air, it will glide to a point 700 feet away, of course, that there is no wind. The glide of a power-operated plane can That is, it can glide only a certain horizontal distance for a given altitude. If the engine is stopped while in the air, the plane can land no farther away than the point where his safe gliding angle intersects the ground. The pilot can land short of this, of course, by side slipping. It is unfortunate if he is too far away from a good field. Suppose the novice aviator is in a plane having a glide ratio of seven to one. He is at an altitude of 100 feet with a ‘‘dead stick” or with his pro- peller stopped. The only good field is > es a MoTOR = ™ a STOPS ~ providing, not be ‘“‘stretehed.”’ THE FATAL STRETCHED GLIDE Even if the pilot who glide without power pasture or on rough ground, with him for he may do no more crack up against a fence or turn The pilot who tries to stretch his will, most likely, spin and crash normal land in a the chances makes a has to are than over. glide SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Octcber 1929 The landing and take-off period of light is a busy one for the pilot. His attention is on many different things at once. He must watch closely for other planes and obstructions. The result is that he may not observe the flying speed of his ship closely enough. Shortly after the war the favorite and most dangerous stunt of aviators the ‘“‘chandelle.’”’ This is an extreme climbing turn from a take- off. The list of pilots who lost flying speed and “‘spun in’’ doing this unnecessary maneuver is leng, indeed. It is forbidden at all regulated airports. A straight steep climbing take-off is nearly as dangerous, and equally es useless. Mest newly-hatched pilots are obsessed with the neces- was A SQUADRON OF NAVY FIGHTERS planes control available through the long, narrow 990 feet away. In an effort to force the plane to glide father than it actu- ally can, he pulls the nose of his ship higher and higher in order to flatten out the glide and thus reach the field. Eventually he will lose flying speed, and spin to the ground. This condition of fiight provides practically all of the crashes during a landing when ‘‘the plane suddenly dived to the ground.” Another prolifie cause of spins is the “skidding turn” at a low altitude. A plane must be banked in proportion to the radius of turn. A _blind- folded passenger would be unaware of a properly executed turn. If a plane is not banked sufficiently, it will skid around a turn exactly as a swiftly moving automobile skids outwardly around a sharp corner. its As the plane skids it presents a projected area of its fuselage broadside to the direction of flight. This sudden resistance causes the plane to lose part of its forward speed. If this condition is aggravated, the plane will lose flying speed and fall off into a spin. These, in short, are the causes of most accidental spins—and crashes. Since all of this is known, why doesn’t the pilot watch his speed carefully? is, pe 5 SAFE LANDING eer , IN PASTURE. ~~... &3.- have no tendency to spin because of the sity of showing off their re- cently developed skill to the admiring throngs. It is much safer to observe the skill of these new pilots from the ground than from their rear cockpits. The adjective fatal has been un- consciously attached to the word spin. Spins are dangerous under an altitude of 500 feet because it usually takes several hundred feet in which to re- cover control of the plane. This re- sults in the axiom that the first 500 feet is the most dangerous part of flying. This is true for the untrained pilot. An experienced pilot will not allow the plane to approach a stalled condition. perfect ailerons ‘Lo training of all aviators should cover the spin thoroughly. The stu- dent should be placed in them cften until he can unconsciously recover from them. He should be taught the warning signals that accompany a stall. They are so numerous that a pilot must be absent-minded, indeed, who does not heed them and take action. When flying, the interplane brace wires have a clear whistling sound. The plane is stable and the pilot, through his control stick, can feel a distinct air pressure on the control surfaces. In addition, there is gener- FLYING SPEED LOST. _¢ SHIP FALLS INTO SPIN. aed AIRPORT eG Ste ad ¥ a 3 “ne, i a fi: ii Piet py daeiads . ae pe er cm “i ~ geod > th @® ws Co we Om my Wi th en sh tac the rid the

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1929 d of His 1ings ’ for The the ugh, orite ators 3 an sake- lost loing r . on at oe early yY as vilots eces- ir re- ll to . It serve n the cpits. un- spin. itude takes oO re- is re- - 500 rt of ained | not called nould e stu- often cover t the ny a iat a deed, take prace yund. pilot, eel a ntrol ener- " )

October 1929 erally an airspeed meter to give him his actual speed through the air. When the plane begins to approach astalling point the wires no longer sing merrily—the old saying is that ‘either the wires or the angels will sing to you!’ No longer is the ship a steady platform. It shakes and trembles. The controls are sloppy and loose. No air pressure can be felt on them. The slowly moving ship no longer responds readily to the controls. The airspeed meter will indicate clearly a dangerous flying speed. All of these warnings fairly shout out to the pilot. He who fails to interpret them correctly is improperly trained or indoctrinated. In either case he is a menace to the further develop- ment of aviation and should not be permitted to fly. OR the properly trained pilot, re- covery from a spin is very easy. He simply neutralizes the controls and throttles down the engine. To come out quicker, he dives the ship and ap- plies the rudder opposite to the di- rection of the spin. Means of recovering from a spin were discovered during the war when the maneuver was used to deceive the enemy into thinking the ship had been SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

avy Official photograph

United 5

FOR BOTH LAND AND WATER TRAINING The Naval Air Training Station at San Diego, California, where prospective navy fliers are given preliminary instruction. It has the student aviator to retain his senses and bearings under trying conditions. It also teaches him how to recognize and recover from it. Further than that it has very little practical value.

FLY FROM A W ELL M AN AGED AIRPORT “Enjoy your ride with the assurance that the company can afford to hire only good pilots” shot down out of control. Post-war tactics have condemned this practise. The aviator who should attempt it in theeventof awarnow wouldfind himself riddled with machine gun bullets. But the spin, as a training device, teaches

om <a oe . THE FIRST 500 FEET ARE THE MOST DANGEROUS Various devices are being developed to do away with this danger. The success of these inventions has been varied and the final mechanical solu- tion of the problem has not been reached as yet. The most efficient method of eliminating this menace is the thorough training of pilots. The person who has had only the sketchiest of instruction and who flies at rare and long intervals is always a poor insurance risk. Such people are subjects for daily newspaper reports. A good plane does not spin because of

NORMAL SAFE TAKE cee Rg OFF —— —r¢ on 2 sath that tells its own story except for the important detail that the pilot in the plane own crashing is most likely a newly- fledged aviator who wants to “show off” his skill facilities for airplane and seaplane training its characteristics; it spins because of the pilot’s deficiencies. The anxious mother who admonished her son that if he was determined to be an aviator, he must fly slowly and low, did not know her airplanes. No one has ever gone into a spin from too much flying speed. Beware of your friend who wants to take you up to prove that he can y. Is hea good flyer? Certainly, for didn’t he solo just last month in the remarkable time of two hours and thirty-five minutes dual instruction! Let him thrill someone else. Instead, drive out to some legitimate and well- managed airport. Take your flight with a recognized organization. En- joy your ride with the assurance that the company can afford to hire only good pilots. At this time the spin still is the bane of aviation. This applies mostly to amateur and untrained pilots. It is true, of course, that well-trained pro- fessional aviators crash from spins, but the relative percentage is small. This maneuver is sufficiently dan- gerous, however, to cause Admiral Joseph M. Reeves, recently Com- mander of Aircraft Squadrons, Battle Fleet, to issue to his command of close to 350 seasoned aviators a memo- randum. It was to the effect that all naval aviators should observe closely the three fundamental principles of aviation, to wit: 1. Keep flying speed. 2. Keep flying speed. 3. Keep flying speed. F government trained pilots are warned continuously in this man- ner, what warning must be necessary to the flyer who scarcely keeps his hand in aviation?

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310

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

October 1929

OBSERVERS OF THE TEST Left to right: The author, J. J. McGraw, Ed. Thorpe, Ray Schalk, S. J. Liddy, cameraman The “Lively” Ball Tests Conducted by Scientific American to Determine Whether the Present Baseball Is Livelier Than the Old, and if So, Why HEN we were approached by Mr. John J. McGraw, Man- ager of the New York Base- ball Club, to conduct a test on the baseball now used by the major professional leagues, the situation pre- sented many difficulties and at first a line of procedure, which would be con- clusive, was not at all evident. How- ever, there is such a widespread inter- est in the question that the difficulties served but to arouse our interest and determination to find a solution that would be satisfactory. The following method of procedure was finally se- lected as a general outline. Analytical Test. Weigh and caliper ball and note general appearance as to sewing, leather, and so forth. Un- make ball and measure and test vari- ous materials of which it is constructed. Compare materials of 1924 ball as against the 1929 ball. Analyze batting records to determine if there has been any considerable change in the physi- cal performance of the players them- selves. Analyze the batting perfor- mance in connection with changes in the dimensions of the playing surfaces of the various baseball parks. Physical Test. Drop balls of various years from a height and note the com- parative distance of rebound, making allowance for deterioration due to age, use, and so on. It is assumed that the National and American League balls are made under By LOUIS S. TREADWELL Associate Editor the same patents and are similar, being made in the same factory, one being stamped Spalding-National League, and the other, Reach-American League. On August 13th at the Polo Grounds, through the courtesy of Mr. McGraw and the help of Mr. Christy Walsh, a test for resiliency was made by drop- ping four balls from a simple trap which would assure that all four were released at exactly the same moment. These were dropped from the balcony upon the floor of the stand approxi- mately 40 feet below, and the entire flight of the balls was recorded by motion picture cameras. For this pur- pose the following balls were selected: 1.—One new 1929 ball, just received from the manufacturer. 2.—One unused ball issued early in the 1929 season. (Both above chosen at random from regular stock.) 3.—One slightly used but entirely undamaged 1929 ball. 4,—One unused 1924 ball. About ten tests were made; each in- dividual ball, being previously marked, was released from the same relative position. The results obtained were as follows: Ball No. 1 above rebounded a few inches higher than ball No. 2. Ball No. 2 rebounded from 18 inches to two feet more than ball No. 3 and ball No. 4 rebounded a few inches more than ball No. 3. “Stills” of the motion pictures con- firm the testimony of numerous ob- servers, as above. In the laboratory tests the following characteristics were determined: 1924 1929 5 oz. + + Weight 5 oz. + 2‘, in. Diameter 2) 5 it Cover attached by rubber preparation Manufacturer's tag May 29-266 marked Stitching thread <M apes il 6 per inch d red)

112.3 yds 88 yds. 57.1 yd 52.6 yds. $8 yds. 42.3 yds. 96 yds. Gray yarn (heavy &7 yds 15/16 in. diam Rubber center 1 5/16 in. diam. . diam. Cork core Irregular The weight of the component parts of either ball check closely with the corresponding parts of the other ball and after disassembly weigh exactly five ounces each. NM analysis of the rebound test would not be conclusive unless it could be supported in any of its fea- tures by other evidence. The differ- ence in the rebounds between the two 1929 balls was slight and not particu- larly indicative, inasmuch as part of the difference might result from the variance in performance of two individ- ual samples or the striking of one ball upon aseam. The rebound of the used 1929 ball, however, shows that consid- erable resiliency is abstracted by a com- paratively small amount of use, this being further confirmed by the fact that the new 1924 ball rebounded

ee ee a es a a a a os 4 rT Hs

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r 1929 the 5 con- is Ob- owing parts h the r ball cactly i test less it s fea- differ- e two rticu- art of n the divid- e ball >» used onsid- .com- , this » fact inded

October 1929 farther than the used 1929 ball, and at the end of the test the more resilient balls were not rebounding so high; the variation of this height between all the balls was markedly less. In the results of the laboratory test it will be seen that the 1924 ball was a shade heavier than the 1929, but this can readily be accounted for by the in- creased amount of moisture absorbed in the intervening years. In general characteristics the two balls are quite similar, the only variation noted being that the yardage of the four elements used in winding, making up the interior of the ball, is less in the 1929 ball, al- though the center rubber in each in- stance is the same diameter, and no particular variation in this respect, or in the leather covers of the balls, allow- ing for five years depreciation, is noted between the 1924 and the 1929 ball. (The irregularity of the cork core in the 1929 ball is of no significance— several other 1929 balls that were also cut open, show perfect spheres of cork.) The accumulation of yardage in the 1929 ball being considerably less than the accumulated yardage of the 1924 ball, the materials must necessarily be either of larger individual bulk in the 1929 ball, or these were wrapped more tightly in the 1924 ball, or the yarn in the 1924 ball was permanently dis- torted due to being under strain for five years. As the ultimate weight of both balls is the same, and it is believed that permanent distortion would not produce such a difference in yardage, it is evident that the materials used in the 1929 ball must have been wrapped under less tension than the 1924 ball, and hence would have greater resili- ency, inasmuch as these corresponding elements in both balls are practically alike. An examination of the heavy gray yarn which is the first covering of the rubber center confirms this and shows 87 yards are used in the 1929 ball as against 96 yards in the 1924 ball. This in conjunction with the other items of the 1929 ball shows conclu- sively that, while the same grade of yarn is used, the lighter tension yarn

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN nearer the center of mass of the ball would certainly increase its ultimate resiliency. Also the shorter yardage of linen thread wound immediately be- neath the cover would tend to make the 1929 ball more lively. Here we have no consideration of deformation

311 with the old-fashioned “‘trick’’ deliver- ies, for it can be thrown absolutely straight only when the tendency to irregular flight caused by the unequal bulge or deformation is entirely counter- acted by the twist given to the ball by the pitcher. This would be an al-

THE DROP TEST A magnifying glass used on this film shows distinctly four balls rebounding as described in the accompanying text. to apply as thread will not materially change its essential characteristics under these conditions. This analysis is confirmed in the rebounds of the drop test. Another fact was developed in the examination of the used 1929 ball. Careful external calipering of new balls indicates almost no difference in diame- ters at various axes around the ball more than what is known among me- chanies as ‘‘a touch” of the calipers, which shows a.surprising excellence of manufacture, considering the variety of the component parts, whereas in the slightly used ball as much as <ths of an inch difference in diameters over right- angle planes was shown. It is obvious, therefore, that a used ball would give a pitcher better results, particularly | | | | L

Photograph is enlarged from a motion-picture film most impossible combination. Con- versely, where the twist given by the pitcher and the curvature of flight given by the deformation are operat- ing at the same time an unusual result can be obtained. Also, in the flight of a batted ball, the zig-zag course of the center of mass produced by the defor- mation or bulge would tend to cause irregular flight and the used ball would not be driven as far with the samé im- pact as a true sphere would be. This phase of the subject would not be of importance if we were dealing with low speeds. But authoritative tests of Walter Johnson’s speed showed that his pitched ball attained a maxi- mum of 122 feet persecond. Obviously a hard batted ball, being projected further, will attain a speed consider-

‘CALIPERING A USED BALL Use distorts a ball. Calipering shows a difference in diameters of the same used ball of 3/16ths of an inch

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312 ably greater. The contention of irregu- lar flight therefore has a rightful place in this general consideration. fe T is a fact that as many as ten dozen »w balls we re use d up in one game recently. Itis evident, therefore, that a new ball is presented to the batter much more frequently than under old conditions, which undoubtedly places the pitcher more at a disadvantage and gives the batter an added advantage over the old conditions. Also one of the largest manufacturers of bats re- ports that this year their total produc- tion of the old stvle ‘‘choke” bat was only 6 percent and that many of them still remain unsold, showing that a pre- ponderant majority of players use the thin-handled bat. Also it is an un- doubted fact that since 1919, when Ruth made 29 home runs, and his sub- sequent sale for a then extravagant sum, the average “‘sand lot” player has been imbued with the idea that the so-called “slugger’’ is the one that gets ahead and from the inception of his baseball career he studies and emulates the great home run proponent. The leagues are now filled with batters who have, during their profes- sional careers, studied and strived for long hits. This is the testimony of man- agers and scouts. In fact one scout frankly testified that he knew of many instances where every other feature of play, including mentality, was mini- mized in the scout’s report on the player in favor of the man’s ability to hit them out. Prominent managers also testify that the fine points of the game are now neglected because of this one-sided development, for the reason that certain vociferous elements among their patrons are keen for this kind of game. An analysis of batting averages shows that very little which is germane to this test can be deduced from Ruth’s batting record, save that in the years when he obtained the most home runs SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN M ANUFACTU RING Ten steps in manufacturing are necessary, stitching being the only hand labor done he played almost the entire season’s schedule and his general average was .376 or better. Only during 1927 and 1928 did his general average in great home-run years fall below that mark. It is testified to by competent observers that Ruth has not been getting longer drives in the last years than he formerly did, although one manager states that some of his players are getting the longest hits of their careers. There is also nothing in the Champion Batsman record to help to any determi- nation. Of late years Hornsby batted .401 in 1922, .424 in 1924, .403 in 1925 and .387 in 1928, he being the only one to exceed .400 since Delehanty in 1899 with .408. Last year Hornsby also led in slugging percentage (total bases to total times at bat) with .632 although he drove out but 21 home runs as against Bottomly and Wilson with 31 and Ruth 52, and stood fifth in total home runs batted out in his league. In the National League in 1928, 34 players in 60 games or over batted for a general average of over .300, this list including the five leading home run hitters. In the American League similarly 35 players October 1929 batted over .300, the leader Goslin, with an average of .379 getting 17 home runs, to be third in this list, This League does not have as many high individual performances as the National. OME run hitting apparently, therefore, is not an essential requi- site for high individual batting aver- ages, although the best batter will naturally be high on this list. The greater number of .300 hitters in both leagues is explained more reason- ably by a combination of all the changed conditions co-incident with the advance of skill in the game, together With a slight increase in liveliness in the ball now used. Another phase which may have significance or not according to the judgment of the individual scorer, is the practice of scoring hits where formerly errors would have been given, and crediting the batter with a sacri- fice on long-driven balls even when the batter made no attempt to sacrifice. One well-known manager states that he sees “‘plenty of hits made that I know are errors.”’ If one can judge by the evidence of skilled and experienced baseball writers their judgment on frequent occasions would confirm this. The statement that there are now more injuries to players due to a livelier ball does not seem to be main- tained. Asso many players are trying to ‘‘kill the old apple’’ it is certain that where they fail to lift the ball, it will be driven more often than formerly through the infield at great speed. There is disagreement among prominent managers as to whether there are more injuries in the present game than in the past. While the study of change of playing space inthe baseball parks in relation to home runs would be interesting, the data would take too long to compile for this test and is considered in no way to affect the final determination. Eight elements of highest grade make up a finished baseball. Note the similarity of manufacture of 1924 ball, left, and the 1929 ball. MATERIALS USED IN BASEBALLS Refer also to the table in the text wherein is given the proportions of the various mere used five years ago and at the present time

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1929 slin, list. any the tly, qui- Ver- will ‘sin son- the the ther the ain- ying tain all, han reat ong ther sent ying tion the pile way October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN NEW YORK TO BOSTON IN TWO Boston. Reliable planes, operating on schedule, show the trend Two of these 12-passenger Savoia-Marchetti flying boats were } : , of the present day toward the stabilization of aerial transportation recently placed in service between North Beach, Long Island, and 313 HOURS What Is the Future of Aviation? “Remarkable as Has Been the Growth of Flying, Still More Vital Developments Seem to Lie Just Ahead” T seems highly probable that when the historians of 2929 compile the records of our era they will classify it as the ‘“‘Age of Motors,” just as historians of our own day have charac- terized eras in the buried past as the “Age of Bronze’ and the “Age of Stone.”” For upon the last quarter century is indelibly stamped the mark of the electric motor and the internal combustion engine. In the relatively short space of time since the “horseless carriage” of our fathers brought gaping crowds to watch its progress through the streets at the reckless speed of eight or ten miles an hour, the whole face of our civilization has been changed by the expanding use of the automobile. Last year 1,044,173 more cars were produced in the world than in the year before, bringing the total world pro- duction up to 5,203,139. Of these, the United States and Canada produced 4,601,141 or 8814 percent. Together they contributed 1,020,761 of the increase as against 23,412 for all the other countries in the world. One half of all the motor cars now operating outside of the United States were made in this country. But the internal combustion engine has had another gift in store for the 20th Century. Just as it ‘“‘grew” tires, it is now sprouting vigorous wings, and America has already crossed the threshold of opporunity into the age of flight. To those who can recall the beginnings of the automobile era, the speed and variety of aeronautic devel- opment is little short of breath-taking. * See ‘Among Our Contributors,” page 279. By REGINALD M. CLEVELAND* Three years ago, the United States lagged behind the world in nearly every department of flying. Pioneers were still doggedly preaching the gospel of the air to inattentive ears. Ardent advocates of national defense were endeavoring to arouse an apathetic government to the importance of the flying corps. Struggling manufacturers of aircraft were meeting the chilly skepticism of bankers in an effort to increase very modestly their output. Two years ago, a young American airmail pilot linked Roosevelt Field with Le Bourget in a lonely and un- exampled flight across the Atlantic, and not only leaped into world fame over night, but touched spark to tinder and lighted a blaze of enthusiasm for aviation which burns more brightly day by day. A year ago, America surged abreast of world aviation. Today, the United States dominates the sky. ROM the anemic and unpromising infant of three years ago, aviation has already become another of the American industries in which 1,000,- 000,000 dollars has been invested. So rapid has been its growth, so contagious the doctrine of air-mindedness which was preached in vain but a short while ago, that it is difficult to keep pace mentally with the developments from month to month and from day to day. With arapidity unparalleled in Amer- ican industry, the stage of mergers has been reached by this young giant. Already the handwriting on the wall shows that the business of aviation in the United States is to be controlled by a handful of strong combinations with comparatively few—and these the financially strongest—independent manufacturers and operators able to keep the pace. The rush of public money to aviation stocks has alarmed leaders in the industry itself, and con- servative financial opinion points out that the earnings for 1928 could not exceed 1 percent on a market valuation which has appreciated 2000 percent in three years. Approximately 4500 airplanes were manufactured last year in the United States. Estimates for 1929 put the figures at 9000. Airplane exports have tripled ina year. Air transport opera- tors flew some 8,000,000 miles in the first six months of 1929 as against 10,510,000 for all of 1928. The total length of the airway network is now estimated at 30,000 miles as compared with 16,667 at the close of the year. Of the existing airways 10,000 miles are lighted as against less than 7000 at the end of 1928. Forty thousand pas- sengers were carried in the first six months of this year and but 35,000 in the twelve months preceeding, while, in the first half of 1929, airmail trans- ported was estimated by Secretary of Commerce Lamont at 3,400,000 pounds compared with a total for 1928 of 4,061,210 pounds. In the aircraft industry 1950 con- cerns are now engaged. There are 575 aviation schools—an increase of 110 over last year—and more than 12,000 student licenses are in force. Airplanes under American ownership in passenger, mail, express, and freight

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314 AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC “THE TWO-MOTORED CURTISS CONDOR Two C onque ror engines of 635 horsepower eac h give this 18-passenger biplane a top speed of 139 miles per hour and a cruising speed of 116. service, are flying on an average of 75,000 miles a day. But the statistical side, impressive as it is, is but a small portion of the vista which unfolds itself to the obser- ver of aviation in the United States. The enormous gains which have been made are, perhaps, less astonishing than the multitude of services which the airplane is finding to perform, and the improvements in aircraft design and construction. Already the airplane is beginning to affect daily life from almost as many angles as has the automobile. Aside from its usefulness for speedy mail carriage, it is entering week by week into new phases of passenger transpor- tation. July saw the opening of two air-rail systems from coast to coast and the announcement of others, cut- ting the time of passage from Atlantic to Pacific to a 48-hour schedule in the case of the fastest of these ser- vices. These transcontinental systems are extensions of the partnership be- tween the “Iron Horse”’ and the “Ship of the Air’? which has already been tried successfully for shorter hauls. They are based primarily upon the thought of sleeping in the familiar Pullman ear berth at night and flying in the luxurious chair car of the sky by day. LL-AIR schedules from coast to coast will be in operation this fall, some of them providing only com- fortable reclining chairs for the night part of the journey; others sleeping compartments. This will mean 30 hours from the Golden Gate to Broad- way. It is safe to predict that both the air-rail and the all-flight long-haul services will find a growing patronage. Chartered plane or taxi service is finding an astonishing growth in many key cities. Indeed, it is so definitely a business that a rate war is imminent in New York and a flat figure of 25 cents a mile anywhere in the United States Every passenger comfort is provided I I has been announced by one company. Commuting by air also becomes each week a more commonplace pro- cedure. One service from New York to Boston has a number of flying com- muters who go now from airport to air- port in one hour and forty-five minutes as contrasted with the accustomed five hours on the fastest train. Flights to resorts such as Lake George, Atlantic City, and Long Island Sound points, are common, and similar services are growing up around cities other than New York. In operations of this nature and in commuting lies the germ of another profound effect which aviation may exert upon our civilization. As the motor car made possible rural dwell- ing with urban work to a_ degree totally unattainable by horse trans- portation, so the airplane may easily push out the boundaries of the subur- October 1929 ban zone, and bring relatively remote regions into metropolitan areas with consequent great appreciation of real estate values and a different fabric of the whole business of existence. Special uses of the airplane multiply with astonishing rapidity. Following the lead of the Dutch in service to London, airplanes transport perishable flowers and out of season fruits to market. They are regularly employed, and most efficiently, in the dusting of crops and the fight against the pests of vegetation such as the boll weevil and the spruce bud worm. They are the eyes of the tax assessor, and in as widely separated localities as rural Connecticut and the Belgian Congo have brought to book those miscreants who were seeking to evade payment of local levies. N the international boundaries, the air patrol is often effective in apprehending the ubiquitous _ boot- legger and the more dangerous drug- runner. Planes play a part in other types of law enforcement, and have proved of help to the police in the Argentine and along our own Atlantic shore where they have become part of a regularchecking system operated by the Coast Guard. It is predicted that fire- fighting with chemicals will soon be carried on from the air, just as now fire detection in the great forest areas is greatly simplified by the use of obser- vation aircraft. In surveying and mapping, impor- tant strides have been made from the point reached in aerial photography during the World War. The United States Army has conducted tests in which air photographs made at night of Leavenworth, Kansas have been transmitted electrically to Los Angeles AN AIRPORT FROM THE AIR Widespread use of airplanes is impossible without well designed airports. more numerous and evenly distributed, civil flying will show a As these become substantial increase

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r 1929 mote with T real ric of ltiply wing ce to hable ts to oyed, ng of sts of l and e the In as rural ‘ongo eants ont of aries, ve in boot- drug- other have n the lantic tofa »y the t fire- mn be w fire pas is »bser- npor- n the “aphy nited ‘ts in night been igeles

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October 1929 and New York simultaneously in 40 minutes from the time of the exposure. The use of the airplane for explora- tion is of course not new, but is being widely extended and its worth in this regard, especially in difficult terrain, is amply attested by the reports com- ing from Commander Byrd on his Antarctic Expedition. The Alaskan survey was continued by air this sum- mer, and the right of way for a new rail- way in the Canadian Northwest was determined also by the aid of flying. | geod TION flights of various kinds become frequent, and it is obvious that no better method of inspecting air- ports can be found than from a plane. A transcontinental trip of this nature was recently made by Senator Webb of New York in order to gather data for the State’s prospective airports. Hunting by airplane is extended, and the smuggling of aliens by plane has also been reported. The emergency uses of the air where time is a vital factor are of course legion. A little while ago a son arrived by plane just in time to prevent the foreclosure of a mortgage on the family home- stead. Vaccines go to far places borne by wings to save life. Doctors fly to patients whom they could not other- wise reach in time, and the plane fre- quently performs an errand of com- passion in uniting families about some far-off death bed. The airplane enters into business from very many angles. It makes light deliveries, it speeds executives from office to plant, it promotes sales, it flashes or writes the advertiser’s message on the sky. It is said that one third of the airplanes sold in America last year went to private business organizations. Publishers, banks, utility companies, radio manu- facturers, department stores, fur deal- ers, real estate operators, and men in a dozen other walks of life use the plane to speed their business. The traveling salesman travels under pressure higher and at a rate faster than he ever dreamed of before. Women are taking rapidly to wings. One flying school in Kansas now has ten women on its rolls. A southern mother who is in the automobile busi- ness is taking flying lessons in New York so that she may demonstrate the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 315

THE DO. X—TWELVE MOTORS—ONE HUNDRED PASSENGERS This German-built flying boat (see also page 318) marks a great advance in heavier-than- air craft capable of carrying large pay-loads. planes which she proposes to sell back home. left-hand corner is a scale model of the famous transatlantic plane, the Bremen. The larger model, on the same scale, is of a 50-passenger plane now under construction The engines’ total horsepower is 6300 Then there are the new develop- ments toward great size, chiefly in the foreign field, such as Dr. Dornier’s Do. X of huge wing spread, to carry a hundred passengers and use 6300 horsepower; Herr Junker’s 32-passenger sleeping-compartment plane, and Sig- nor Caproni’s 6000-horsepower biplane and 3000-horsepower monoplane, the latter fitted with pontoons, capable, ac- cording to the designer, of carrying three and one half tons from Rome to New York in 40 hours with two stops, via the Azores and Bermuda. HESE giants are realities, flown, or soon to fly. More speculative and yet with impressive scientific en- dorsement are plans for planes to pierce the upper rarefied atmosphere and make speeds of many hundred miles an hour. And, within the lap of the immediate future, is the pilot guided successfully by visual radio beacons, and even the plane directed in flight by radio impulses. The automobile conspicuously failed to displace the railroad, but has ex- tended the variety of life beyond the dreams of its most ardent early advo- cate. By reason of the limitations of size, cost, and the third dimension, the airplane seems destined even more definitely to fail to displace the auto- mobile. But one cannot watch the tremendous tempo at which aviation is expanding without realizing that, through its conquest of distance and belittling of time, through its utiliza- tion of the air roads that know no curb- stones nor grade crossings, and finally, through its liberation of the human spirit, it is to have a deep and far-reach- ing effect upon civilization. That weil-designed airports are nec- essary to the growth of the aerial transport business is a truth that has hecome increasingly apparent in the last two years. That the problem is being attacked with characteristic big-business energy is clearly shown by the compre- hensive article starting on page 298. —-The Editor.

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316 SCIENTIFIC Meteors AMERICAN October 1929 Most of the Meteors One Sees Are No Larger Then a Pea. The Majority Come From Far Beyond the Solar System: Chai Research Associate of the F all astronomical observations the most individual are those of shooting stars. Even a total solar eclipse lasts long enough for one gazer to point things out to another, but a meteor flashes by so quickly that before a bystander can hear the words that tell of it and turn Meteors come, his head, it is gone. too, without warning, and if they were rare phenomena we would know little } } ae olly about them. But they are actually so common that one who watches patiently for an hour on a clear night will, on the average, see half a dozen or more. Moreover, he {2 will not see all that appear above his horizon, however assiduous | his observation, for the | known reason that he has noeyes’ /? in the back of his head. \z How many meteors would be 4 if an army over the world could keep watch under cloudless skies for an hour? ve well- seen To answer this question we must Ae, determine whether people in dif- ferent parts see the same meteors, and this takes a little planning. Two men seated side by side and watching the same part of the sky wili of course see the same ones. If they are a few miles apart they can still settle the question if they have accurately syn- chronized watches and record the instant that each meteor is seen. HE mere fact that both men saw the same object would be of small importance. But a great deal of information can be obtained if each observer is pro- vided with a suitable star map * of observers al} “¥ By HENRY NORRIS RUSSELL, Ph. D. of the meteor’s track among the stars by observers at known positions it is a mere matter of trigonometry to work out just what its real track in space; when, and how high above the earth, it appeared, and where it van- ished. Such calculations show that an average shooting star begins to shine at a height of about 70 miles above the earth’s surface and disap- pears at a height of about 50 miles, after a flight which, being at an ob- lique angle, averages some 35 miles in length through the atmosphere. Was man of the Department of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory at Princeton University F Mount Wilson Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington mates that a billion meteors, large and small, may enter the earth’s atmos- phere in a day. As everyone knows, the light of a meteor is produced by the action of the upper air in slowing up the meteor’s speed and converting the energy of its motion into heat. It is only after they enter the atmosphere that they shine, and the smaller ones are consumed before they get down very far. The larger masses which appear, not like flying stars but as brilliant fire balls lighting up the whole landscape, often penetrate much lower, sometimes Tei ‘ + rade % te i and if immediately after each meteor has appeared he marks on the map its course among the stars, with the points of begin- ning and ending. When this is done it is feund that the apparent tracks as seen by observers 10 miles or so apart are quite differently placed among the stars. This means, of course, that the meteors are near us, vastly nearer than any other bodies which the as- tronomer has to study. We might have guessed this, anyway, from the great velocity with which they seem to move. But observations such as have been described replace guess work with accurate knowledge. If we have two good observations Professor W. J. Luyten of Harvard, who first brought it to the attention of science, stands in the excavation ) as low as 20 or 30 miles before | their speed is reduced enough to | keep them from glowing. How big are these | What are they made of? | where do they come from? bodies? And HE first of these questions can be roughly answered when we know how much light they radiate, for this tells us how much energy they have had to spend in this way and their whole initial store of energy, although greater, was probably not many times greater. Knowing the ini- tial speed—-a matter to which we shall return later— it is found that ordinary bright shooting stars are in all probability only a few milligrams in weight and no big- ger than fine gravel or heavy shot, while the fainter ones may be no | bigger than grains of sand. The | great fire balls which occasionally appear must be far larger, which is proved by the fact that some of them reach the earth as meteorites many pounds _ in ‘THE GROOTFONTEIN METEORITE A meteor more than 200 miles away stands a poor chance of being seen, and many which are nearer may be missed. Making allowance for this, it appears that several millions of meteors must appear above the earth’s surface every day, and this number would be greatly increased if account should be taken of faint meteors which are often seen by observers with the telescope. The field of view of a telescope is so limited that the actual numbers of faint meteors in the whole sky must be enormous. Professor Shapley esti- weight while a few run up to tons. These large masses which get into our museums and _ labora- tories are composed of crystalline rock, of iron, or of a mixture of the two. Whether the smaller ones which are completely volatilized before they get down to the lower atmosphere are of similar composition could be deter- mined by the spectroscope, provided that we had a spectroscope ready and erected at the right place and had drawn the slide of our plate holder before the meteor flashed by. This is evidently impossible to do by design, but once in a while it has happened by chance while the spectra of the stars were being photographed with oe ae a ae

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1929 and nos- of a 1 of or’s f its hey ine, ned The like alls ‘ten mes fore 1 to ies? And ons red ght 1OW to 10le ugh any ini- we hat ars few ig- 10t, no The illy ich me in ns. get ra- ine vO. are ret of er- led nd ad ler his mn, ed ith October 1929 an objective prism. Bright line spec- tra of meteors have several times been recorded, but to identify the lines is peculiarly difficult for there is usually no way of determining where to start. If we could be sure of any one line we could easily find out where the rest were, but in the absence of any such knowledge no certain solution of the problem can be made. WO German astronomers, Haas and Schwassmann, had the good fortune in 1924 to get a_photo- graph of the spectrum of a meteor, and also of the trail of the meteor itself among the stars with another camera. This gave the necessary starting point and made it possible to work out the whole spectrum. The strongest lines were the familiar H and K lines of calcium in the violet, while the others were practically all due to iron which has so many strong lines in this part of the spectrum that with no dispersion they blend into fuzzy bands exactly like those observed in the meteor. This is good direct evidence that small meteors are composed of the same familiar materials as large ones, and answers our second question— what are they made of? To attack the third—where do they come from— we must find how fast the meteors were moving when they hit the earth’s at- mosphere. It is well known that any particle at the earth’s distance from the sun, which is moving with a speed less than 26 miles per second (relative to the sun), will be drawn by its at- traction into a closed elliptic orbit, and must have followed such an orbit in the past and be a member of the solar system. But if its speed is greater than this limit its orbit must be hyper- bolic and it must be a visitor from in- terstellar space. When a meteor’s path has been re- corded by three or more competent observers in different places the actual length of its path can usually be cal- culated with fair precision. If we knew the time of flight with equal ac- curacy it would be an easy matter to SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN find its speed compared with the earth, and then the speed relative to the sun, and so our answer. But the duration of a meteor’s flight is at best but a very few seconds, and often only a second orso. If the observer had a stop watch in his hand, ready for use, it would still be difficult to get the time with any accuracy, for an error of a “split second” would be serious. But usually there is no stop watch and the state- ments of duration are mere estimates from memory. The late Professor C. A. Young once told the writer, ““‘When I see a meteor I begin instantly to say ‘Maria had a little lamb; Its fleece was white as snow.’ “It takes just six seconds and a half to say the two lines, and by the word I stop on when the meteor dis- appears I can tell the time pretty closely. It has to begin with ‘Maria’ to make it run evenly.” This is probably as good as a stop watch! HE estimates of velocity made in this way indicate that a large proportion of the meteors are moving in hyperbolic orbits and come from the depths of space. The well known meteor showers are, of course, an ex- ception. These, which appear on or about the same day every year and move in parallel paths, are clearly members of our system, pursuing orbits around the sun which intersect the earth’s orbit at or near a definite point. For the remaining sporadic meteors another test of origin can be made, depending, too, on the velocity but free from the difficulties just men- tioned. In the evening after sunset we are on the rear of the side of the earth as regards its orbital motion, while in the morning just before dawn we are on the front. In the former case only those meteors which overtake the earth will enter her atmosphere, but in the latter we should get all those which are moving opposite to the earth, and also all those moving the same way which we overtake. 317 If meteors are moving in all direc- tions but only a little faster than does the earth’ in its orbit, there will clearly be a great difference between the morning and evening, and we will see far more shooting stars per hour before dawn than after dark. But the higher the average speed the less this differ- ence in number will be. Counts of the hourly number of meteors can be made with much more accuracy than estimates of the dura- tion of their visibility. From a long series of such counts by various ob- servers, Hoffmeister finds strong and consistent evidence that the average velocity is high, the independent re- sults of four series of observations giving values ranging from 42 to 46 miles per second. This is far above the limit for bodies belonging to the solar system, and indicates that a large majority of the ordinary random shooting stars which we see nightly are visitors from the depths of space. F this is true, interstellar space is not really empty but is full of meteors. However, it is not very full, containing perhaps a speck as big as a grain of sand every hundred miles or so. The individual meteors are probably farther apart compared with their own diam- eters than are the individual stars. There is more to be learned about these tiny visitors from the outposts of the universe, and this is one of the fields in which the amateur with very simple equipment can render really valuable aid to science. Only a few maps, easily acquired familiarity with the brighter stars, and enthusiasm are required. The isolated observer might have difficulty in making full use of his results, but the American Meteor Society, composed of many deeplyinterested observers, professional and amateur, stands ready to give help to new recruits. Those who are in- terested in the matter can obtain in- formation from Prof. C. P. Olivier of the University of Pennsylvania (Phil- adelphia), the president of the Society and the principal American authority. ge re: Ot ol ere THE WORLD’S LARGEST KNOWN METEORITE It measures nine by ten feet, is four feet thick, weighs,about 70 tons (estimated), and consists of 17 percent nickel and 82 percent iron ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME METEORITE Meteorites of large size are’ comparatively rare, most of those that fall being tiny. Just when this particular one fell, nobody knows

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318 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 German Dornier Plane Carries ceteameiaiiaes re aes a: Ane AEN Se oo THE DO. X IN CROSS-SECTION This artist’s drawing shows the arrangement of the interior of the huge Dornier plane. View in circle indicates placement of engines ie - / x 4 THE PILOT’S POSITION The pilot is the one who controls the movements of the flying boat, but he is directly responsible to the captain in charge THE ELEVATORS AND RUDDERS > The men in the photograph at the right serve to indicate the enor- mous size of this product of Germany’s aeronautical engineers

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1929 he es October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 319 * 100 Passengers: Has 12 Engines SUBSTANTIAL increase in ni I cca the carrying capacity (pay load) of an airplane requires a proportionate increase in the driving engines. Since mechanical difficulties in design limit to a certain | extent the maximum size of an internal combustion engine, airplane designers have been forced to turn to multiple- engine installations. Here again are | found design problems of no small | READY TO FLY Under test, the Do. X, weighing 34 tons, took off after a run, on water, of 500 yards ing capacity of 100 pessengers and a crew. At the time of writing, this ship, the Do. X, has been successfully flown with a test crew of 20. The photographs on this and the opposite page serve to convey a general idea of the immensity of this plane. The fuselage consists of three decks, as illustrated, the navigating crew and radio operators occupying the upper LAUNCHING The cabin in the hull is well lighted by means of portholes throughout its length magnitude, and until recently, three or four motors have been considered as the greatest number for efficient opera- tion. But three engines can sustain only a certain load. Therefore, the engineers of the great Dornier plant at Altenrhein bei Rorschach, Switzerland, have concentrated on the design of a huge aerial argosy with a 150-foot wing-spread and an announced carry- THE ENGINES Twelve 525-horsepower engines are arranged in pairs. Pushers and tractors are used one, the passengers the center, and the fuel the lower. Present plans call for a captain commanding the crew and two pilots taking their orders from him. They will be located in the forward part of the top deck. Placed in tandem sets of two each, the 12 525-horsepower engines are rigidly mounted above the wing, and are connected with a complex contro! panel in the deck below. ENGINE CONTROLS To keep the engines operating at maxi- mum efficiency requires constant alertness

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 SOL DIE RS CROSS THE SEA IN SAFETY United States destroyers Kimberly and Davis escorting the Leviathan in 1918. 5° soil, our troops must be transported in From a painting by Burnell Poole ior the N Navy The scene above depicts the In the event of war on foreign numbers under warship protection. Naval Reduction and Parity’ The Bearing of Past Limitations Discussions Upon Our Present Stand, and a Discussion of the Naval “Yardstick”’ Proposal By CAPTAIN DUDLEY W. KNOX, U.S. N. Ret.t HE most essential element in national debt of the United States. stifling trade discrimination by com- the perpetuation of peace is the maintenance of reason- able and adequate arma- ments. Next in order of importance comes limitation of these armaments. Such are the doctrines enunciated by ex-President Coolidge after an experi- ence of nearly seven years in the White House. He also recently voiced the opinion that the essence of these prob- lems is political, rather than techni- eal, and that they are closely related to our very large foreign commerce and investments which “need Navy for their protection.” Hence when we consider current trends in naval limitation we should think in terms not only of our Navy, of international relations and peace pro- motion, but also of our huge overseas investments and our enormous Ameri- can ocean-borne commerce. The latter extends to all quarters of the globe, and every year it aggregates a monetary value nearly equal to the amount of the hnical discussion of bases, ships, and per- ee “Naval Adequacy,” parts Ito V, by Captain , SCLENTIFK \MER October 1928 iry 1929. g Our Contributors,” page 279. The annual export of a million auto- mobiles, and of hundreds of millions of dollars worth each of raw cotton, wheat, machinery, petroleum, and minerals, together with imports in sim- ilar proportions of silk, rubber, coffee, sugar, and many other essentials, le: de us straight to terms of factories, mines, farms, and national prosperity, as an intermediate step to dealing with naval power. AS a part of the broad picture we must also bear in mind the cur- rent large scale revival of the American merchant marine—a national “delivery service” indispensably guarding against petitor producer nations. We are the world’s greatest producer. Our genius for quantity production has brought us to the situation confronting England a century and a half ago, when her “industrial revolution” cre- ated a productive capacity far exceed- ing domestic consumption. Just as she did then so now we are actively ex- panding our foreign trade to prevent large scale unemployment and eco- nomic depression at home. Intensive internal development and domestic production on a vast seale is rapidly making America more and more de- pendent upon the sea and reviving the “‘sea-mindedness”’ which typified her | | | United - | United r. United States >: | United States | Year | (gross) | = | Year (gross) ; “et | i| a ie po ere $1, 329, 900, 000 |$480, 500, 000 || 1927._.._._-- $1, 553, 000, 000 _ 500, 000 sao | 1, 318, 500, 000 | 593, 150, 000 | 108 hpiichiannad 1, 448, 000, 000 | 768, 300, 000 ! Reproduced from ¢ Reports, United Department of Commerce FOREIGN “INTERESTS” THAT NEED PROTECT?70ON: LOANS In foreign loans, the United States leads Great Britain by a good margin. peace so that these loans are safe, To maintain it is essential that an agreement as to parity be reached

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1929 uw om- cer. has ting AgO, cre- eed- October 1929 a century ago. Thus it is that the broadest cross-section of national eco- nomics and prosperity is intimately re- lated to the question of limitation of armaments—for the United less than for European naval States no countries. Here, then, is the real background for the various steps which have been taken toward limiting naval forces, from the almost barren efforts initiated by Russia in 1898, through the series of fruitless proposals for a naval holiday made by the British just before the World War, until the partial success of EVELOPMENTS anent the naval question have been coming so fast that it was im- possible to include the very lat- est news in this article. Shortly before this page went to press, Premier MacDonald of England, as a gesture of good will toward America, halted construction on two British cruisers and slowed down other naval work. Presi- dent Hoover, who had just pro- claimed the Kellogg Pact before representatives of signatory na- tions, answered this beau geste by suspending construction on three American cruisers on this year’s program. It is expected that these acts will have a direct influence upon the final agree- ment for parity.—The Editor a the Washington Conference of 1921-22, and finally to the recent olive branch held out by Mr. Gibson, our “‘observer’”’ at the last session of the League’s Pre- paratory Commission on Disarma- ment. The first genuine progress in limita- tion of naval armaments was made at SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 321 A BONE OF CONTE N’ r ION The United States cruiser Richmond, one of a type that caused the failure of the 1927 Con- ference. Now, however, the Washington Conference where an agreement was reached by the five leading naval! powers fixing a propor- tion of relative strength between them and maximum quotas for capital ships and airplane carriers. An upper limit for the size of individual ships and of their guns was also agreed to, not only for capital ships but also for cruisers. But, unfortunately, no agreement could be reached as to a limit upon the total number or aggregate tonnage of cruisers, nor upon other smaller fleet auxiliaries such as destroyers and sub- |e) MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 8) 100 200 300 400 500 600 9 EiZ4 1928 t 5 aes r t t I EXPORTS Crude Materials Crude Foodstuffs Manufactured Foodstuffs B | Semi -manufactures — ka oe. Finished manufactures MMM. I a a ] IMPORTS T Crude Materials Crude Foodstuffs Manufactured Foodstuffs Sem: - manufactures Finished manufactures i¢-] i from Commerce Re . United Sta par OUR OCEANBORNE COMMERCE Our imports and exports are steadily mounting, as may be seen by a comparison of these figures. International naval accord would serve as a measure of commerce protection a ray of hope for agreement on this type— and others—is seen marines. This was a serious defect in the treaty. since it invalidated the principle of limitation by leaving open the way to future competition and swollen armaments in the cruiser and other auxiliary classes. Carried too far, new construction in these classes could very substantially alter the theo- retical relative strength between the various navies, as it has actually done since 1922. HIS matter assumes great impor- tance from the view-point of trade protection, and hence of national economics. Indispensable as battle- ships may be in the complex structure of sea power, they are but one of the various means which have the common end in view of protecting sea communi- cations. Insecure national trade means inse- cure national business and peace. Herein lies the explanation why such a peace-loving and economy-minded President as Mr. Coolidge vigorously contended for a great and _ costly cruiser program. Soon after the Wash- ington Conference, other naval powers embarked on large construction pro- grams for types of vessels which had not been included in the limitation agreements. We refrained, feeling that, regardless of the letter of the treaty, its spirit was against substan- tial addition to our fleet in any class of ship. Our position was made all the more remarkable by the fact that, in 1922, we had been very deficient in trade-protecting cruisers, as compared with other powers, and our offer to scrap preponderant battleship strength, which they accepted, had been condi- tioned upon their placing a limit on

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322 cruisers and other auxiliaries, which they rejected. We were thus confronted with an urgent need either of bringing about an international limitation on naval aux- iliaries, efforts toward which had failed at Washington, or entering the new competition by undertaking large new construction. In these circumstances President Coolidge called the Geneva Conference of 1927, the invitation to which was accepted only by Great Britain and Japan. “THERE the failure to reach agree- ment revolved about trade pro- tection ability. We proposed to re- strict the cruiser quota for Great Britain and America to 250,000 or 300,000 tons each. Britain maintained re sseenpunshestniensbetendihsatcenemsieninioastes ———— SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN position heretofore has been that each country should be allowed to build the type of cruiser best suited to its own needs. For example, under a total ton- nage allowance of 240,000, the United States could build 24 of the 10,000-ton individual size, and the British 49 cruisers with a displacement of 6000 tons each. Such a solution would offer advan- tages and disadvantages to both sides which would practically balance each other. In astand-up fight between the two cruiser forces acting alone—a highly improbable situation both tac- tically and politically—the American force of a relatively small number of large units would unquestionably be more than a match for their more numerous but smaller opponents. The A RARE WAR-TIME PHOTOGRAPH An airplane view of a convoy of merchant ships during the late war. may be seen in the foreground and other small escort vessels are shown far out on the flanks that nearly twice such a limit was nec- essary for the protection of her ocean trade. She was finally willing to re- duce the allotment to about 425,000 tons provided the size of individual cruisers was also substantially reduced, so that the number of cruisers which she regarded as essential to trade pro- tection could be provided. Equally solicitous for the protection of an American ocean commerce of virtually the same amount es the British, our delegation insisted upon the right to build large cruisers, even though this would mean a greater re- striction in the numbers of ships which we could build under a total tonnage quota. This was the crux of the failure of the tri-partite naval conference at Geneva in 1927, held at the instigation of President Coolidge, following which he came out so strongly for a substan- tial American naval auxiliary building program. Meantime American technicians have been at work attempting to devise a basis upon which the inherent dif- ferences between the United States and Great Britain might be reconciled on the question of a limitation agreement respecting cruisers. The American An escorting cruiser American force of large size, individual cruisers would also have an advantage for purely defensive commerce protec- tion. On the other hand the cruiser force consisting of numerous small units would be considerably superior in the ability to raid commerce—immensely so when complemented by such a wonderful system of world-wide naval bases as the British possess. This fol- lows by reason of the greater disper- sion possible for the larger number of units, and the greater proportion of time which they can spend in fruitful raiding areas, because of the supplies and protection afforded by nearby bases. Thus it is apparent that, con- trary to what is commonly understood, in contending for a small number of large cruisers the Americans have been seeking commerce-protecting ability, as opposed to the commerce-raiding potentialities of the British side of the case. HE foregoing illustrates the prin- ciples involved in a total tonnage system of measuring naval strength, which was the basis used at the Wash- ington Conference, and adhered to by the American Delegation at Geneva in October 1929 1927. The theory is that it leaves each nation free, within certain outside limits, to vary the details of man-of- war design. Those who prefer high speed, or more armor, or great cruising radius, or heavy gun power, may incor- porate their preference in the design, sacrificing other qualities as necessary to keep within the maximum indi- vidual size and the total tonnage allowance. In the long run, the advan- tages and disadvantages will more nearly balance each other by tonnage comparison than by any other yard- stick. Such has been the opinion of the best technicians on both sides of the Atlantic for many years. No one has sustained this viewpoint more em- phatically than Admiral Jellico, of England, who is certainly one of the best authorities. HEREFORE when Mr. Gibson re- opened the cruiser question at Geneva last April, with references to a formula for reconciling American- British differences, the implication was that at least for cruisers we were willing to accept some other standard of mea- surement than tonnage and to concede something in line with the previous British position. He stressed that an agreement was more important than a method. Nevertheless he made it very clear that any concession which we might make with respect to method was conditioned upon meeting us at other points. First of all he insisted that any new agreement should constitute an actual reduction of existing or projected arma- ments. This appeared to have refer- ence to our stand at Geneva in 1927 for a cruiser quota of about half what the British wished. The quota proposed by them would have been a substantial increase over the status quo. Mr. Gibson also emphasized that any fu- ture agreement must include all types of naval vessels, meaning that we should not repeat the mistake made at the Washington Conference of leaving the door open for future competition on a large scale and thus upsetting the relative strength of total naval power between the respective countries. A third point was that the ratio of total strength should remain as agreed to at Washington: 5-5-3. Mr. Gibson’s olive branch was well received in all quarters. It appears to constitute an important step in the progress of naval limitation. His de- tailed plan was presented to the other powers who undertook to study it. Whether or not it has any immediate effects, which the subsequent adjourn- ment of the League’s Preparatory Commission on Disarmament seems to make doubtful, it constitutes a pre- liminary to the conference scheduled to meet at Washington in 1931 under the terms of the agreements reached at the last Washington Conference.

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1929 each tside n-of- high ising 1cor- sign, Sary indi- nage van- nore nage ard- n of Ss of one em- , Of the October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN A Large Meteor Falls By PROFESSOR C. C. WYLIE Department of Astronomy, University of Iowa . ELL, we have company,” remarked my assistant. Glancing up from the tele- scope, I saw a young doc- cor from the near-by hospital, dressed in white, standing quietly in the door of the room of the observatory in which we were working. He waited until we had finished that observation, and then asked, ‘‘Did you see the meteor a few minutes ago, Professor?”’ This was our first intimation of the brilliant meteor which fell about 9:45 p.M., Central Standard Time, on the evening of July 25, 1929. At Atlantic, Iowa, more than 300 miles west of the path, it was described as a “long, fiery-tailed comet.” At Des Moines, 250 miles west, the ac- count read, ‘‘as bright as the sun.” At Iowa City, 150 miles west, several noticed it from lighted rooms. At Burlington, 125 miles west, people telephoned the local airport that an airplane had dropped flares, so the signal light and flood lights were turned on. At Milwaukee, 100 miles north, the coast guard reported seeing a “flaming airplane diving into the lake,’ and 20 miles west of Milwaukee the report was that it “illuminated the countryside until it was almost as bright as day.’’ Cioser to the path we find that for Peoria, headlines an- nounce the “‘meteor turned night into day;’’ and at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, a group watching a thunderstorm saw “a bright light of yellowish cast coming straight toward them from the south ia So directly was it coming that they felt they should dodge.’’ To the east it was reported as far as Detroit. Most people who saw the meteor had their attention attracted by its illumination of surrounding objects. Ole S Homes ° poscatinl THE METEOR OF suLy 25 1929 Cowrye 4 PEPORTED FROM ATLANTIC, LOWA WEST, TO DETROIT MICHIGAN, EAST FIGURES INDICATE MEIOnT im MILES ABOVE SURFACE OF | EARTH, THE METEOR’S FLIGHT A sketch by the author. The altitude of its disappearance was about 25 miles They saw ‘“‘the surrounding darkness burst into brilliant light.’”’ At the distance of Iowa City, the illumination was compared to—‘‘a flash of green lightning, except that it lasted longer;’’ “the lights of a parked car suddenly turned on the automobile in which you are riding;’’ or ‘‘an airplane signal light sweeping by.” We astronomers located at the Uni- versity of Iowa, Iowa City, did not notice the meteor, as the slit of our observatory was open in another di- rection, and the light from passing cars occasionally sweeping over the slit made it unlikely that an illumina- tion, unless even greater than that from this meteor, would attract at- tention when we were working. From the description of the young doctor, Edward Evert Hale, it was apparent that an important meteor had flashed down a hundred miles or more to the east of us, so steps were at once taken to secure the information necessary for computation of its path through the atmosphere. An announcement was placed in the local morning paper; requests for information were sent out by the university news service, and broadeast from the university radio station. OCAL people who had seen the meteor were interviewed, as far as possible, at the exact spot from which they had viewed the fall. If inside a building, measurements were taken to secure as accurately as possi- ble the direction and apparent height of the place where the meteor was first seen, and of the point of disappear- ance. If seen from outdoors, a pocket transit was usually preferable. Engi- neers apply to this little instrument the rather uncomplimentary term ‘“‘guess- ing machine,” but the angles for the points of appearance and disappear- ance can be read more accurately than people can remember the position. By similar interviews, Father Theo- bald, of Columbia College, Dubuque, secured the angles for points of ap- pearance and disappearance as seen from that city; and two days after the event, sufficient information was at hand for a preliminary computation of the path of the meteor through the atmosphere, the result obtained being only slightly different from that given by the more complete information a week later. The arrow on the accompanying map shows the path of this celestial visitor as it came down over the state of Illinois. It became bright enough to attract attention at a height of slightly 323 USING THE POCKET TRANSIT The author reading the angles for the points of appearance and disappearance more than 100 miles over a point near Bloomington, Illinois, dropped down and to the north, rapidly increasing in brightness, and disappeared at a height of about 25 miles over a point near De Kalb. Whether any meteorites actually reached the earth we can not say when this is written (August 6). Probably we will never know. The fact that thunderstorms were in prog- ress in the vicinity of De Kalb makes information from that critical point difficult to secure. Large meteors usually burst and disappear at a height of 15 or 20 miles. The meteor- ites, contrary to popular opinion, fall the remaining distance as dark objects, and are invisible at night and difficult to see unless very close, even in day- light. The sound of the falling stones is useful in directing a search. We assume that many readers will want to know the kind of information which the astronomer studying me- teors appreciates receiving. Almost any accurate information is of value: brightness, color, illumination of land- scape, duration of visibility, time of occurrence, apparent direction of mo- tion, possible sounds, and apparent nearness. But the information which will probably help the most, because it is hard to get, is the direction and apparent altitude of the points of appearance and disappearance. This can be ascertained quite simply. The most accurate way to send this information is, of course, simply to send a plot of the path on a star chart; but this is usually not possible. A simple and reasonably accurate method is to lay a yard stick pointing in the direction where the meteor was last seen. Then measure the number of inches the east end is north or south of the west end of the stick; or the number of inches the north end is east or west of the scuth end.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 TTHREE-MOTORED PLANE OF THE PAN AMERICAN AIRWAYS OVER BEAUTIFUL HAVANA HARBOR, EN ROUTE FOR MIAMI American Passenger Air Transport The Passenger-carrying Airlines of the United States Have Shown Remarkable Growth in the Last Two Years By PROF. ALEXANDER KLEMIN Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New York University NTIL quite recently there has been a general impression in the public mind that we were lagging behind Europe in commercial aviation. As a matter of fact, we have always led the way in the industrial applications of the air- plane, such as aerial surveying, aerial photography, cotton dusting, forest fire patrol, and so forth. In regular flying mileage, in airmail and express matter carried, we have led every European country for many years. In private ownership of planes, for such purposes as the inspection of ranches, sales and advertising, inspection trips by executives of large business houses, the United States is also well in the lead. It is only in the carrying of passengers by air that we have lagged behind. There are very definite reasons why this has been the case. In the first place, Europeans received during the war more lessons in the use of the air- plane as a vehicle of transportation than did. Staff officers, govern- ment officials, even prime ministers, on occasion found traveling by air the most expeditious method, and knowl- edge of such travel naturally spread among the general European public. The airplane proved itself a tremen- dously powerful instrument of war- fare, and European governments were willing and anxious to encourage air- we Associate Editor, Scientific American lines for strategic reasons, giving gen- erous subsidies for the carrying of passengers. The carriage of mail and express is more profitable for aircraft, just as for railroads, than passenger work and before the costs of airplane Operation were reduced, it was quite impossible for our unsubsidized air lines to carry passengers. With sub- sidies to help them, European opera- tors were able to carry passengers by air at little greater fares than by the best train or boat accommodation. Hence the European operators got a head start and ten years steady and, on the whole, safe and regular pas- senger operation, widely advertised, have given their lines a great reputa- tion. OVERNMENT regulation came earlier in Europe, so that air- plane safety made more rapid strides than in America. And safety and comfort are even more important to the traveling public than expense. Unusually favorable geographic con- ditions are found on certain European lines. Thus, the seven- or eight-hour journey between London and Paris meant changing from train to boat, a possibly choppy and unpleasant chan- nel crossing, and a dreadful half hour in getting through the French customs before boarding another train. The two- and-a-half-hour flight from Croydon to Le Bourget certainly avoided most of these discomforts. Customs bar- riers, geographic conditions, and poor train service all helped to make the airplane popular among European travelers. Besides, Europe had the enormous advantage of great numbers of Ameri- can tourists. Business men, who, when in the United States, expect trains to run with clockwork regularity, are perfectly willing on a vacation tour to take an air trip, in which there is chance of turning back due to fog, or of a forced landing far from a rail- way station. It is no exaggeration to to say that in the summer months more Americans than Europeans travel on foreign lines. With no subsidies, no government regulation, and no tourists, American operators naturally hesitated to enter the field of passenger air transport. Their position was accurately and vividly expressed by C. S. (“‘Casey’’) Jones of the Transcontinental Air Transport, speaking recently before the Chamber of Commerce of the United States. “There are a number of reasons why the operator hesitates to go into the carrying of passengers. From his standpoint, it is much more economical and better to carry mail or express. I have seen mail planes come in with a full load of mail in them, in fact, so full

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1929 ost yar- oor the ean ous eri- ho, ins are ' to is or ail- to ore on ull October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN that it has been necessary to tie two or three sacks around the engine. If you are carry- ing some nice old lady pas- senger, it is kind of hard to think of her tied around the engine. In other words, in carrying passengers, we have to look to their safety, we have to overcome the natural fear of traveling by air. Then we have to take care of the insurance and the liability. So you can see why the American operators, having to put their lines on a commercial paying basis, have been slow in going into passenger transportation. Now that the through lines car- rying mail and express are in the black figures, American busi- ness men are investigating and starting to run passenger lines. ‘We do not know how ‘Y they are going or whether they are going to pay. We are very sure it is L_ going to take a number of = years o make them pay. ‘“‘We believe that American aviation las now Overcome the various handi- caps, that the period of hesitation has passed, and that passenger carrying which has advanced so rapidly in the last two years, will advance even more rapidly in the near future.” Passenger services are new, and the statistical machinery is only now begin- ning to get organized. In considering passenger airlines, it is better to rely on figures for the last two years only. In 1927, 12,594 passengers were flown on scheduled, regularly operated services. In 1928, they numbered 52,934. It is a fair guess to say that this number will be tripled or quad- rupled in 1929. Government publications notwith- standing, nothing can give us as vivid a picture of the present status of American passenger service as the con- solidated time-tables issued by the American Air Transport Association, and the Fletcher Official Aviation Guide. (The Fletcher publication is much more complete as it is not re- stricted to members of the Association.) If we are to believe the Official Avia- tion Guide there are now 44 companies HOES BONO ee cree AIRWAY MAP OF THE UNITED STATES o/ | LATEST OFFICIAL AIRWAY MAP giving passenger service. Space per- mits usto list only the airways specializ- ing in passenger service and we refer our readers to the guide for detailed in- formation. Colonial Air Transport, New York- Boston; Colonial Western Airways, Al- bany - Cleveland; Colonial Western, Buffalo-Toronto; Middle States Air Lines, Akron - Detroit; Canadian Colonial Airways, New York-Montreal; United States Air Transport, New York-Washington; Clifford Ball, Cleve- land-Pittsburgh; Capital Airways, In- dianapolis-Detroit; Midwest Airways, Watertown-Des Moines; Coastal Air- ways, New York-Albany; Northwest Airways, Chicago-Green Bay; United States Airways, Kansas City-Denver; Rapid Air Lines, Watertown-Rapid City; Yellow Cab Airways, Kansas City-Twin Cities; Scenic Airways, Grand Canyon Scenie Airways; Uni- versal Aviation Corp., New York-Los Angeles; New York - Oklahoma City; St. Louis- Los Angeles; New York- Denver; Chicago-St. Louis; St. Louis- Omaha; Tulsa-Fort Worth; Cleveland- Louisville; Tulsa-San Angelo; Kansas City-Oklahoma City; Embry-Riddle, THE BEAUTIFUL PASSENGER DEPOT OF THE PAN AMERICAN AIRWAYS AT MIAMI OF THE UNITED STATES Chicago-Cincinnati; Texeco Air Trans- port, Dallas-E] Paso; Fort Worth-San Antonio; Fort Worth-Galveston; Stan- dard Air Lines, Los Angeles-E] Paso; Boeing Air Transport, Salt Lake City- San Francisco; Pacific Air Transport, Seattle-Los Angeles; Western Air Ex- press, Los Angeles-Salt Lake City; Cheyenne-Pueblo; Los Angeles-Kansas City; Maddux Air Lines, Los Angeles- San Francisco; Transcontinental Air Transport, New York-Los Angeles; National Parks Airways, Salt Lake City-Great Falls; Pan American Air- ways, described below. We have listed all the air routes we could find which make a specialty of carrying passengers. But prospective air travelers will do well to study maps and time-tables to determine whether a given line carries mail and passengers or passengers alone. “THOSE lines which specialize in passenger carrying provide the maximum comfort and convenience. On lines carrying mail and passengers, particularly when employing single- engine planes, passengers cannot be sure of accommodations as the post- office requires that mail be carried in preference. Comfort is apt to be sacrificed to speed. Weather which would keep a passenger plane back is apt to be disregarded. Of course, this condition is rapidly improving, as operators find they can put on special planes for passengers alone. It is often said ‘“‘Once a railroad man, always a railroad man.” There seems to be a peculiar fascination about rail- road work which will maintain a man’s interest for a life time. We venture to

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326 say that the work of the air transport operator will be even more interesting. Air transport operation certainly in- volves a greater variety of problems and conditions. Colonial Air Transport, with Gen- eral J. F. O’Ryan as executive head, for example, has attempted SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN pamphlets printed in this language. Florida and Havana are the lands of vacation. The company undoubtedly secured the services of a practical poet to write their leaflets. ‘‘All mail, lug- gage, and passengers are weighed, and a safety margin of 20 percent in lifting

the task of connecting two great cities, New York and Boston, by passenger air service, in the face of com- WESTERN AIR EXPRESS 113 West 9th Street, Los Angeles, Calif. KANSAS CITY-LOS ANGELES

“4 4 . WESTBOUND Twelve-Passenger, Multl- EASTBOUND petition by splendid five- Read Down Motored Cabin Planes Read Up hour trains, running from | Daily Miles standard ine Daily he heart of one city to — : t tl h : 8.30 AM 0 - oo cy... (C. T.) Pe : 8 PM the iter of the other. 10.20 AM 216 |Lv Wichita. ........ v PM center : 1.55 PM 697 |Lv Amarillo. . 6.00 PM They arranged for a bus 355 PM 810 Lv Albuquerque... . (M.T,) Ly p 00 Pa cos 1p oe 5.58 PM 1026 |Lv Holbrook........ . v 40 A to leave the Hotel I enns)y l- 7 35 PM 1201 |Lv Kingman........ (P.T.) Lv 7.30 A Vania 45 minutes before § 35 PM 14:7 |Ar Los Angeles. . - a 5.00 AM

plane time at the airport in Newark, and another This service connects at Kansas C ty, with rail lines operating to and from Chicago, St. Louis and the East PASSENGER FARES

bus from the Statler Hotel

[-2) : or ° n =) in Boston, 35 minutes be- ‘on = 3 ‘ns 4 , . ° rs ne-Wa Ms = = fore plane time. With 1 tee | § a 8 a | 3 3 marcy me 34 5 = a hour and 45 minutes in the ES = = 2 I 2 zir, this made the total C i mii=i]<= =F ‘ P 7 BMIMGMAR. ..cccccccsess DEO. cc csalooccechoceccclecesneles ecos journey approximately 3 |Holbrook!/72222772207: 65.00 $30.00}. 5... ORAS, Se 2 x * | Albuquerque........... 90.00] 55.00)$25.00]......]..... eee hours and 5 minutes long, | Amarillo...2.22222227. 12000] 85.00] 60,00/835. -00} Ss we ? jving an : Deis say. —_| Wichita. TIITIIID2 [155 00]120.00] 95.00] 75.00/$35.00]. -: 22° Biv a _ he iable san | Kans eae 175.001145.001115.001 95.00! 60.001$25.00 ing of time. ere aretwo (== —= schedules a day, so that a A TYPICAL AVIATION TIME-TABLE business man can pay a visit to his office in New York, do a_ power isrigidly maintained.” ‘‘Through fair morning’s work, and still get to Boston in time to spend a busy after- noon there. A Bostonian, on the other hand, who comes into New York for a whole business day, can leave late in the afternoon and get home in time for dinner. EOPLE have talked a great deal about the inability of the airplane to meet train competition on short hauls. Yet during the first month of operation, ending May 15, Colonial carried 533 passengers on 87 trips, an average of 6.1 passengers percent capacity) per trip. The single trip fare of $34.85 is nearly three times as much as train and Pullman, but cheaper commutation tickets seemed to meet this difficulty, and 350 com- mutation passages were sold in the first few weeks of operation. Pan American Airways offer a ser- vice from Miami to Havana, 261 miles flown in two and a quarter hours. Be- cause at the time this service was in- augurated, no flying boats of sufficient size and speed were availa Pan American put into service large three- engined Fokker planes, equipping them with flotation gear to guard against emergency landings in the Gulf. The same company connects Miami ble, with Havana, Camaguey, Santiago, Porto Prinee, and San Juan, Porto Rico. Eight passenger amphibians rive service between Miami and Nas- To meet the needs of a Spanish speaking population in Cuba, Pan American provide comprehensive sau. rail-air service from every prominent city in the United States makes it possible to travel in unbroken ease and luxury all the way from your home to the Indies.’”” There speaks the prac- tical man. Now the poet: ‘‘Magic Sails;’”’ ‘‘South with the Birds;”’ ‘‘Over the Violet Sea;’ “Speeding to Hap- piness;’’ ‘“‘Gay tropical colors surround him, brightening the roomy cabin with its comfortable wicker seats;’’ ‘““Having dodged the tedious hours of choppy sea, the traveler arrives fresh and rested, ready for work or play.’ October 1929 The Pan American terminal at Miami deserves particular notice. The first floor is furnished as a lounge and waiting room of the utmost comfort, divided and equipped in such a manner that the baggage and customs are taken care of with the least annoyance. A mezzanine encircles the entire build- ing and provides a splendid observation lounge, various large dining rooms, and so forth. NOTHER line which has achieved much prestige and distinction is the Western Air Express, with its three long lines radiating from Los Angeles to Salt Lake City, San Francisco, and Kansas City, a short line between Pueblo, Denver, and Cheyenne, and a sight-seeing service from Los Angeles to Catalina. Meeting the varying needs of these lines, tri-motored Fokkers are used on the main lines, a single-engined Stearman between Pueblo and Cheyenne, and a Sikorsky amphibian to Catalina Island. The president of this line, Harris M. Hanshue, has gained distinction be- cause he was perhaps the first man to make an airline pay and because of the splendid organization of Western Air Express, modeled precisely on that of a railroad. Under him are two vice- presidents, one in charge of operations, the other in charge of traffic. Secon- dary in the operations department comes the superintendent of operation, who has general supervision over all fields used by the company, then a field superintendent for each field, a master mechanic, mechanics, and pilots. Sec- ondary in the traffic department come the general traffic manager, general passenger agent, passenger agents, and division managers at each terminal. There is also a department handling publicity and public relations.

BOEING MAIL AND PASSENGER PLANE This type of airplane is being used with great success between Chicago and San Francisco, and between Los Angeles and Seattle. It can transport a useful (pay) load of 2523 pounds

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| at The and fort, nner are ince, uild- ition oms, ved n is hree reles and veen ida reles ying red nes, een sky | M. be- n to the Air hat ice- ons, -on- ent on, all ield ster seC- me ral und lal. ing October 1929 Throughout the entire Western or- ganization the rule is enforced that “Oral orders don’t go.”” Everything is in writing. Every plane is carefully examined after every flight, by two mechanics, each of whom makes a written report. After every 200 hours of flying all motors are thoroughly overhauled. Another very important and success- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN make the line circuitous, and provide scenic excursions as a feeder to main lines where a short rail line is likely to prove unprofitable. Furthermore, a railroad acting in co-operation with an air transport company can greatly re- duce the operating expenses of the latter in the matter of selling expenses, ticket offices, time-tables, advertising, dispatching, et telégraphic cetera. —— = = + FLYING rere Z jo AIRPLANE |» «+ “ TRAVEL | (Dd AY) THE GRIGINAL T.A.T. ROUTE; SEE TEXT FOR NEW ful transport system is the Boeing. While hitherto the Boeing Air Trans- port has laid more emphasis on air- mail, its new three-engined biplane will be an excellent passenger plane, and there is no doubt that this com- pany will play an important part in passenger service. Unfortunately, lack of space does not permit us to deal with the many other lines now in operation, and doing splendid work. The railroads are losing much of their short-haul passenger traffic to the automobile and the motor bus. There is no doubt that more and more first- class mail will go by air. Will the railroads lose passenger traffic in large volume to the airlines? Extremists go so far as to say that eventually there will be more passenger travel by air than by rail. We do not believe that this will be the case. It is only on long distanees and under certain geographic conditions that the airplane will be supreme. We believe rather that the railroad executives, profiting by the lessons learned from automobile com- petition, will do their utmost to co- operate with the plane companies, and may in fact become the leading users of modern transport airplanes. F. Desmond Sprague, writing in Railway Age, a well informed and progressive magazine, points out many ways in which a railroad system can use air transport. It can shorten the distance where geographic conditions ~ sce ahhh o' e a ee | ROUTE Heavy baggage also will probably be better handled by checking on regular trains than by straining the carrying capacity of the airplane. There are indeed some strong argu- ments for the superiority of the air- plane advanced by the airplane en- thusiasts. An interesting comparison of several items has been made by N. D. Ballantine in Airway Age. HE distance between New York and Chicago by air is 712 miles; by rail it is 908 to 1013 miles, depend- ing‘on the route. The schedule by the fastest train is 20 hours. By air it will be less than six hours, and there is no reason why there should not be sleeper airplanes very shortly. Rail- road fare, plus meals, comes to about 55 dollars. Granted that 10 cents a mile is a fair figure for the airplane, the saving of time will make air travel actually cheaper for the business man. Further analysis shows that the invest- ment per passenger will be greater for the train than for the airplane, and more men will be required to “‘protect a run” per passenger. However, great railway executives such as General W. W. Atterbury, President of the Pennsylvania Rail- road, are fully aware of this possibility of competition, and General Atter- bury has made a most convincing statement in favor of the probability of continued passenger travel by rail. The automobile, so General Atterbury tells 327 us, was once greatly feared by the rail- road. But the extraordinary thing is that as automobile traffic increased, so did railway traffic! He closes the dis- cussion, to our mind, by saying: ‘‘Each kind of transportation should be devel- oped in co-operation with the others, with the understanding that each has its own special field in which it partic- ularly excels. The public should have ,_ the best form of service that | each can produce, or which | can be rendered jointly by two | or more in combination.” ype ATTERBURY and the Pennsylvania | Railway have shown the cour- age of their convictions by co- | operating actively with one of | the two transcontinental pas- senger air-rail services already in existence—the T. A. T. or Transcontinental Air Trans- port. This large company, with a capital of 5,000,000 dollars, was formed in the spring of 1928, by a group including the Pennsylvania Railroad, the At- chison, Topeka and Sante Fe Railroad, National Air Trans- port, and prominent bankers and business men of New York, St. Louis, Louisville (Ken- tucky), and San Francisco. C. M. Keys, president of the Curtiss Company, was elected president of the new corpora- tion, the directors including men expe- rienced in aviation and transportation generally. The 5,000,000-dollar capital was apportioned as follows: 2,000,000 dollars for operation; 1,000,000 dollars for meteorological and other investiga- tion, and 2,000,000 dollars for a general reserve. It may seem comparatively easy to establish an airline, easier than to establish a railroad for example, but there is in effect a great deal of pre- liminary work to do. The T. A. T. were fortunate enough to. secure Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh as Chairman of the Technical Committee, with C.S. (‘‘Casey’’) Jones, the famous commercial pilot with many air race victories to his credit, and Major Thomas Lamphier, an officer with a distinguished record in the Army Air Corps, as his associates. The executives of the company, aided by this Technical Committee, did a great deal of careful preparatory work. The first problem was the selection of the route itself. It was decided at the outset that the Alleghany Moun- tain section, considered dangerous flying territory owing to its rugged character and unsettled weather, should be covered in a night journey by rail. T. A. T. passengers, traveling west- ward, board their train at 6:05 P.M. 2

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328 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a, Cm ——— c—* eee a? | ' ~~" \& 2 i } \ a, L = aa ; ™, ; ern FTN @ } temo ee ne een 4 A “> y Me ca’ x . j — ’ { { f (v ies S$ \ BOSTON H : , SOS. a i ra / ! | ™~ } Y \) OC gn titiangeon® +) I / —— 4 oy il a / fe, $- —_ aa . f v2 pen 7 4 / . crc AGO } ze , / ! | ? oe att + a ‘ OnEw i = \ eee crever™ ioe \ ! | * wer 1 a it ; \ AN: \ "haa age” ey \ n } " Nd : | \ ry a PANS, 5 mien Sat O ( mwa f Ny) \ / J “i enim sas , 2 5 at \ . - Y coer” - cw ‘ ns pe BY XN a oe SO MROEN city om f we DR ” = > . 7 ta & > oe “ par ee tee , ; Qtos ANGELES = BSS p NN f SAN ness J I = : \ 7 fL . } \ 7 ae a | a \ t \ tome (a) \ : om ia %, » } . ~ ey _« \ x G «|S. ae i Ch St tight =TRAIN 2nd Day-~TRAIN And Might -TRA GO HOU Day ~~~ AIRPLANE ge 2 8¢.Night--TRAIN 2 5) . ays IAMS SL BUGUEAQUE GARDEN CITY KANSAS CITY ‘Cwicaco CLEVELAND NEW YORE pT AA BOSTON THE TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUT at the Pennsylvania Station in New York City and arrive at Columbus, Ohio, at 7:55 in the morning. At Columbus the Pennsylvania Railroad is building ‘‘Port Columbus”’ the first air-rail station to be erected in this country. Here passengers change to the ten- or twelve-passenger tri-motored metal- built Fords. They leave Columbus at 8:15 A.M. and reach Waynoka, Okla- homa, at 6:24 P.M., having flown 912 miles in the single day’s journey. There are intermediate stops at In- dianapolis, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Wichita. A “Fred Harvey” lunch is served on the plane between St. Louis and Kansas City. EAVING Waynoka at 11 P.M., the travelers proceed by train to Clo- vis, New Mexico, arriving at 8:25 in the morning. From Clovis to Los Angeles there is another plane flight of 897 miles, the great western city being reached at 5:25. Im selecting this route, careful investigations of weather conditions, altitudes, and intermediate landing fields were made. The south- western route was selected in preference to the direct airmail route from Chicago to San Francisco because the flying is in lower altitudes with more settled weather, and over parts of the Rockies which are not very high. The total time for the journey is 48 hours, as compared with the average five day train journey. Atalater date a supplementary all-air service be- tween Columbus and the Pacific Coast will be established. This will involve night flying but will cut the trip by several hours. The total cost of the trip, including lower berth and extra fare on the train from New York to Port Columbus and exclusive occupancy of a compart- rent on the Santa Fe is $351.94, some- thing like 50 percent more than by train—an important but not a pro- hibitive difference, ‘E OF THE GREAT CIRCLE LINE The T. A. T. transcontinental pas- senger service was Officially inaugurated on July 8th, but the honor of offering America the first service of this kind belongs to the Aviation Corporation, through its subsidiary, the Universal Aviation Corporation, its first pas- sengers beginning their journey on June 12th. The Universal employs the splendid Fokker tri-motored planes and in con- junction with the New York Central and the Atchinson, Topeka and Santa Fe offers a 60 hour service from coast to coast. The service consists of over- night train travel to Cleveland; a1087- mile flight from Cleveland to Garden City, Kansas, via Toledo, Chicago, and Kansas City, with longer stops at Chicago and Kansas City for meals, and then a rather lengthy train journey from Garden City to Los Angeles. The airway is known as the ‘“‘Great Circle Route” because flight is almost directly on the great circle. The line cuts through the heart of the United States and is fed by air and rail feeder lines from all sections, making it convenient for many large cities in the United States and Canada. The trans- continental fare is surprisingly low on the Universal Service, being only about 235 dollars. Besides the two transcontinental services, T. A. T. and Universal Avia- October 1929 tion, quite a number of other airways work in co-operation with the rail- roads. Northwest Airways, Chicago to Green Bay, advertises itself as the “First Co-ordinated Air-Rail Service in the United States,’’ and has its tickets on sale with the Northern Pacific; Great Northern; Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Pacific; Pennsy]- vania; B & O; and New York Central. The Pacific Air Transport makes connections with certain trains on the Pacific Coast. The Southwest Air Fast Express connects with El Paso by Texas and Pacifie Railway. On the Chicago-Detroit airline of Stout Air Services, passengers can book through to New York. on AMERICAN has operating ar- rangements with the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and the Florida East Coast Railway and through rail-air service is maintained from any point in the United States to any point on the airways. Standard Air Lines connects with the Texas and Pacifie’s train The Texan, which provides transportation to the north and east. The co-operation between the air- lines and the railroads is certain to in- crease as time goes on. There is one thing that is remarkable in the organization of T. A. T. and that is the care which has been taken to secure the best possible aids to navigation. Colonel Lindbergh and an associated group of engineers decided that for the maximum comfort of passengers, hops should not exceed 250 miles. With extraordinary care first class fields were located and developed at Colum- bus, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Kansas City, Wichita, Las Vegas, Gallup, Winslow, Kingman, and Los Angeles. Intermediate emergency fields were also located by practical flying over the route. In this the T. A. T. showed no great originality. Where the executives of T. A. T. did show boldness of vision and originality was in recognizing the fundamental im- portance of weather service and a a THE AERO CAR USED I N THE T.A.T. SERVICE

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1929 Vays rail- to the vice its nern Mil- isy]- tral. akes the ress and > of can ar- Dast vast -air dint ; on the ran, the air- ine ible and ken to ted the ops ‘ith lds 1m- sas up, les. ere the no did ity m- a October 1929 complete system of communications. Let us quote from a statement by C. M. Keys, the president of the com- pany. “We laid down as a fundamental that there must be two factors in this opera- tion which are not found in complete form in any other air transport opera- tions in the country, namely, first, an intensive meteorological service along the right of way, and, second, a com- plete communications system along the ground and a complete communica- tions system between the plane and the ground and between the ground and the plane. “C\QO far as meteorology is concerned, S we started with the Weather Bureau. The service of the Weather Bureau to airplanes in flight is enor- mously better than it was a few years ago and gets better day by day. It cannot, however, be expected that a government service can adapt itself specifically to the uses of an air line. ‘‘We cannot expect, and we do not expect, that Uncle Sam will establish across a strip of the United States 100 niles wide and 2000 miles long, a de- tailed weather service that will work at particular hours of the day for our benefit. We shall need that service working efficiently and accurately at the hours of the day when our pas- senger planes are flying. ‘“‘We have drawn upon the Weather Bureau for personnel, both at the top and down the line of employment. We have drawn upon the records of the Weather Bureau for fifty years past in making due allowances for prevail- ing winds, for fog, bad air conditions, et cetera, at every point along this right-of-way. I know that you would be interested, if there were space to go SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN into details of this weather service which is so much more necessary to us that it is to you, to whom storms, snow, fog, and rain mean very little, com- pared with what they mean to us. “The communications system also entailed elements new and old. In fact, it entailed elements which did not exist in this country when we started our demand for them. The land communication is, of course, by tele- phone and telegraph and here again the railways co-operate as far as they properly can, but in the main we rest upon our own resources, drawing upon the American Telegraph and Tele- phone Company and the telegraph lines for our facilities. This is more or less routine, being merely a draft upon things already well established. “The radio communication consists of two elements: First, the radio direc- tion installation and, second, radio communication both ways. 7 HE directional radio has been worked out in close co-operation between the government and the radio companies, and this installation, which will give to the pilot his general location at all times while in the air, by day and by night, is more or less standardised, being in use on many of the airmail lines of the country. “The actual audible communication between the plane and the ground and the ground and the plane is the number one factor of safety in passenger transport. It is the block signal system of the air. An air transport passenger line without it will be illegal a few years from now. ‘All the weather information col- lected by the meteorological system must be transmitted instantaneously and continuously. That, again, is not r on —— WHERE PLANE MEETS MOTOR BUS Scene at the Grand Central Air Terminal at Glendale, California. Passengers on Pickwick Airlines are transferring from the three-motored plane in the background to the motor bus 329 so difficult. For a time it looked as though that was all we were going to be able to have, because our first figures on the installation of trans- mitting equipment in the plane itself indicated that we might have to AERO CAR INTERIOR In these comfortable cars, passengers are carried from centers of cities to the airport sacrifice room for two passengers in order to take care of the weight of this system. “Intensive research has been carried on by the radio companies for the past six months and as a result we are now promised definite installations in the planes at a weight that is more or less negligible, so that our pilots can com- municate instantaneously and at all times with the ground stations to ask additional weather information, wind velocities, and so forth.” T is interesting to note also that air and motor bus co-ordination has also begun. Thus in the month of June, the Pickwick Airlines placed in operation night coaches in combination with three-engined airplanes, between San Diego, Los Angeles, San Fran- cisco, and Seattle. The daily trips be- tween San Diego and Seattle will take 23 hours and 10 minutes. Here again we have the principle of night travel on the ground, and flying by day. A rather curious development of air transport is the Aero car designed for the use of Transcontinental Air Trans- port, in carrying passengers between the downtown sections and airports in cities on the coast-to-coast air-rail route. The rear section, which has a capacity of 14 passengers, has a tele- phone connection to the driver’s seat in the power unit. The telephone set is designed like a radio microphone with the receiving end connected to a loudspeaker. Repeated tests of the Aero car loaded to full capacity have shown that it does not hinder the functioning of the power unit. The extreme comfort of the new vehicle is (Please turn to page 359)

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« Architect, Tre.sury Depar This great group of office buildings, to be used by the various commer- cial branches of the government, will cost about 200,000,000 dollars SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN * ~ i> ” ae > > = um ar a ims } rae Feige OS ee Tee October 1929 THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRIANGLE and require many years for completion. The enormous building at the base of the triangle is the Commerce building, now being constructed Greater Washington Starts to Rise Launching the Most Ambitious Construction Program in Its History, Congress Furthers the L’Enfant Plan IEWING the city of Washing- ton from an airplane, one admires the monumental gov- ernment buildings, the impres- sive memorials, the wide streets radiat- ing from the Capitol and the White House, and the natural loveliness of the setting. But there is something else about the panorama that impresses the spectator. With striking clarity one is able] to visualize the magnificent plan for the city, which will ultimately make Washington the world’s most beautiful capital. Rare vision end exceptionel in- telligence must have been possessed by George Washington and Pierre Charles L’Enfant, who stood on the green hills overlooking the Potomac River where the city is now situated, and sketched the plans for a capital worthy of a great nation. Gradually the city has grown, and gradually the L’Enfant plan has been translated into broad avenues and open parks, bounded by the great buildings in which is carried on the work of the government. The city seems to scorn modernism, particularly in its architectural features. Tall buildings are taboo, and rapid transit facilities are unnecessary. There is something strangely timeless about the city, as if its builders and the inhabi- tants are content with the realization that the most enduring beauty is to be found in adhering to styles of classic simplicity. Washington is a city of the south, and is more than content with its heritage. During the early years of the repub- lic closely following the devastating Revolutionary War, construction was By HENRY W. HOUGH started on the President’s House and other important federal buildings. In 1814 the city was partially destroyed by the British, but the President’s House was painted white to cover the marks of fire, and the work of building the city went on. Even during the nation’s most trying ordeal—the Civil War—the development was continued and the dome of the Capitol was com- pleted. Slowly the great city of today came into being, but all attempt at architectural control had been aban- doned. Like Topsy, it “just growed.”’ Each generation has inherited as a sacred trust the responsibility of doing its best to carry toward completion the beautification of the city, and to provide improvements and additional buildings when needed. About two years ago the Treasury Department pointed out that the government needs new buildings urgently, and that the delay in constructing them is exceed- ingly expensive because the govern- ment is now paying high rentals for floor space. The way to a Congress- man’s heart is through the pocketbooks of his constituents, and without further delay an appropriation of 75 million dollars was authorized for buying land and starting construction on a group of buildings of which the total cost will be about 200 million dollars. CONOMIC necessity had provided the incentive for the appropriation but other incentives motivate those who have been entrusted with the task of designing and constructing the buildings. In a recent address, Presi- dent Herbert Hoover said, ‘“‘The gov- ernment is expending vast sums for rented buildings throughout the city, and this expense will be eliminated. ... Congress has authorized the beginning of a great program which must extend Over many years. It is our primary duty to do more than erect offices. We must fit that program into the traditions and the symbolism of the capital. Our forefathers had a great vision of the capital for America, unique from its birth in its inspired conception, flexibility, and wonderful beauty. No one in 150 years hes been able to improve upon it. It is the wish and demand of the American people that our new buildings shall comport with the dignity of the capital of America, that they shall meet modern requirements of utility, that they shall fulfill the standards of good taste, and that they shall be a lasting inspiration.”’ It was decided to group the new commercial buildings in the heart of the city, in a triangular tract with an area of about 74 acres or 238 city blocks. Just such a development had been contemplated by L’Enfant in his remarkable plan for the future capital. The points of the Triangle are, roughly, the Washington monument, the White House grounds, and the Capitol build- ing. The Triangle is bounded by two broad parks and ‘‘the Avenue,’’ fa- mous as the scene of the great inaugural processions. When it was decided to utilize this incomparable location for the new commercial buildings, the simple demand for floor space was transfigured into the great Triangle Plan, which is the greatest ever con-

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r 1929 for city, ning fend lary ices, the the reat ica, ired rful hes t is can hall ital leet hat 00d ing ew of an ity ad his aad ly, ite ld- wo fa- ral to for he sle n- October 1929 ceived for a single group of govern- mental buildings. At the base of the Triangle there is now an eight-acre crater, in which are 13,500 cast-in-place concrete piles aver- aging about 25 feet in length. This is to become the monumental new De- partment of Commerce building, which will cost approximately 17,500,000 dollars and be considerably larger than either the Capitol or the House of Parliament. It will be 1650 feet long, 325 feet wide, seven stories in height, and will have 48 acres of floor space. The new building will house all of the branches with the exception of the Bureau of Standards, located on the outskirts of the city. The Patent Office will occupy the entire north rectangle, with all public serving units on the ground floor, in- cluding the spacious public search room, record room and library, cashier and units for applications, assignments, manuscripts, and photostats. The ex- amining corps will occupy the four upper floors, with semi-private space for each examiner and every considera- tion for such factors as convenience, supervision, light, privacy, quietness, and future expansion. f pes south rectangle of the Com- merce building has been assigned to the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Census Bureau. The middle group, which is somewhat larger than the others, will be occupied by the executive and administrative offices of the Department, a large library, con- ference rooms, a cafeteria for the building’s 5000 employees, and the more compact bureaus and services in- cluding the Aeronautics Branch, Radio Division, and the Bureaus of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Mines, Lighthouses, Fisheries, Navigation, and Steamboat Inspection. The build- ing faces the Great Plaza, which will be enclosed by the other buildings of the Triangle. The exterior is character- ized by great simplicity, almost devoid of ornamentation except for the por- ticos and gateways which give access to the various units of the building. Another huge building now under construction in the Triangle is to house the Bureau of Internal Revenue. This structure will cost about 10,000,000 dollars, and is to be completed within the next two years. The sum of 8,750,000 has been authorized for the construction of an Archives Building, to provide a safe place for keeping valuable government records. Other buildings to be built within this area include a group for the Department of Labor, Interstate Commerce Com- nission, Tariff Commission and other independent establishments, and the Department: of Justice. Two open ~ reas are included within the Triangle, one a rectangle 764 feet by 597 feet which will be known as the Great SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Plaza, and a circle 375 feet in diameter to be known as the Circular Plaza. This development will redeem Penn- sylvania Avenue, now marred by many unsightly buildings, and will provide a northern boundary for the Mall, the wide park leading from the Capitol to the river. It will also expedite the conversion cf B Street, paralleling the Mull, into a great ceremonial thorough- fare extending fromthe Capitol grounds to the new Arlington Memorial Bridge, near the Lincoln Memoria!. Although such an undertaking cannct be com- pleted for many years, the grandeur of the development can be appreciated by 331 studying the truly remarkable set of plaster models made by Bertram Keyes now on exhibition in the Treasury Building. (See page 110, August, 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.) On the other side of the Mall from the new group, workmen are busily engaged in completing the Department of Agriculture building, and the same department is soon to have another building for housing some of its numerous bureaus. An extension to cost 1,250,000 dellars is to be added to the United States Government Print- ing Office, located north of the Capitol near the Union Station. Nearer the \ le ARRANGEMENT OF THE NEW BUILDINGS IN THE TRIANGLE The proposed Triangle development: 1, the Capitol; 2, Commerce Building; 3, Pennsylvania Avenue; 4, 15th Street; 5, B Street; 6, Department of Labor; 7, Interstate Commerce Commission; 8, Independent Establishments; 9, Bureau of Internal Revenue; 10, Archives building; 11, Department of Justice; 12, Washington Memorial; 13, National Museum; 14, National Art Gallery; 15, The Mall, the park leading from the Capitol to the river

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN es sae Capitol, the office building of the House of Representatives is to have an extension which will cost about 7,500,- 000 dollars, and its companion struc- ture, the Senate office building, is to receive a 2,000,000 dollar addition. A new building for the Supreme Court is to be built facing the plaza east of the Capitol, at a cost of about 9,740,000 dollars, unless present plans fail to materialize. Congress has appropriat- ed 4,912,414 dollars for completing the park between the Capitol and the Union Station, and for carrying out the long delayed plans for the redemption and development of the Mall. HE beautiful Arlington Memorial bridge over the Potomac at the western end of the Mall is now under construction; when it is finished it will represent an expenditure of about 14,750,000 dollars, including the cost of approaches and a formal terraced avenue leading to Arlington Cemetery on the Virginia side of the river. A total of 116 million dollars has been authorized for federal buildings and other new developments in the city. The expenditures for this year will not exceed 11 million dollars, and for next vear not more than 24 million dollars, according to Senator Smoot of Utah, Chairman of the Publie Build- ings Commission. One of the factors contributing to the beauty and importance of the city of Washington is the presence of many unofficial organizations, several of which occupy buildings of rare beauty. An outstanding example is WASHINGTON MONUMENT ENFRAMED The stately obelisk which dominates Washington, St. reflected in a quiet pool in the beautiful gardens sur- rounding the building of the Pan-American the group on17thStreet, fac- ing the Monument grounds, including the Corcoran Gal- lery of Art, the Red Cross building, the Continental Memorial Hallofthe Daugh- ters of the American Rev- olution, and the building of the Pan-American Union. It seems that the new Wash- ington would be incomplete without the beautiful Pan- American building, which typifies the cultural rela- tions with our neighboring countries in much the same way that the mammoth new Commerce building will serve as a symbol of our greatcommercialenterprises at home and abroad. Ex- tensive gardens of unusual charm encircle the marble building, and inside is a beautiful patio 60 feet square, with a sculptured fountain and a great pro- fusion of luxurious tropical shrubs and flowers. On the slopes of Mount Alban, overlooking the city, is being built the great Gothie cathedral visualized by Washington, L’Enfant, and other founders of the country as a house of prayer for all people. Every year hundreds of thousands of visitors and worshippers pause to view the tombs of Woodrow Wilson, Admiral Dewey, and others buried here. From the natural amphitheatre, where open- air services are held when the weather is favorable, a commanding view of the entire region can be obtained. The Washington Cathedral, which will be an outstanding example of 14th Union October 1929 Century English Gothic architecture, vas chartered by Congress in 1893, The edifice is being built by the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foun- tion on a 67-acre tract including the highest elevation in the District of Columbia. More than 6,000,090 dol- lars has been contributed to the National Committee for Washington Cathedral, of which Andrew Mellon is treasurer. General Pershing, who led the American army during the World War, is chairman of the Committee. He recently declared that his two greatest interests are, “‘building monu- ments in France to the memory of the service of American soldiers in the World War, and assisting to build this great cathedral to the glory of Him to Whom we owe all of our greatness.” It is being built, as rapidly as funds are provided, in the shape of a cross. Two square towers flank the main entrance, and a great central tower surmounts the crossing of the nave and the trancepts; the main tower will rise 107 feet higher than the Washing- ton monument. ITH the attention of the world focused on aeronautical develop- ments, it is not strange that Wash- ington should feel the need of adequate airport facilities, which are sadly lacking at present. Looking ahead, it seems inconceivable that the capital of the United States should be without adequate provisions for flying fields, but no satisfactory developments have yet been approved, due to the perennial controversy between the Federal gov- ernment and the District of Columbia. A great airport worthy of the capital could be built at Gravelly Point on the Potomac river between Washington and Alexandria, which is close to the - | | | | Hh s ni SPANISH AMERICA IN THE HEART OF WASHINGTON Within the spacious halls of the Pan-American Union building, Latin America holds sway. The open patio has a sculptured fountain, surrounded by luxurious tropical vegetation aA = TF ~ > &

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1929 ture, 893. the oun- the t of dol- the ston nN is led orld tee, two ynu- the the this 1 to i? nds OSS, jain wer ave will ng- orld Op- sh- ate dly ad, ital out ds, ive ial OV- ia. tal the on che October 1929 city and has been approved by the government’s aviation authorities. A recent proposal presented to Congress was defeated, because certain provin- cial-minded legislators wanted to make the over-burdened tax-payers of the District of Columbia pay 90 percent of the cost of the National Airport, rance that would be under the supervision of the District. Certain interests would like to see the airport located somewhere in Mary- land, and others would support almost ’ site located in Virginia. As a result, Washington is in a position no modern city would envy. without providing any asst the site to be developed ASHINGTON Airport, one of the commercial fields just across the river from the city, is being de- veloped into a well-equipped port to accommodate passengers or mail. About 180,000 dollars is to be ex- pended within the next two years for hangars, enlarging the landing field, and clearing the obstructions nearby, according to the officials of the com- pany. The same concern operates the New York-Washington Airline, Inc., which provides regular one and a half hour flying service between the two cities. A larger landing field is being prepared at a site several miles south for handling transport business. Under the present schedule, it seems that the development of the capital is being carried forward adequately, as far as the public buildings are con- cerned. However, other considera- tions need attention, according to the American Institute of Architects, a group which deserves the nation’s SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 333 a WASHINGTON CATHEDRAL AS IT WILL BE WHEN COMPLETED Situated on Mount St. Alban, overlooking the city of Washington, this great Gothic cathe- dral will take its place as an integral part of the plan prepared by Pierre Charles L’Enfant thanks for stimulating interest in the present program to beautify Wash- ington. The most urgent need, ac- cording to the architects, is the im- provement and development of the park system. The present million- dollars-a-year is considered but a drop in the bucket, because the desired land is being either wiped out by develop- ment (with elimination of irreplaceable tree growth), or its value is appreciat- ing so rapidiy that it cannot be pur- chased. At the present rate of purchase, even if the land were not made useless for park purposes, it would take 40 years and a corresponding number of mil- Artist’s conception of the Washington Airport when completed. OF WASHINGTON AIRPORT a = This airport is now rel- atively small, but provides a close-in terminal for local and inter-city passenger service lions to acquire it. The Institute points out that some broad-gage legislation is urgently needed, as a matter of economy if for no other reason. A bill introduced into Con- gress by Representative Cramton of Michigan would provide for the situa- tion; it has been passed by the House of Representatives, but at this writing is awaiting consideration by the Senate. Better provisions for transportation, and development of the water front, are also improvements that should be made without undue delay. These matters, like the proposed National Airport, await the pleasure of Congress. yy like the beautiful capital cities more recently de- signed at Delhi and Canberra, is-an en- during symbol of the importance of architectural control. The first Presi- dent inaugurated a code of restrictions well designed to prevent the erection of any structures which would impair the beauty and harmony of the city. In 1818 President Monroe was per- suaded to suspend these regulations. Deviations from the L’Enfant plan added to the resulting confusion. For many decades the Mall was dis- figured by the tracks and station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The company finally decided to build a viaduct over the Mall, and the resulting contro- versy led to a revival of interest in the original plan for the city. The Mc- Millan Commission, appointed by Congress in 1901, submitted a far- reaching plan to carry forward the development of the greater Washing- ton. Within the past 30 years the present program has been approved and construction started. Within an- other 50 years, if favored with con- continued peace and prosperity, the nation should see the magnificent vision of L’Enfant fulfilled.

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334 A ROMAN WOODEN PARTITION From a house in Herculaneum just un- covered. Wood preservation is very rare New Discoveries at Herculaneum N our April 1928 issue we published an interesting series of pictures on Herculaneum, which is now being ex- plored by the archeological authorities of the Italian government. We are now able to present later pictures of the excavations. Herculaneum was de- stroyed by water and mud so that wooden objects were preserved. The King of Italy recently visited the ex- cavations, which are being carried on in a most scientific manner. TATRA LL 3 : e q wares WANS - = 4 - = 7 2 / 4 4 4 4 7 = 4s =~ = rs mele ARCHEOLOGY INFLUENCES FURNITURE A coin cabinet and pedestal with motives for decoration from Egyptian archeology SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October From the Archeologists’ Note Book 1929 UNCOVERING HERCULANEUM A large number of the houses have now been uncovered, disclosing many interesting finds, as the wooden partition at the left. Egyptian Motives for Furniture HE influence of archeology is felt in many branches of the arts, and we present a curious piece of furniture, the motives for the decoration being directly inspired by Napoleon’s Egyp- tian expedition. The mahogany coin- cabinet is in the form of an Egyptian pylon with silver inlay and mountings. The ends of the cabinet contain a series of shallow drawers. It is probable that the cabinet was designed for the Emperor himself by the Baron Devon who was taken to Egypt by Napoleon, who afterwards made him director- general of museums. This interesting piece is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the City of New York. Uncovering Nerni’s Barges N our July 1929 issue we gave an account of the interesting work being carried on in draining Lake Nemi in the Alban Mountains near Rome. The Italian archeologists are now coming near the goal, for the first galley or barge has emerged from its watery grave. The remains so far ~ Set THE BARGE ARISES FROM THE WATERS The unwatering of Lake Nemiis proceeding apace and here is the first barge to emerge from he depths of the beautiful Italian lake. It is a great, expensive, and well worth while venture Everything wooden at Pompeii was destroyed by ashes DOSSENA AT WORK Dossena working on a modern ‘old mas- Great experts have been deceived his very ingenious productions discovered are without artistic trea- sures such as were secured by diving years ago. The barge, as it should be called, was very wide and very shallow. Only a few feet separate the keel from the deck planking. It is probable that the deck supported a number of super- structures so that it was really little more than a pontoon. Supported by the bulkheads was the planking of the deck, which was very largely torn away by the archeologists of the last century. The hull was covered externally with a substance like felt and then with leaden sheets held in position by long copper nails. The nails, perfectly preserved, are bright and shiny as new. Even if the results prove disappoint- ing, considering the expense involved, Italy is to be commended for this great archeological adventure.

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October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 335 The Detection of Fake Antiquities geries, which are intimately connected. The forgeries exhibited in this room have come to the Museum in various ways. Most of the terracotta sta- tuettes, for example, were purchased about 30 years ago when these often attractive imitations were widely bought. A number of others were oc- casionally purchased or received by gift as recognized forgeries for study purposes. A few were acquired as bona- fide antiques within comparatively recent times and withdrawn from exhibition in due course when further knowledge made the authorities realize that they must be modern. The little maiden from Dossena which figured so largely in newspaper 929

DRILL MARKS IN THE HAIR Several of the exhibits indicate by their well preserved tool-marks what imple- ments were used by the antique sculptor accounts, is a good illustration of an up-to-date forgery. It is not directly copied from any one known work of art but reproduces the general style of many in a not unsuccessful fashion, for it might well pass for a nondescript archaistic product (that is, a Roman imitation of the Greek archaic), since its strangely elongated proportions are characteristic of such works. Only the face with its alert, modern expression gives it away. Moreover, the ‘“weath- ering” uniformly covers the whole sur- face, not varying according to expo-

} A DOSSENA MASTERPIECE An original marble statuette in the early Roman style. The modern expression reveals that it is not an antique

HE forgery of works of art always commands great attention in the public press. The Metropolitan Mu- seum of Art has done a good work in establishing a small gallery in which

A “MODERN” ANTIQUE sure: it was evidently obtained by cooking”’ the marble and then pitting

are sacte which i tps — Head of the marble statuette to the left. ° ; are objects W hich illustrate the tec h- Tae “waatheting” Gun eblentiy abe it with a ragged stone. Its dead, nical side of classical art, and also for- tained by ‘“‘cooking” the modern marble brittle character has been reproduced ee ee ee ee en ea ee in a few marble fragments to which a

great heat was applied. <A _ forgery becomes especially difficult to detect when ancient work is mechanically produced by the pointing process. mma. i = __ see | | |

All photographs courtesy Metropolitan Museum CLASSICAL STUDY ROOM The bronze casting was defective so two Here is to be found material for study for the detection of modern forgeries rectangular patches were welded on

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336 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 Learning to Use Our Wings Latest Facts About Airplanes and Airships CONDUCTED BY ALEXANDER KLEMIN In charge, Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New York City ae The Autogiro HE following comments on the article “How the Autogiro Flies,’ starting on page 290 of this issue were put forth by Harold F. Pitcairn in a letter to the author of the article: . there are no conditions that I know of under which the rotor could stop on a properly designed autogiro. Senor de la Cierva found that the rotational speed of the rotor would increase as the forward speed increased on _ autogiros which had no fixed wings but only ailerons for lateral control. The autogiros we are building are designed so that the angle between the fixed wings and the disk de- scribed by the rotor can be altered on the ground. Therefore, if it is found neces- sary, it will be practical to adjust these machines so that when placed in a dive the fixed wings will exercise a negative lift, thereby increasing the wind-mill action of the rotor which will assure a sufficient number of revolutions per minute under all conditions. “The fixed wings on the machine in which you flew were mounted at too great an angle of incidence, so that the propor- tion of total lift that these wings carry increases with the forward speed. Because of this, rotational speed decreases with forward speed. This will not be the case in future autogiros. “Your article gives the impression that great care must be taken while taxying to prevent excessive strain on the cables which control the position of the blades while their rotational speed is slow. There is never excessive stress on these cables. However, caution must be exercised in taxying rapidly into the wind with the machine in which you flew to prevent the rotor blades from being carried too high before sufficient rotational speed is ac- quired to give the necessary centrifugal force to hold the blades in place. With the self starting device which will be employed, there will be no occasion to taxi rapidly into the wind before the rotor is turning fast enough. “Your article states that when the autogiro hits a severe bump or is pulled suddenly out of a dive, the lift of the wings becomes greater than centrifugal force. However, experience has always found centrifugal force to be more than sufficient to take care of every condition of this nature. “IT recognize that from the ground it is very difficult to judge the comparative take-off of an autogiro with an airplane, unless the two machines leave the ground at the same time. I regret that you re- ceived the impression it was only equiva- lent to that of a good OX biplane. From comparative tests we have found that with the autogiro and Mailwing having the same gross load, after the rotor has reached 90 revolutions, the take-off distance is appreciably in favor of the autogiro. Also in carefully measured tests, we found that the angle of climb of an autigiro is considerably better than that of a Mailwing. The rate of climb is not as good but it is the angle of climb and not the rate of climb that helps one out of a small field. “Also, I would call your attention to the fact that the autogiro up to this time is the development of one man only and that it is reasonable to expect a great deal of improvement in the near future. In fact, Senor de la Cierva has recently been able to double his rate of climb with every- thing else being equal, by simply changing the plan form of the rotor blades and cover- ing them with plywood. “I do not think that your statement that the autogiro is inefficient at low speeds is born out of the facts. I believe that it can be demonstrated that its slow speed efficiency is greater than that of an airplane. “You evidently have the impression that the forward gliding of the autogiro is much worse than is actually the case. While demonstrating the machine it was my purpose to show a steep angle of de- scent. As a matter of fact, the maximum forward gliding angle of the machine I have been flying I would say is half way between that of a Jenny and a Mailwing. Certainly, the forward gliding angle of an efficient autogiro will be considerably better than that of an inefficient airplane.” Learning to Fly UR flying: schools are rapidly improv- ing, now that the requirements of the Department of Commerce for the licensing of pilots have been made more rigorous. Even the private pilot, who can get his license after ten hours flying instruction, has to pass an examination in aeronautical subjects. Industrial pilots and transport A scene in a Curtiss Flying Service school. See ‘Learning to Fly’’ above pilots not only have to have 50 and 200 hours of actual flying respectively, but they must be far better grounded in such subjects, as Theory of Flight, Engines, Rules of the Air, Rigging and Maintenance, Navigation, et cetera, than heretofore. Lowering Parcels from the Air OREIGN Aeronautical News of the Department of Commerce reports an interesting invention by a Swiss engineer. The apparatus, called the ‘“‘Meteor,”’ is de- signed to permit the delivery of small packages of mail from a plane in flight. It consists of an aluminum shell equipped with a precision watch. A waterproof sack is attached under the shell, and at the top of the shell a small parachute lies folded in a frame. The weight of the apparatus is about eight pounds, and it can carry a weight of nine pounds. When flying over the point at which the mail is to be dropped, the pilot adjusts the precision watch ac- cording to the reading of the altimeter, and throws the carrier overboard. The carrier falls like a dead weight until it is some three hundred feet from the ground. The watch then releases the parachute and the package lands slowly on the spot at which it was aimed. A larger model will permit the delivery of a weight as great as 66 pounds. A New Altimeter RITING in Airway Age, Guy K. Calhoun describes the very interest- ing Paulin altimeter, which is being in- creasingly used for aircraft purposes. An altimeter is not dissimilar in principle to the barometer, except that the barometer indicates atmospheric pressure and the altimeter, while measuring pressure, is made to indicate the height in feet, corre- sp his is

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29 October 1929 sponding to the lower pressures found at high altitudes. Sometimes the altimeter is termed an aneroid barometer. One of our diagrams illustrates the principle of the conventional altimeter. A is a vacuum chamber with a flexible dia- phragm. To the flexible diaphragm is attached the stem, C. One end of the spring, B, is attached to the stem and the other is fixed to the frame of the instrument. As the plane rises, and the atmospheric pressure falls, the force exer- cised on the diaphragm of the vacuum chamber diminishes, and the tension of the spring pulls up the stem, C. The motion of the stem is communicated through the rack and the pinion to the pointer, D. With suitable arrangements for setting and calibration, the movement of the pointer, D, can be made to indicate the height above sea-level. Of course no altimeter indicates the exact height above sea-level. An altimeter is calibrated for a conventional atmosphere, which represents average conditions. But atmospheric pressures and temperatures are always changing, and without com- plicated calculations the altimeter gives only the approximate height. When flying high above the ground, such errors are of comparatively minor impor- tance to the aviator, but when landing in a fog, he must know the height to within a few feet. Hence the research work now being carried on to develop altimeters based on radio, electrostatic, and acoustic principles. The conventional altimeter also has pos- sibilities of error that are not chargeable to atmospheric variations. There is needed a considerable movement of the diaphragm to produce full scale movement of the pointer. This introduces the “‘elastic errors of hysteresis.”” For example, when a plane is descending rapidly, there is a lag in the movement of the diaphragm, and the pointer indicates unduly high elevations. There are other mechanical difficulties. In the Paulin system, hysteresis and mechanical difficulties are considerably reduced by an ingeniousand novel principle The principle of the ordinary alti- meter, in which the diaphragm actuates the indicator, D, directly SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN illustrated by another of our diagrams. A is the vacuum chamber as before connected to the stem B, but this stem, instead of acting directly on the spring, is connected to one end of a beam, with the spring, C, connected to the other end. One end of the spring, C, is attached to a micro- meter screw, D, and the nut which travels on this screw carries a graduated dial, EF. The tension of the spring is controlled by the setting knob, H, which, when turned, rotates the dial and the nut and thus changes the elongation of the spring, and its tension. When the force of the spring, C, is such as to balance exactly the force due to the atmospheric pressure acting on the diaphragm, and the position of the beam is midway between the stops, G, balance is indicated by the balance in- dicator, F. The Paulin altimeter thus weighs atmos- pheric pressure like a chemist’s balance The Paulin altimeter and is very accurate. Because the move- ment of the diaphragm is limited by the stops, G, to a very small amount, there is only little stress in the diaphragm and the “elastic errors of hysteresis’’ are largely eliminated. It should be noted that the small movement of the diaphragm is multi- plied many times on the dial. Space will not permit us to describe the instrument in detail. The photograph shows the latest form of the altimeter, with a rectangular face. By using the setting knob and the dial, the pilot can get the pointer to read zero at any desired pressure or altitude. Thus the Paulin altimeter can also be used as a level flight indicator, which is particularly useful in testing for speed, or in making landings in foggy weather. The World’s Largest Seaplane N MANY respects Claude Dornier is the most remarkable airplane designer in Europe. Beginning as a naval architect, he continued his career as an airship de- signer with the Zeppelin Company at Frie- drichshafen. There he learned the use of dural as a structural materal for aircraft, and when the Zeppelin Company turned its attention to airplanes, Dornier had no difficulty in adapting himself to this new field. When the Versailles Treaty curtailed German activities in the construction of aircraft, Dornier established his own factory in Switzerland, returning to Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance when the treaty restric- tions had become void. Dornier has steadily built flying boat 337 | The principle of the Paulin alti- meter. Movement of diaphragm is reduced, eliminating errors after flying boat, with all-metal construc- tion, side extensions on the boat hull in- stead of wing-tip floats for lateral stabiliza- tion, wing bracing reduced to a minimum, and engines placed above the wing. Pass- ing from one engine to two and then four, he has gradually increased the size of his aircraft, learning the lessons of large flying boat construction as he went along. Now his Do. X,a 12-engined flying boat, has made its trial flight on Lake Constance and is undoubtedly the largest heavier-than-air craft ever flown. For photographs of this huge plane, refer to pages 318 and 319 of this issue. The Do. X has an overall length of 149 feet. The span of the main wing is 150 feet and the chord of the wing is about 32.8 feet. The aspect ratio of the wing, therefore, is a trifle under five. In building very large wings, a difficulty arises in keeping the bending moments and the weight of the wing withing reasonable limits, and a low aspect ratio with a comparatively short span is a means to this end. Moreover, the low aspect ratio does not affect the high speed very much, but only the cruising efficiency and climb. Probably Dornier has found a slight decrease in aerodynamic efficiency more than compensated for by the decrease in structural weight. The area of the main wing is approxi- mately 6150 square feet, and the large fly- ing boat is heavily loaded per square foot, since the gross weight fully loaded is 106,- 000 pounds, or 53 tons. The weight empty is 55,000 pounds, so that there is an ample margin for pay load, and crew, fuel, and oil. The power plant consists of 12 Bristol Jupiter engines of 625 horsepower each, or a total of 6300 horsepower. The loading is therefore about 16.8 pounds per horse- power, which is also high. The top speed is estimated at 135 miles per hour. The landing speed is probably quite high and the climb only moderate. With a crew of nine, five tons of mail, and a fair number of passengers, the range will be 2700 miles. The long hull seems to have a more pro- nounced V-bottom effect than is usual Dornier practice and it has but one step situated under the rear edge of the wing. As is customary in Dornier construction, there are no tip floats, huge sponsons at either side of the hull giving the required lateral stability. These sponsons naturally act as lifting surfaces in flight. We have been speaking above of the main wing. Do. X may almost be termed’a tri- plane, since in addition to the main wing of 150 feet span and the sponsons,

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338 there is also an auxiliary wing, some four feet above the main wing, of rather greater aspect ratio than the main wing itself, which serves to complete the engine bracing and also contributes to the total lift. The six engine nacelles are mounted directly on this auxiliary wing. Each nacelle carries two engines in tandem, with two propellers, one a tractor and one a pusher. Directly under each engine nacelle Grover Loening (right), designer of the single-wheel amphibian, and his test pilot, B. Allison Gillies there is a streamlined support, broad enough for a man to get into comfortably, which runs to the main wing. Inside this streamlined support there is a ladder which leads up to the engine nacelle. The main wing, since it is externally braced by struts running from the sponsons, is not unduly thick, somewhere around three feet, we gather. We doubt therefore that it is in- tended that the mechanic should crawl in- side the wing to the engine nacelles. But each of the supports for the nacelles has not only an inside ladder, but also a con- venient door on either side. It should be comparatively easy to climb from the engine room into the two central nacelles, then get out on the wing, and by hanging on to the bracing wires pass on to the next engine support. On this point our curiosity prob- ably runs ahead of our knowledge. What is definite is that there is a single engine room, with a chief engineer and four mechanicians. In this room there are in- numerable controls and instruments, for all the world like the control room of a power house. Here there is ample space and head room for the men in charge. The propeller diameter appears rather small for the power developed, but this has been made possible by the use of four-bladed propellers. The propellers are really two superimposed two-bladed propellers and are built of laminated wood. The hull has three decks. The middle deck has a passenger compartment, 80 feet in length and 16 feet in width, with ac- commodations for one hundred passengers. There are individual sleeping compartments, comfortable chairs, baths, a reading room and a well appointed restaurant. Towards the rear of this deck there is an ample electric kitchen. With 100 passengers and baggage, the range is only 800 miles. The sides of the hull are provided with the traditional port holes of marine practice. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The lower deck is to be used for bag- gage, stores, and fuel. The upper deck is divided into three compartments. The front compartment carries the pilots and navigating officers, who have good vision through windows of a more land-like ap- pearance. The middle compartment is the engine room. The rear compartment houses the wireless operators and equipment. The balancing of the controls in a flying boat of this size is quite an undertaking. Apparently little auxiliary surfaces are mounted above each control surface and these auxiliary surfaces provide an opposite turning movement about the hinges which lessens the effort which the pilot must exert. Perhaps our readers will gain more accurate knowledge from the photo- graphs themselves. With them we shall await eagerly more details of this remarkable craft which by virtue of its size, carrying capacity, complete equip- ment, and crew should have a high degree of seaworthiness. It is the intention of the Dornier Company to make a transatlantic crossing, with stops at the Azores and the Bermudas. A Single-wheel Amphibian (ROVER LOENING, the well-known aeronautical engineer, has for many years been building various successful types of amphibians. His latest design is of in- terest because it provides an amphibian gear of the simplest and lightest type for the small, conventional single pontoon plane of low power, and brings the am- phibian into the moderate price range. The development of this new, single- wheel amphibian has been continued over a fairly long period, and in complete secrecy. The first trials, recently made, were entirely successful. The seaplane to which the single wheel amphibian gear has been applied is a Moth biplane, with single float, and equipped with the Cirrus Mark II engine. The duralumin float as applied to the Moth is 17!4 feet long and 30 inches wide. Two side floats are used, placed under the outer wing struts. The single wheel mechanism raises and lowers in a pocket in the hull in direct combination with doors that open and close the pocket, according to the position of the wheel. The shock absorption is taken on rubber disks in compression. The raising and lowering mechanism is of a new type October 1929 consisting of two toggle levers so hinged that when the wheel is out, the toggles are locked for carrying the load. With the aid of balancing springs, the mechanism is so readily operated that it takes only one second to raise or lower the wheel by means of a lever conveniently located in the pilot’s cockpit. Only a total of 80 pounds has been added to the weight of the Moth as a landplane by the addition of the floats and amphibian landing gear, and the speed of the landplane has been reduced by only four miles per hour. In the tests at Port Washington, the little ship balanced readily on the single wheel, somewhat after the fashion of a bicycle. When at rest on land, struts on the wing tips serve to hold the plane in position. Mobile Mooring Masts for Airships N a paper, presented before the Society Automotive Engineers, Lieutenant Com- mander C. E. Rosendahl, U.S.N., reviews the interesting subject of mooring-mast design and gives the first information avail- able on some extremely valuable equipment developed at Lakehurst, to facilitate the ground handling of airships. The perfec- tion of the technique for this work is, of course, one of the most important phases of airship operations, if they are to become practical vehicles of transportation. Perhaps our mechanically inclined readers will be interested in reviewing the method of securing an airship to the mast. The longitudinal members of an airship come together in a strong cap at the bow. In this is secured an axial steel tube housing a strong spindle mounted in bearings. A steel mooring cone is mounted on the end of the spindle, hinged on a pin running across the axis of the airship. At the top of the mooring mast there is a steel cup, which will fit the ship’s cone, and which is mounted on a radial bearing. When the ship is moored the cone is locked in the rotating mast cup. The ship has thus three degrees of freedom. She can swing around the mast like a weathervane. She can roll, because the spindle is free in its bearings, and she can oscillate up and down in a vertical plane about the athwartship hinge. With a high mast, the vertical oscillations may assume dangerous proportions; a vari- ety of stabilizing methods have been tried, but none are absolutely free from objections. Since the air is less quiet a few hundred eS ee

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1929 iged are the ism only by the inds oth ats the iced the igle fa on » in lers 10d hip Ww. ing nd ing [Op 1p, che ree (eocis October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN How Presdwood is used in making the cores for engine cylinder castings Only those who have tried out Masonite Presdwood can really understand how a grain- less wood board can improve products and lower manufacturing costs. That is why a sample of Prestwood is gladly sent, without obligation, to executives who are interested in improved production methods. In many of the finest foundries, where white hot streams of molten iron are being trans- formed into automobile cylin- der blocks, you will find cores for the molds being baked on grainless wood boards of Masonite Presdwood. They are boards which are highly resistant to warping, even when exposed to wet sand cores and scorching temperatures that run up to 450 degrees. The Lakey Foundry and Machine Company of Muskegon, Michigan, is just one such pro- gressive concern where Presdwood is being used for this purpose. In competition with steel plates and other materials, this grainless wood was adopted because of its lightness, strength, hard- ness and smoothness. FOR CORE TRAYS IN FOUNDRIES For simplified manufacture Industry after industry has turned to Presdwood to improve products, lower costs or simplify production methods. Presdwood is used for starch trays in candy factories. It makes sturdy sides for specialty shipping containers, outer panels for incubators and iceboxes, hulls for fast speed boats, weather resisting road signs, side panels for motor truck bodies, light toys, bed- room screens and a score of other useful articles. Presdwood has no splintering edges to mar the finished work that is done in a factory or to FOR SPECIALTY SHIPPING CONTAINERS asonite PRESDWOOD Made hy the makers of MASONITE STRUCTURAL INSULATION bother the mechanic who uses it around the home. This grain- | =~ less wood can be punched, die cut, milled or sanded. It can be sawed, planed or cut with a knife. Presdwood does not split or crack; is chosen by production executives, en- joyed by men and boys who like to make things. //\ L| | Nk \\ \ \ / LAA \\\\ / AY ii \\ \\ \ \ | LL \ Ti FOR STARCH TRAYS In buildings and homes—for paneling Presdwood panels fine homes and buildings of the most modern kind. It takes any commercial finish or can be left just as it comes, for it is natu- rally attractive as well as moisture resisting. It makes decorative floors and backgrounds for show windows, is used at Hollywood for the con- struction of moving picture sets. There are, in fact, so many striking and varied uses for this grainless material that a booklet has been written which describes eighty of the most interesting uses and attractively illustrates many of them. The booklet and a sample of Masonite Presd- wood may help you find a way to use this grain- less material to cut production costs or improve a product. The sample and booklet are yours for the asking. It takes but a postcard to bring them. MASONITE CORPORATION Sales Offices: Dept. 742, 111 West Washington Street Chicago, Illinois FOR MOVIE STUDIO SETS © 1929 M.C. IN CANDY FACTORIES 339

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340 feet off the ground than at the earth’s sur- face, and since vertical currents cannot ex- ist near the ground (they cannot blow into and out of the ground), the next logical step for the airship engineers was to devise a stub mast. Stub-mast equipment consists of a short mooring mast to which the nose of the ship is secured, and a stern carriage to which the rear end of the airship is attached. The first stub mast consisted of a pine timber, about 12 inches in diameter and 60 feet long, which had originally served as a radio tower. The first type of stern carriage consisted of a large airplane landing wheel fitted with shock absorbers and a platform which could be quickly attached to the after-car of the airship. Around the stub mast there was a circular dirt path for the wheel. This seemingly crude equipment served its purpose very well. Eventually the stern carriage was made capable of exercising a downward pull of between two and a half and five tons, and of resisting all attempts of the ship to swing up or down. The next step was to make the stub mast movable, so as to avoid the use of great numbers of men in moving the airship to or from the hangar. A mobile stub mooring mast has now been constructed at Lake- hurst. It is a three-legged steel structure having a triangular base 60 feet on each side, mounted on three Athey truss wheels, so that it may be towed. The upper mast portion is made telescopic. This mast is complete with its own electric generating units, fuel and water-ballast storage, pumps, and mooring winches. By using this mast at the bow, a great proportion of the ground crew is made unnecessary. It is proposed to eliminate more men by means of a series of endless wire-bridles run- ning from certain reinforced parts of the ship to a rigid trolley system running on rails parallel to the hangar. The navy is to be congratulated on the ingenuity shown in these devices ‘Aviation Law’’ ” VIATION Law” text book, written by is an authoritative Henry G. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a Ra Se sre i ds October 1929 The mobile mooring mast for dirigibles in the hangar at Lakehurst Hotchkiss, and published by Baker, Voor- his and Company, New York. It contains the texts in full of such important docu- ments as the International Convention of 1919, Air Commerce Act of 1926, Air Commerce Regulations, et cetera, and of important statutes, both Federal and State, dealing with aviation. While evidently written for the lawyer, this book contains a great deal of easily understood and interesting material for the layman. The growth of aviation has brought out some curious legal difficulties. The early English rule, for example, stated that ‘che who possesses the land also that which is above it.” Under this rule any aviator flying over a farmer’s land would be trespassing. But our learned judges are disposing of possesses A detailed view of the projected Armstrong mid-ocean airport those maxims which no longer apply. Here is an opinion of Judge James C. Michael of Minnesota: ‘‘The air, so far as it is in direct relation to the comfort and enjoyment of the land, is appurtenant to the land and no less the subject of pro- tection than the land iéself, but when, as here, the air is to be considered at an altitude of 2000 feet or more, to contend that it is a part of the realty, as affecting the right of air navigation is only a legal fiction, devoid of substantial merit.’’ Quite a number of airplane operators will want to read this book. Pneumatic Tubes at Croydon HE G. & G. Atlas Pneumatic Tube Company gives us an interesting side- light on operations at the modern airport. At the great Croydon airport in England there is a central operating station at which all the radio messages giving weather reports, the speed and position of all planes, et cetera, are collected. Orders are issued from this central operating station. To avoid errors and delays the station is con- nected with all other parts of the airport by underground pneumatic tubes through which messages pass to and fro the entire 24 hours of the day. More on the Armstrong Seadrome E R. ARMSTRONG, working on his seadrome which is projected to serve as a mid-ocean airport, is carrying his design steadily forward. Owing to the fact that all the buoyancy-producing elements are submerged far beneath the surface of the waves, complete stability of the sea- drome may be safely reckoned upon. Ex- perimental tests confirm this view. The design of the seadrome from the purely aeronautical point of view offers many complexities. The “‘field’”’ will be 1200 feet long and 400 feet wide at the center. Certain portions of the space will be taken up by hangars, hotel, restaurant, and machine shops.

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October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN - A INDUSTRIES tollow in the footsteps QUIP machinery with Timken Bearings—and Waste is brought to a dead stop while Industry sweeps ahead with giant strides. Friction be- comes a mere fraction, power leaps into action, depreciation swings sharply to a minimum, lubrication costs are negligible. Such are the benefits symbol- ized by ‘‘Timken Bearing Equipped’’—<¢he one bearing that does all things well because of this exclusive combination: Timken tapered construction, Timken POSITIVELY ALIGNED

ROLLSand Timken-made steel. With millions of horsepower and billions of invested capital involved, Industry, Agriculture, Mining and Transportation cannot longer tolerate Waste when the solution is so clearly defined in the one phrase— “Timken Bearing Equipped’’. Everywhere this is the guiding symbol dividing the modern from the obsolete, the deciding factor in a huge replacement program which surges forward, bringing new savings wherever wheels and shafts turn. THE TIMKEN ROLLER BEARING COMPANY, CANTON, OHIO

EN rorer IIE

ARINGS 341

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342 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 The Scientific American Digest Newest Developments in Science, Industry, and Engineering Stone Carving by Sand Blasting “ARt is long, and time is fleeting,”’ particularly if one’s art is of the sort that will endure despite centuries of ex- posure. When the sphinx and the pyra- mids were built, there were men in Egypt who were both great and famous. The world has forgotten the “immortals” of that early day, but the sphinx and the Above and «et right: Examples of the exquisite work in stone carving accomplished with sand-blasting pyramids have lost none of their glory. Workers in stone have always had the satisfaction of knowing that their handi- work would have more than a transitory existence. In all ages, they have sought to engrave life-like designs of flowers, leaves, and other configurations having an artistic appeal. However, because of the hardness of ihe stone, it has heretofore been practically impossible to produce sharp-edge relief carvings of such designs as leaves and flower petals. With the advent of high-powered saws, cutting and surfacing machines, and the use of “sand-blast’’ for decorative work, stone cutting has undergone a revolution- ary change. By the development of a process recently patented, the long-sought effect of artistic ornamentation in relief has been attained. The inventor, George R. Philip, is associated with Cross Brothers Company of Northfield, Vermont, one of the leading producers of granite memorials. By means of the new process, such de- signs as flowers and leaves are sand-blasted in stone, with an amazingly realistic effect. The carvings are distinguished by sharp edges in relief and vertically cut ‘‘sinkages.”’ Two-tone effects in the granite are also achieved with a variation of the Philip process. To produce a sand-blasted relief carving, the finished face of a stone of the desired size is first coated with a rubber-like sub- stance, usually a mixture of glue, water, and cane molasses. When the coating dries, it resists the sand blast so effectively that the abrasive cuts the design in the granite only where the coating is removed. A single cut or slit is made around the border of flowers, leaves, and other configurations, and then the coating is removed where the figures are to be formed. By applying a sand blast, the figure is cut as a sinkage to the desired depth. If a flower is to be formed, a sharp edge may be provided by filling the cut or sink- age with the same material used previously as a coating. A very narrow outline is then sand-blasted out, and the background or other portions to be removed are exposed to the cutting action of thesand. The effect produced is that of a raised design with sharp edges similar to those of the natural leaf or flower petal. On account of the extreme hardness of granite, there is but little danger that the ornamentation in nee YP ee 1 Ls j relief will break or chip off. It is claimed that hammer and chisel artisans of the old school have never created such beautiful effects as those produced with this method and, furthermore, that finer work can be done by a day-laborer using this process, than with the most painstaking endeavors of a skilled stone cutter. New Synthetic Rubber Is Made Largely of Waste Materials HE United States consumption of crude rubber and reclaimed rubber during 1928 has topped the volume for all time. Crude rubber to the extent of 437,000 long tons, and 223,000 long tons of reclaimed rubber are the Department of Commerce’s official figures showing an increase in the use of reclaimed rubber of 17.7 percent over 1927. Of this volume, Ohio, the leading State in rubber consump- tion, used 55.39 percent of the total crude rubber, and 45.37 percent of the reclaimed rubber. The world’s production of crude rubber for 1928 approximated about 700,000 tons of this amount it is estimated that about 17 percent was used in the manufacture of solid or hard rubber items. With the need of a domestic production to replace rubber, there has now entered into the industrial rubber world a new product manufactured by the Synthetic Rubber Company of West New York, New Jersey. Following several years re- search and experimental work, in the production end of the rubber industry, Charles Cholerton, Jr., a practical manu- facturing engineer, achieved the present formula. Some two years ago, Cholerton, working over a kitchen stove and using brittle cast-iron molds, made eight solid truck tires before his molds broke. During July, 1927, six of these tires were put on a truck owned and operated by the City of New York, in the Street Cleaning Depart- ment. This truck has been in continual service with the exception of periodical short intervals for minor repairs. It has been variously used for hauling, and lately has been equipped with a dump body. After several months’ use, one of the six tires used on this truck, left the rim. The remaining original five tires, together with a genuine rubber tire of standard make (fitted in place of the one tire above re- ferred to) are still in daily operation and it B'S of service. A view of one of the synthetic rubber tires described above, after 21 months It is still in first-class condition and shows few signs of wear se ~ 4

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29 October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 343

WHAT WESTINGHOUSE IS DOING TO MODERNIZE TRANSPORTATION

——-) DRAWN TOR WESTINGHOUSE BY C, PETER HELCK ly of a ll of | of } of in of e. p- le d or it of yn d ic k, e- 1e y; ul- nt 1g le *k 1g a of t- al AT NEWARK, N. J., AMERICA’S FINEST AIRPORT LIGHTING HAS BEEN INSTALLED BY WESTINGHOUSE al aS « * y | Bl 1 ; aZIng? es er candlepower in strength. Wherever they Apparattis ing, assembling. As aviation expands, eS 2 5 5 I are installed, any airplane can swoop down Westinghouse will be found serving the from darkness into daytime safety for a future needs of flying with the same skill verfect landing. a and co-operation given to past develop- t=) ELECTRIC

Many a cloud-strewn lane, traveled ments, not only in aviation but in all 7 * e The Sign of a cae 2 nightly by carriers of the air-mail, is Westinghouse Dear branches of electrification for homes, marked by the _ blaze of mines, mills, farms, power & ° beacons, far removed from Westinghouse plants, and transportation.

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344 is interesting to note that of the two front tires, one standard make rubber with 11 months’ service and Cholerton’s tire with 21 months’ service are at the present time both in first class condition and both presenting equal appearance as far as wear and tear are concerned. The remaining four tires on the rear wheels after many months’ service give general favorable appearance, two of them F Bank depository for the conveni- ence of motorist-depositors showing no imperfection or damage of any kind, the other two having abrasions and cuts reasonably to be expected after such length of service. The two last mentioned tires are on the outside edges of the wheels and the cuts referred to were probably caused by short turns against curbstones. Cholerton’s process is the result of burn- ing one of Nature’s common wastes in a novel chemical atmosphere. This, a lime compound, comprises about 50 percent by weight of the finished product. The other 50 percent is made up of metallic chemicals, mineral and vegetable gums and oils, all of which are items of everyday commercial use. The resultant mixture, powder-like in form, and not in the least resembling rubber, is pressed into molds, and heat treated under pressure. The combination of temperatures and pressures induces chemical reactions with the result that the product has all the physical qualities of rubber. It is resilient, elastic, and acts like molded rubber. It is water-proof, oil-proof, and gasoline-proof as well as acid and alkali-proof. Unlike rubber it does not deteriorate with age. The plentiful raw materials are cheap, as are the gums and chemicals. Solid truck tires, paving blocks and floor tilings can be manufactured and sold at a price comparable to any on the open market of equal wearing properties, and these will be the company’s first com- mercial productions. There is a growing demand for paving blocks, and the Syn- thetic Rubber Company’s new process will make possible the paving of streets, bridges, bridge approaches, and tunnels, and at an attractive price. colorless Banking by Auto, Latest Convenience ANKING by auto is the latest innova- tion of the Central National Bank of Oakland, California, which recently in- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN stalled a curb depository device to enable its customers to deposit money and valuables any time during the day or night without en- tering the bank or, indeed, without leaving one’s car. It is said to be the only device of its kind to be used by a bank anywhere. This curb depository was made necessary because of the increasing difficulty of park- ing cars in the vicinity of the bank. It consists of an attractive bronze box, 5 feet high by 28 inches wide, buiit on the edge of the sidewalk in front of the bank build- ing. The depositor need but halt in front of this box, and without leaving the car insert his deposit and bank-book, in a slot opening, in the same manner that he would drop a letter in the corner mail-box. The deposit is precipitated through a 22-foot chute, and is received in a vaulted receiving chest inside the bank. Many banks now use night depositories Above and at right: Views of the new shock-proof X-ray apparatus recently installed in a hospital built in the wall for use of their customers who desire to make deposits after banking hours. The device adopted by the Oakland bank is unusual in that it is being used dur- ing the regular banking hours as a con- venience to those who find it difficult to perk their cars in the central business sec- tion where the bank is located. The bronze depository, the steel chute, October 1929 and the steel receiving chest are wired for burglary protection. No key is needed to open the receiving slot. Several times during the banking day the receiving chest is opened by two tellers, the deposits checked, and receipts sent to the bank customers. Large industrial concerns in Oakland are taking advantage of this device to make their daily deposits, which run into the tens of thousands of dollars. Each de- posit is covered by insurance, according to a special plan worked out by the bank with one of the largest international in- surance companies. It is being used also by Oakland people to deposit their jewels and other valuables during the night hours after attending formal functions, relieving them of the necessity of carrying the valu- ables with them and exposing them to the dangers of hold-ups. Shock-Proof X-ray Apparatus Installed NEW type of X-ray apparatus, com- pletely insulated in oil and with all high-voltage wires completely eliminated, has been announced by the Victor X-Ray Corporation, a General Electric organiza- tion, with the installation of the first of the new shock-proof machines in the Neuro- logical Institute, New York. (Please turn to page 357) | V/444 44 | % The curb hank depository in use Octol ee i

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October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 345 More and still more telephones for tomorrow Spee Te ae ~ cy OLY 1 WMeRMEA at A 458." oat ~ - Pad This busy scene is typical of Western Electric growth at Bal timore, Chicago and Kearny,N, J. It is growth ‘made necessa to provide tel- phone appara- tus whenever and wherever needed. Your voice starts new factories | a-building : Day by day, the telephone becomes a more significant factor in social and business intercourse. As a means of communication on land and across the ocean, its use grows steadily and it is soon destined to become an accepted adjunct to travel in the air. More and more equipment wil: be needed—telephones by the million, copper wire by the millions of miles, parts and accessories ranging from delicate springs to giant reels of cable, from the simple transmitter mouthpiece to the highly complex telephone switchboard. To meet this program of expansion Western Electric’s man- ufacturing facilities are being doubled. Huge additions to plants at Chicago and at Kearny, N. J.—a new factory at Balti- more—all this is evidence that however great the demand for telephones in 1930 or 1940, that demand will be satisfied. Across the ocean Western E, lectric MAKE R S YOUR TELEPRON SE

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346 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 The Month in Medical Science Progress in the Medical and Surgical Fields By MORRIS FISHBEIN, M. D. Editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association and of Hygeia . Accidents in Bathing TRIP through any anthropological and ethnological museum reveals the fact that the bath tub is not a modern in- vention, but has certainly been known to mankind for many years. This, notwith- standing the fact that legend insists that the first bath tubs were introduced in the United States in the city of Cincinnati about the middle of the 19th Century. Of course, this argument must take into ac- count the difference between the bath tub that is filled with water carried from a long distance in buckets and the modern tub with hot and cold running water con- stantly on hand. Recently, Dr. Guy Hinsdale assembled a list of the various causes of accidents that occur to people while bathing. They include such mishaps as falls on slippery places in the bathroom, falls on getting into or out of the tub, epileptic convulsions while in the tub, also unconsciousness due to sudden heart failure, brain hemorrhage, drowning in the tub, scalding in the tub, burns from steam in the Turkish bath, electric shock, death from escaping gas in the bathroom, drowning in various pools or plunges, and accidents from the acces- sories used in connection with the bath tub. Again and again newspapers record the drowning of children left by mothers in the tub while they attended to some house- hold duty or answered the ring of a door bell. Again and again deaths are reported due to the carbon monoxide gas from in- efficient gas heaters or from heaters without a proper vent. Electric shocks while in the tub or bath- room are exceedingly frequent. Dr. Hinsdale points out that it is a dangerous thing to touch an electric bulb, socket, or even a push button or an electric heater while standing in the bath tub or in con- tact with it. Bulbs, sockets, electric wires or apparatus should never be installed within reach of a bather. Innummerable instances are available of deaths from electric shock of persons who have at- tempted to use artificial vibrators, ultra- violet ray apparatus, hair curlers, or elec- tric heaters while in the bath tub. Also sudden changes from very hot to very cold water or vice versa may throw a strain on the blood and circulation beyond the capacity of the tissues to bear. History records the death of Marat while in the bath tub when he was stabbed by Charlotte Corday. This type of ac- cident is not included in the list compiled by Doctor Hinsdale. The Heart Rate During Sleep HE development of a new device for measuring the rate of the heart by an electric method has permitted recent ob- servations on the intensity of sleep and on the change of heart rate during sleep, which are of great interest. The device known as the cardiotachometer automati- cally counts and records the beats while the person follows his usual activities. The investigations indicate a reduction in the heart rate and relative stability during sleep, but a tremendous variability of the heart rate during waking hours. A simple movement, such as putting the hand to the head, will speed up the heart rate, whereas during sleep the rate is relatively low and steady. By the use of the device, it is found that the normal heart rate of a person may vary from 55 during sleep to 100 during activity, as shown by the accompanying charts. The rates were also studied in many diseases and the charts for two cases indi- cate how the heart rate may vary in various conditions. 10S Fae Ea] Mani. J 100 eeees: 1004 british, Et Breck fast Tecan, 45 f Cit Physical ‘Washi q5 As 0 7 na 90 E | : ; : ops set A 85 2 [= 80 = 50 15 (SF | 70f: iw : 65 65 : 60 GOt it | SS} Basal perce SO} MIFAQyP LMins mum i 4 pk Act ve mS 9 ION 12 m2 34S 6 7 8 145} Exercising 40! Joni ryin J . _ [355 D ig geese: £ Activ HtHit A edt i45 ees Fim bed: ; r Active 150 gn 1H0 C Bosall Lunchou! oF (25 135 Awake t { semi t a sbed 120 130 [ is siss 15 leis basil el 125 H 110 in bed, \ a sii ||_=-Sitting— Sitting, ak ais bed sow EO cc, EE OT Fatt Sleepy /00 Light sleep Awake far lin bed { ! G5 Senge in bed 90 9S RHI jiit + Sasceess: +t sass 353: 8} m3 9 WH 12 bn2 SUS 67 YG WILIL tem2 3 * > oa aw a SF IOM 12 bea2S 456739 10112 m2 345673910 Charts of heart rates of various individuals under dif- A. Normal heart rate in male. Total Total heart beats 55,845. Total time 12 hours Total heart beats 57,603. ferent conditions. time 12 hours 56 minutes. B. Normal heart rate in female. 53 minutes. with exophthalmic goiter and a high The heart rate varied Cc. A woman to 145 when excited. basal metabolism. Heart rate ranged from 149 to 142 during day and dropped to 98 during sleep. D. A girl, aged 19, with heart disease after an attack of chorea. The mitra! valve was narrow. from an average of 95 during sleep These charts were made with a new electrical recording device, the cardiotachometer Oc

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929 iled for yan ob- 1 on eep, vice ati- ‘the tion ility ility the eart e of red October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 347 Perkins’s Metallic Tractors—which in this case are being exercised to cure a ‘‘jolly’’ nose—are drawing jets of flame from the organ in question Suppose if you had a bad cold you were liable to be put in a hospital bed with four or five other people—dying, perhaps dead, of everything from typhus’ to childbirth. Suppose when you had a slight wound the doctor poured boiling oil in it to avoid infection. Suppose during an operation you were held struggling on a table by burly attendants instead of being given an anaesthetic. Sup- pose when you fell ill your doctor dosed you with antimony, bitters, rock salt, violets, beet root, cinnamon, cochineal and aloes— and plastered you with Burgundy pitch and pigeon dung. Horrible Suppositions—yet all these things and many more might have happened to you in the days before medicine and surgery be- came what we know them as today. The strange and terrible story of the attempts at curing mankind has been finally set down in one of the most fascinating books ever written for the general reader. DEVILS, DRUGS and DOCTORS by Howard W. Haggard, M. D. Professor of Applied Physiology at Yale University ) / s : : Now for the first time you can read the fabulous story of medicine, written so that you can easily understand it, in one volume by one of the greatest authorities on modern medicine. Youcan read of the extraordinary medical and surgical practices of other ages—in Egypt and Greece, in Europe of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the earliest days of modern medicine—all the superstitions and horrors from which we have finally been freed. Illustrated with 150 old engravings and woodcuts—alone worth the price of the bobok— this extraordinary account of the conquest of superstition in medicine will enthrall you throughout with its wealth of anecdote and out-of-the-way information. Thousands of facts you never dreamed of are assembled before you—things you should know your- self—many things you would like to be able to talk about. Sign the coupon now and get the book for five days’ free examination. FREE EXAMINATION COUPON HARPER & BROTHERS S.A. 10 49 East 33rd Street, New York City Send me for 5 days’ free examination one copy of DEVILS, DRUGS AND DOCTORS, $5.00 O I will remit $5.00 within 5 days, or return the book. 0 I enclose check. O Send C. O. D. ay i eee eer ee ee ee eee wee ee ee re er ee ec , Address. .

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348 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 Chemistry in Industry Advances Made in Industrial and Experimental Chemistry a Sugar Substitute 7EW sugar substitutes have been sought + for a long time because saccharin and dulcin are not permanently satisfactory for those who must avoid sugar. As yet, how- ever, only a very few of the many sugar substitutes have proved valuable. Re- cently, a German manufacturer has placed d-sorbite upon the market, under the name of Sionon, as a sugar substitute. Sionon has a sweet taste, which, according to the reports from the medical clinic of the University of Wurzburg, was distaste- ful to none of the patients. The tolerance was very good so long as the quantity did not exceed 70 grams and the ‘“‘sugar”’ was not all given at the same time. Sionon could also be used in condiments, although it must not be heated above 60 degrees, Centigrade. Its general applicability will depend primarily upon its price. Sionon Petroleum Products in Insecticides HE continuous search for cheaper and more effective methods of controlling insect pests has given the chemists a very enticing problem. To one not in intimate contact with entomological problems a general spray mixture for all troubles—a cure-all—would seem to be the product to develop. Upon close study of the variables in spraying the many species of destructive insects, a product that would increase markedly the efficiency of any specific control would be well worth while. In view of this fact a thorough study of the application of the oxidation products of petroleum to the insecticide field has been conducted by M. I. Inman, Jr., of the Kay Laboratories, Inc., West Nyack, New York, in co-operation with state entomologists and the Crop Protection Institute. As a result of this work a definite procedure in attacking soft-bodied sucking insects, such as aphis and leaf hoppers, was developed. In a recent issue of Industrial and En- Photographs courtesy Hercules Powder Company, Chemical Experiment Station These two photographs show why the family car begins to look shabby after a couple of years’ exposure to the At the left is a photomicrograph of a lacquer film, showing how cracks develop in an inferior automo- bile finish. This picture was taken through a micro- scope which enlarges the details sixteen times. elements. gineering Chemistry, Mr. Inman describes results obtained by the addition of chemi- cally treated oxidation products of Penn- sylvania gas oil to a solution of nicotine sulfate, the efficiency of the poison being thereby strikingly increased. For example, where these oxidation products have been added, at the rate of one to 200, to nicotine sulfate spraying solutions, a satisfactory kill has been obtained with only one third to one fifth of the nicotine commonly employed when soap is used as a spreader. The underlying principle is, briefly, the increase of the efficiency, or the activation, of an insecticide by bringing about certain physical changes in the spray mixture. Silver as Purification Agent A. NEW process for the sterilization of + water has been developed in Germany by G. A. Krause, who has already attained success in the field of drying technology. The new procedure is based on the germ- destroying action of minute amounts of very finely divided catalytically active metals. Fine silver proved most effective for this. It was blown upon definite sup- ports so as to produce the largest possible surface. By means of the uniformly blown- out condition, the relation between the volume and the surface which best com- bined the chemical and catalytic effects was obtained. On account of this twofold action, the process received the name ‘‘Katadyn.”’ In this finely divided state, traces of silver dissolve in the water more rapidly than does ordinary silver. The requisite vessels for this process consist of filtration devices provided with an active silver surface. It was possible by this process to kill 21 million germs per cubic centimeter of water in 48 hours, and when only one million bacteria were contained per cubic centi- meter of water the sterilization was effected in only a few hours. Further advantages of the process are that, once it has been set in operation, it requires no more attention and it is independent of temperatures. Excess and deficient dosages of silver are impossible, and consequently there is no impairment of the smell and taste of the water which permanently retains its sterility. The process therefore deserves consideration, although it must still be carefully tested for the purification of drinking water on a large scale. The Katadyn process is recommended for the production of mineral water, sterile ice, for hospitals and restaurant kitchens, laun- dries, for the sterilization of swimming pools, et cetera, in addition to its use in drinking water. Chlorine Carrier ONVENIENT application of chlorine for many uses has not always been possible in the past either with bleaching powder or with liquid chlorine itself. Many industrial users of chlorine, especially those requiring relatively small quantities, object to the use of liquid chlorine on account of the difficulties and inconvenience involved in the shipping and handling of the heavy steel containers. The use of bleaching powder has been even less satisfactory in many industrial applications, principally because it is unstable and hence of variable composition and so cannot be depended upon to yield hypochlorite solutions of uniform strength for a given weight of material. R. E. Gage, writing in Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, announces the commercial development of calcium hypo- chlorite, a convenient chlorine carrier, free from the objections noted, which holds in- teresting possibilities for extensive industrial application. Bleaching powder, although often erro- neously referred to as calcium hypochlorite, is actually quite a different chemical com- pound. True calcium hypochlorite, Ca (OCI*), has. until recent years existed 7 r | is At the right is a close-up of the same lacquer film, the defects being magnified two hundred times. constantly striving to perfect lacquers in order to eli- minate this cracking. After such examination of lacquer surfaces, the chemist is emphatic in his advice that it pays to buy the very best quality of lacquer for your car Chemists are co! chl the ma ind suc ing dis the for pre du: pre thi: enc to 1 par ton the be leat abl oth exe the of 1 A of » gro riv: era pur tha uct to pur Un me! bee in Oxi

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29 in- in en ng ny se et of ed ry ng in ly le 2d of of id = 2e al Lee ee October 1929 merely as an ideal symbolized by a formula in the textbooks. It is a highly concen- trated chlorine carrier, as the formula in- dicates. Chemically pure calcium hypo- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 349 chlorite would contain nearly 100 percent | “available chlorine’? and would thus, pound for pound, be chemically equal to liquid chlorine for all bleaching or oxidizing re- actions. It is impractical to make chemically pure calcium hypochlorite at a reasonable cost. Products containing 80 to 85 percent Ca (OCI?) have been made in the laboratory on a semi-commercial scale but are too ex- pensive to compete commercially with bleaching powder and liquid chlorine. In the new commercial product it has been de- cided initially to offer a product containing “available chlorine” in the range of 60 to 65 percent, which under present conditions is the product affording the maximum amount of available chlorine per unit of cost. name “H T H,” a convenient commercial contraction of the phrase “‘high-test hypo- chlorite.” The wide industrial usefulness of a hypo- chlorite having these properties insures for the new product a substantial and growing market. It will at once find application for industrial operations already established, such as textile bleaching, laundry steriliz- ing and bleaching, pulp bleaching, dairy disinfecting and bottle sterilizing, and for the chlorination of swimming pools and for isolated water supplies. predicted with confidence that new in- dustrial and manufacturing uses for such a product are bound to develop. Bentonite Suitable for Pencil Leads HE clay for pencil leads must be ab- solutely free from grit, and, to achieve this, long grinding or a costly refining by endosmotic means is necessary, according to the United States Bureau of Mines, De- partment of Commerce. Purified ben- tonite would probably be suitable for the manufacture of pencil leads, and some of the large pencil companies are understood to be using this material already for indelible leads and crayons, thus saving consider- ably in grinding cost. The use of some It may also be | | other wetting agent would eliminate the | excessive drying shrinkage resulting from the use of water with alkali types. The manufacturers of indelible leads, crayons, pastel colors, and the like, where grease or wax is used in the mix, should find ben- tonite of considerable value as a constituent of their products. Pure Zinc A MONG the metals now produced com- “4 mercially in higher and higher states of purity, zinc has recently held the fore- ground of interest, it being the latest ar- rival in the field. The metallurgist’s gen- eral knowledge that metals of extreme This | is now being marketed under the trade | | | | | | | | | purity have markedly different properties | than ordinarily impure commercial prod- ucts, has stimulated his repeated efforts to produce such metals for commercial | purposes. The Pacific Experiment Sta ion of the | United States Bureau of Mines, Depart- ment of Commerce, in co-operation with the | University of California, at Berkeley, has been studying zine of exceptional purity, in order to determine whether its heat of oxidation differed materially from that You CAN CHOOSE IF YOU WILL (CHANCE governs the general trend of too many lives. By chance many people live in a certain place, attend a certain school, take the op- portune job; they chance upon cer- tain associates, books, and thoughts. But by courage and determined effort they could choose oftentimes where to live, what to study and, toa large extent, what to accomplish. Hundreds of thousands of am- bitious people are studying at home in their leisure time. Increased earning capacity is the objective that many are attaining. But whether the at- tainment be greater efficiency in business, or a more interesting social life, or the real joy of developing a more cultured point of view, the studies that lead to these objectives are available, wherever one _ lives, through Columbia Home Study Courses. The range of subjects is wide. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Offers Home Study Courses of University Grade in the Following Subjects: Aceounting Chemistry Algebra ae Child Psychology American Govern- Classics ment . 863 American History Composition American Literature Dramatic Applied Grammar English Astronomy Various Languages Banking Lyric Poetry Biblical Literature Contemporary Novel Biology Drafting Botany Drama Boy Scouting Drawing and Paint- Business Adminis- ing Economics Economic Geog- tration Business English Business Law raphy Business Mathe- English matics English Literature Business Organiza- Essay Writing tion European History Fire Insurance French Geometry German Government Grammar Greek Harmony High School Courses History Investments Italian Juvenile Story Writing Latin Library Service Literature Magazine Writing Article Marketing Mathematics Personnel Adminis- tration Philosophy Photoplay Composi- tion Physics Psychology Psychology in Busi- ness Public Speaking Religion Secretarial Studies Short Story Writing Slide Rule Sociology Spanish World Literature. HESE courses have been prepared by our instructors to meet the special requirements of study at home. While all basic material es- sential to the full understanding of 2ach subject is fully covered, sufficient elasticity is allowed to permit adapta- tion to the individual needs of the student. Everyone who enrolls for a Columbia course is personally taught by a member of the University teach- ing staff. Special arrangements can be made for group study. The University will send on request full information about these home study courses. A coupon is printed below for your convenience. If you care to write a letter briefly outlining your educational interests our in- structors may be able to offer helpful suggestions. Mention subjects which are of interest to you, even if they are not listed here, as additions to the courses offered are made from time to time. HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE PREPARATORY COURSES OLUMBIA University Home Study Department has prepared courses covering the equivalent of four years of High School study. This complete High School or College Preparatory training is available to those who can not undertake class room work. We shall be glad to send you our special bulletin upon request. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, University Extension Home Study Department, New York, N. Y. Please send me full information about Columbia University Home Study Courses. I am interested in the following subjects: Name... Street and Number. City State... Occupation. Sci. Amer. 10-29

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Coconut oil Copper Acetic acid Amy! alcohol Aluminum Ammonium chloride Amy! acetate Corn oil Borie acid Fluorspar Butyl acetate Butyl alcohol Calcium carbide Calcium carbonate Calcium chloride Carbon black Carbon dioxide Carbon tetrachloride Casein Castor oil Celluloid Cellosolve Cellosolve acetate Charcoal Chinawood oil Chromie acid China Clay Chlorine Chrome green Chrome yellow Fusel oil Glue Glycerine Graphite Gilsonite Lard oil Lead oxide Lime Linseed oil Lithopone Naphtha Nickel Niter cake Nitric acid Paraffin CHEMICALS USED IN AUTOMOBILES Copper cyanide Cottonseed oil Antimony Degras Prussian blue Asbestine Dextrin Pumice stone Barium carbonate Dibutylphthlate Rosin Battery acid Diphenylguanidine Rotten stone Blane fixe Ethyl acetate Saltpeter Bauxite Ethyl alcohol Shellac Bone black Ethyl lactate Silica Borax Ethylene glycol Soapstone Formaldehyde Hydrochloric acid Hydrofluoric acid Nickel sulfate Nitrocellulose Petrolatum | Phenol Phosphorie acid Plaster of Paris Potassium chloride Soda ash Soda caustic Sodium chloride Sodium cyanide Sodium nitrate Sodium nitrite Sodium phesphate Sodium silicate Starch Sulfur Sulfuric acid Tallow Titanium pigment Tripoli Turpentine Whiting Xylene Zine Zine chloride Zine cyanide Zine oxide of less pure metal. Through the courtesy of a large producer of commercial zinc, a sample of metal which had been purified to an almost unbelievable extent was ob- tained. It showed no detectable impurities when examined with a 16-inch quartz spectrograph. This instrument is capable of detecting less than 1/1000th of 1 percent of impurity, and is in consequence much more sensitive than any but the most refined methods of chemical analysis. Experiments so far made indicate that zine of this purity has a heat of oxidation about of 1 percent less than the best previous results, and differs several per- cent from the ordinarily accepted figures to be found in books of reference. The experiments serve to explain certain dis- crepancies which have long been suspected to be present in the measurements of this fundamental property of the metal. Modern Auto Uses Over 100 Chemicals [* a genie out of the Arabian nights were to utter his magic formula over an automobile to reduce it to its original state, the result would be first a pile of assorted parts and finally a mass of ore and sundry chemical compounds, says L. B. Case of the General Motors Corporation in Chemical Markets. ‘‘A wide variety of material is used in producing automobiles and in the list are more than 100 of the substances commonly included in chemical price lists. Many of these substances be- come a part of the machines and are de- livered to the customers. Others are used in the processes of fabrication, either by the automobile manufacturers or by concerns supplying semi-finished materials. In this latter class are included fuels, refractories, lubricants, lacquer thinners, tool steels, carburizing compounds, and plater’s sup- plies.”’ Although primarily mechanical in its construction, the automobile of today, with its refinements, is to a marked degree a product dependent upon chemicals and chemical research. Some of the items in the appended list are used in relatively small quantities, but nevertheless are im- portant and, in several instances, are es- sential factors in producing the modern automobile. October 1929 Soap Dust Found to be Highly Explosive SMooTH, flaky soap powder, which plays so great a part in the work of keeping the world clean, is, when sus- pended in air, a highly explosive substance, ‘apable under certain conditions of causing a serious explosion, states the Department of Commerce. Tests conducted at the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Experiment Sta- tion of the United States Bureau of Mines, with soap dust in suspension produced even more violent explosions that were attained with dry coal dust, which, as is generally known, has been responsible for many violent explosions in coal mines. The explosive hazard of soap dust is, of course, a serious factor only in the case of suspension of considerable amounts in air, such as might occur in the process of manu- facture. Presence of this widely used cleansing medium in the family washing machine carries no hazard whatever. It is only recently that pure powdered soap has been manufactured on a large seale. The familiar ‘‘soap powder” in the past was usually a mixture of soap with a relatively large quantity of sodium car- bonate. Often it contained large amounts of moisture and abrasive material. Even a highly combustible dust when mixed with large quantities of inert dust will not form explosive mixtures with air. Pure pow- dered soap, however, presents a different aspect. Pure soap is formed by combina- tion of alkali (incombustible material) with fatty acid (combustible material), Toilet soap may also contain a certain amount of glycerin and essential oils which, being combustible, influence the explosibil- ity of the dust. Sodium compounds, how- ever, are known to have a ‘‘cooling”’ effect on the flames of explosives. Whether the pure soap, sodium stearate for example, would form explosive suspensions with air might then be a matter for actual experi- ment to determine. Although the relatively large size of the particles of soap would perhaps indicate it to be not highly explosive, the explosibil- ity tests showed that in every case more violent explosions were obtained with the soap dust than with the coal dust. Thus - ~ Xe ie & i. a? es Apparatus used to determine that soap dust is explosive —m—a © as Sa da

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929 October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 351 more flame and heat appeared and much } ; more pressure was produced in the ex- lich plosion flask with soap dust than with : of an equal weight of coal dust. Moreover, sUS- not so high a weight-concentration of soap ice, dust is necessary to form an explosive mix- ing ture with air. Evidently suspensions of ent this soap dust become dangerous when the the concentration is greater than about 0.1 ta- gram of dust per liter. With finer dusts or les, more intense sources of ignition the ex- |g ed plosibility hazards will be greater. ere a Nickel Welded With Flux in Flame es, ESPITE the common textbook asser- of tions that nickel is unweldable by fu- | . ° 49 of sion methods, N. B. Pilling and T. E. Do you think ws ir, Kihlgren, of the International Nickel Com- | 1uU- pany, in a paper before the American Elec- ed trochemical Society, showed that both ng nickel and Monel metal are excellently OO OO to e ruC « adapted for fabrication by fusion welding. : ed The production of welds which are strong, Every plant superintendent has dreamed of the ge sound, and ductile requires adherence to time when his plant would be trouble-proof he suitable methods of welding rather than to | th the exercise of unusual manual skill. Of ir the are methods, the carbon are is pre-| ‘(7 ES, your plant can be made trouble- to-metal contact beween the gear teeth. its ferred because it yields a weld metal su- proof as far as the flexible coup- The oil in the sleeve, under the cen- en perior in strength and soundness to that li naa Chait paste, f . - ail pe th laid down by the metallic are. Welds of | _ ings are concerned, iexioie COUp trifuga pressure due to revolving of m excellent quality can be produced by the|ling troubles can actually be made a the shafts, is thrown between the faces w= acetylene flame, — the fluxing con- thing of the past. of the gear teeth, providing an actual nt ditions are controlled. ; : Best a- The application of a suitable flux for this What is it that causes coupling shut- oil cushion that carries the load. 1) purpose is accomplished in a most ingenious | downs in your plant? Almost invari- If you are purchasing new equipment ). manner, for which the welder may thank | ap]y replacing broken springs, rings, —or if you have a danger drive with In chemistry. The flame itself is given a mild b | rah ee diecs d Soaihte ; S. ; h, but controlled fluxing action, by the in- | 0USMINgS, pins, Ciscs OF grids——HexiDie which you have recurring coupling I- troduction of ethyl borate (a gas) into the, materials that fatigued and failed. — troubles—let us know. Tell us the kind A acetylene supply. Eliminate the fiexible materials and the of equipment, the kind of service, the 2 saiicaatiaiacaaa ai problem is solved! H. P., the R. P. M., and the shaft ndustry Developed to Use ° sammotor 7o Wi : bas , Waste eee How? Fast answered that question. diameters, and we will submit prices ir igh As the diagram below shows, two spur at once. You will be surprised to find i- War eeee ee has found a new ein - Sak te Gein we t; (in most cases) that the cost of the and profitable use for straw. Ac-| 8° je im Complete sad continuous Fast’s C li is little if . " cording to the Paper Trade Journal, a| Mesh with the internal gears of a float- aS Lee SS ee SS oe Sele e company has been incorporated in Regina |ing sleeve. The sleeve takes a neutral than the old style. But the difference - ~ the + venga tag ae ian to re-| position, the error in misalignment is 1% Performance is so marked that Fast’s p aes Sees _ se e cons — taken up between the lubricated faces Couplings are always cheapest in the a of buildings. One such machine has re- £ ‘ end. cently been placed in operation on the farm | 4 the gear teeth, and all necessity for of T. A. MeCusker, one mile north of | flexible materials is eliminated. Also do not fail to send the coupon egina. atent rights for Canada have Bees: ; been acquired. The machine, it is stated, It has been demon- for the extremely il- compresses the straw under a pressure of strated mathematical- FAST'S luminating book by — se oe square ee the product ly, experimentally Prof. Moore on being laced with wire and turned out in| : , “Wha i boards 14 feet long, five feet wide, and two jand in actual opera- Self-Alignin : : Happens - inches thick. tion of tens of thou- LJ Couplings. It’s The matter of the economic disposition of cereal straws of western Canada, enor- mous supplies of which are available, has long occupied the attention of the govern- ment, the Canadian Pacific Railway, the National Research Council, industrial de- velopment boards, Boards of Trade, and other public bodie-. Allowing for the great increase in field crops in western Canada each year, the i ~ A 1 — ee * . volume of this material annually destroyed | unit, naman be- | Amie eaDy coupling design. y _— een. See ae ing taken up between j in the western provinces cannot be much | the lubricated teeth. short of ten million tons. It is now hoped | i to put this waste product to profitable use | sands of couplings that there is no metal- COUPLING The coupling without flexible bushings, pins, springs, discs, \| grids or any other flex. | ible materials. valuable, but it’s free. Send for it. Get this authori- tative book, Two spur gears, meshed with the internal gears of a floating sleeve. Coupling revolves as one Sign and Mail this Coupon for FATIGUE GF MATERALS | one — moe ee be | which clearly | shows how flex- ible materialscan avoided in { Bases i Read Prof. Moore’s authoritative discus- in the form of pulp and paper, building | sion of the failure of flexible materials blocks, tile, et cetera. | Great interest has also been manifested | in the utilization of straw in the manufac- | 204 SCOTT STREET - - - ture of newsprint from straw and the| Canadian Pacific Railway has sponsored Free Book THE BARTLETT HAYWARD CO. BALTIMORE, MD. : : et y ae ey certain experimental methods for the utili- Company Individual waa anna = 82 = zation of flax straw in the manufacture of high grade papers. eo City State : .

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352 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 Current Bulletin Briefs Short Reviews of Bulletins and Papers on Scientific and Allied Subjects, and Where to Get Them =a Aviation AVIATION, a special edition of the Black Hills Engineer, is an interesting little book presenting articles by authorities in various fields of commercial aviation, including photography, meteorology, electricity, min- ing, forestry, civil engineering, medicine, and general topics. The Black Hills En- gineer, South Dakota School of Mines, Rapid City, South Dakota—25 cents. WEATHER AND THE AIRPLANE, by Edward H. Bowie, meteorologist of the United States Weather Bureau at San Francisco, is a study of the model weather reporting service on the airway between Los Angeles and San Francisco. The study is well il- lustrated. Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc., 598 Madison Avenue, New York City—Gratis. Electricity PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING, Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 92, discloses valuable facts about the im- portance and location of lightning ar- resters, installations of electrical equip- ment with due provisions for safety, and contains a summary of the present knowl- edge about lightning. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.—25 cents. THE TELEPHONE SWITCHBOARD; FIFTY YEARS OF HisToRy, by Frank B. Jewett, is a historical sketch of the development of the telephone switchboard, showing the vari- ous types of equipment used during the past 50 years. Bell Telephone Laboratories, In- corporated, 463 West Street, New York City—Gratis. INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MINE-TYPE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FOR PERMISSI- BILITY, Bulletin 305 of the Bureau of Mines, Department of Commerce, discusses the theory upon which are based tests of equip- ment in explosive atmospheres. United States Government Printing Office, Washing- ton, D. C.—10 Cents. Heating and Ventilating MAN-MADE BREEZES is a small, fully illustrated booklet tracing the development of circulated air equipment. The equip- ment described in the latter pages of the booklet is for use in homes and apartments, as well as business buildings. American Coolair Corporation, Jacksonville, Florida— Gratis. O1L HEAT AND THE BUSINESS OF LIVING presents the case in favor of oil burners for domestic heating purposes. The Oil Heat- ing Institute, 342 Madison Avenue, New York City—Gratis. HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION includes a synopsis of the present knowledge on radiation of heat. A bibliography, with brief reviews, is also furnished. Committee on Heat Transmission, National Research Council, 40 West 40th Street, New York.— Gratis. INVESTIGATION OF HEATING RooMS WITH DIRECT STEAM RADIATORS EQUIPPED WITH ENCLOSURES AND SHIELDS, Bulletin No. 192, is the report of an investigation which led to a determination of the best types of enclosures and shields for steam radiators. The booklet has about 40 illustrations, showing various types of enclosures, and diagrams portraying the air circulation in The radiator enclosure illustrated is the type said to give the greatest comfort, with economy of steam test rooms heated with covered radiators. Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois—40 cents. Investments BIGGER INVESTMENT RETURNS AND BIGGER BUSINESS PROFITS are small booklets de- scribing the Babson service. Babson’s Statistical Organization, Inc., Wellesley Hills, Mass.—Gratis. LOOKING AHEAD FINANCIALLY, is intended to help investors who desire to acquire with their current income such property and securities as will enable them to ac- cumulate the source of a permanent in- come. Halsey, Stuart and Company, 201 South La Salle Street, Chicago.—Gratis. PROTECTION AND A Goop INCOME is a booklet showing the investment advan- tages of a sound public utility preferred stock with descriptions and photographs of the various Doherty properties. Henry L. Doherty and Company, 60 Wall Street, New York.—Gratis. CHAIN STORE SECURITIES is a booklet in which are listed many securities of this type. F. A. Brewer and Company, 42 Broadway, New York.—Gratis. How To Invest MONEY describes various types of securities of interest to investors. S. W. Straus and Company, 565 Fifth Avenue, New York.—Gratis. Refrigeration SEVENTY-FIVE YEARS OF PROGRESS gives a summarized review of the refrigerating and ice-making industry as a whole, and of the Frick Company in particular. The booklet is well arranged and handsomely illus- trated. Frick Company, Inc., Waynesboro, Pa.—Gratis. REFRIGERATION is a comprehensive trea- tise on the history of mechanical refrigera- tion leading up to the modern machines for industrial and domestic use. The paper is well illustrated with views of the re- frigerators now made by the company. General Electric Company, Schenectady, New York—Gratis. Safety HyDRO-EXTRACTORS, THEIR SAFE CON- STRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT, is one of the industrial publications issued by the In- ternational Labor Office of the League of Nations. The monograph is an engineering study in non-technical language, planned to protect workers operating centrifugal in- dustrial machines in laundries, beet sugar plants, and chemical works. World Peace Foundation, 40 Mount Vernon Street, Boston.—One dollar. THE INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE CHEST is an illustrated booklet describing the materials and equipment needed by the industrial surgeon dealing with occupational injuries. Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, Illinois —Gratis. THE LIFELINE OF THE HIGHWAY, CATALOG No. 169, is chiefly a pictorial description of the advantages of flexible woven-wire highway guard over wooden guard rails at danger points on public highways. Page Steel and Wire Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut.—Gratis. Miscellaneous You CAN MAKE It describes practical uses for secondhand boxes and odd pieces of lumber. The booklet is published by the National Committee on Wood Utilization of the Department of Commerce to teach boys the proper use of wood and to induce them to make their own toys and equip- ment. The booklet will also interest man- Octob ual-tra rectors Office, THE | OF TH THE A D. A. Physic Public great extend develo consid on acc Public Cairo, 75 cen AMERI story Detroi area @ specta dustri: grount has sé hundr to nat troit F How " pectiv: mistak car, v essent’ of the data produ poratic Indian FORES pared with t forest progre forest summ: county graph; tion, 1 D. C. JOURN shows given on the Newsy Broad THE PLATE factur contai nicke] struct Intern Street, THE | TION has b No. destre methc Doisor fants given Unite Wash

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October 1929 rectors. United States Government Printing Ofice, Washington, D, C.— 10 cents. THE MEASUREMENT OF THE DISCHARGE of THE NILE THROUGH THE {LUICES OF tHe ASWAN DAM, by H. E. Hurst and p. A. F. Watt, is a contribution from the Physical Department of the Ministry of Public Works, marking the conclusion of a great Egyptian undertaking which has extended over more than 20 years. The developments arising out of this work are considered of importance outside Egypt on account of their general applicability. Publications Office, Government Press, Bulag, Cairo, Egypt.—10 piasters; suggest sending 75 cents. AMERICA’S FOURTH MARKET tells the story of the growth of Detroit and the | The growth of the | area adjacent to the city is reflected in the | Detroit Free Press. spectacular development of in- dustrial center, and ground for the story of a newspaper which has served the community for almost a hundred years. The booklet is addressed to national advertisers in particular. De- troit Free Press, Detroit, Michigan.—Gratis. a great How To JUDGE A USED Car tells the pros- pective purchaser a few of the common mistakes to avoid when purchasing a used ar, With constructive pointers on the essentials to be investigated. About half { the book is taken up with condensed data about the mileage records held by products of the company. Studebaker Cor- poration, Department South Bend, Indiana.—Gratis. 256, FORESTRY ALMANAC, a 390-page book pre- pared by the American Tree Association } with the co-operation of federal and state forestry officials and others, shows the progress made in combating national de- forestation. A chapter is included which summarizes forestry activities in foreign ountries. The book has a good biblio- graphy and index. American Tree Associa- lion, 1214-16th Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.—One dollar. JOURNALISM, YOUR FUTURE, AND You shows the value of newspaper training as given in modern journalism courses based on the copy-desk method of handling news. Ne wspaper Institute of America, Inc., 1776 Broadway, New York City—Gratis. THE MANUFACTURE OF NICKEL STEEL PLATE is a reprint dealing with the manu- facture, rolling, and inspection of steels containing between 2 and 3 percent of | nickel, and which are used for boiler con- | struction. International Nickel Company, Inc., 67 Wall The study is well illustrated. Street, New York City—Gratis. THE RAT, ARGUMENTS FOR Its ELIMINA- TION AND METHODS FOR ITS DESTRUCTION, has been issued as Public Health Bulletin No. 180. The well-known reasons for | destroying the pest are reviewed, and methods are prescribed for trapping and Poisoning various types of rats. Fumi- gants are also discussed, and instructions given for making a building rat-proof. United States Government Printing Office, | Washington, D. C.—Five cents. yal-training teachers and vocational di- | provides the back- | SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Simpler . «to make a coupling! This non-technical, illustrated booklet may suggest an easier, better way to make parts of your product. Send for your copy today. 287 FOURTH STREET HE Westco-Chippewa Pump Co. found it, when they turned to die casting as a means of improving the design and per- formance of the couplings used on small pumps and water systems. These couplings now consist of two simple, zinc alloy die castings, circular flanges about 34” thick. In each flange are four steel driving pins, accurately cast into place when the casting is made. A shoulder on each pin anchors it per- manently into position as the zinc alloy solidifies. The only machining required is the reaming of the shaft hole. The die used is so designed that various sized shaft-holes can be cast, either with or without the key-way. The lighter weight of die cast couplings has greatly reduced vibration and noise. Casting the pins into place as an integral part of the flange has eliminated several machine and assembling operations, Perhaps die casting parts of your product would result in similar improvements. Why not let us help you find out? MILWAUKEE DIE CASTING COMPANY MILWAUKEE, WIS. ILWAU KEE DIE CASTINGS AND BEARINGS 353

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 The Amateur Astronomer T has been suggested that the readers are getting tired of seeing descriptions of telescopes made by amateurs, but we are not at all certain that this is the case. Perhaps, however, we can make a com- promise, publishing every description re- ceived, but shortening those that are long. me We je bee ena ee ey y ae Mr. Scott’s Springfield type tele- scope, mounted as a Newtonian This time we shall describe three tele- scopes. The first is by H. B. Scott, National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. His own description is brief in the extreme. The mounting is of the well known “‘Springfield’’ type, invente.l by Russell W. Porter, co-author of the SCIEN- TIFIC AMERICAN instruction book ‘‘Amateur Telescope Making.’’ The castings for these mountings are available in various metals and are made up to order from a standard set of patterns at Springfield, Vermont. Mr. Scott states that his mirror is a 12-inch, with focal length of 10 feet. Evi- dently his focal length is so great that he can not use the usual diagonal mirror which, with a second diagonal, confers upon this type of mounting its most valuable quality, the ability to see in any direction through a stationary, fixed eye- piece without craning the neck. L. ROGERS, a real estate broker, 10 ¢ Adelaide Street East, Toronto, has made a whole family of telescopes (see A.T.M., page 220) and now sends in a picture of his latest ‘“‘edition,’’ a 12-inch reflector. He writes: “The focus of the 12-inch mirror, which is 114-inch thick, is eight feet. The tube, which is revolvable, is eight feet long; of 18-gage galvanized iron, riveted and finished in gray Duco. The mirror rests on three adjustable three-inch disks. The drums of a Ford transmission will be in evidence if the photograph is examined closely. There is a close fitting cover for the mirror cell, for the diagonal, and for the end of the tube. “The finder is mounted fairly well away from the tube so that either eye may be used. Adjustment of the finder is by having slightly slotted holes in the tube, so that the supports may be spread for vertical adjustment and moved sideways for lateral adjustment. This works well, without the necessity of the usual ring and screw arrangement. “After setting the whole thing up, I found that my arm was about three feet too short to reach the slow motion in rizht ascension. By means of an old golf stick and a home made spring of steel wire, which just fitted over the projecting end of the slow-motion spindle sufficiently tight to take hold, and with the end of the spring turned up at right angles like a finger to engage in the spokes of the little hand wheel, I was able to rig up a very elective means of working the slow motion while standing on a ladder at the eyepiece. This will work at 90 degrees where a universal joint would not. “The clamps in declination and R.A. are metal-to-metal friction bands turned in the lathe and are adjusted by a small screw, allowing the telescope to move easily without binding and yet they hold it in place when necessary. “T enclose a local newspaper’s idea of a description of a telescope; life has scarcely been worth living since this appeared. However, I am bearing up bravely.” ROM time to time we have received certain premonitions that Mrs. Mar- garet L. Wiesenberg, of Christian Witness to Israel, Inc., 521 West 179th Street, New York, was making a telescope. And now we can prove it: Mrs. Wiesenberg, at our special request, sends us a photograph of telescope and maker. We can bear witness that she has a good grasp of the work, both practical and theoretical. The parts of the telescope we have seen look as shiny as a new dollar, and the whole job looks fit, and is fit, to use in regular astronomical work. Latest advice is that another woman, a missionary stationed away out in Sumatra, is starting a telescope. Yet we occasionally hear from some man who fears he can not do the work. ie the last number we spoke of popular- izing seismology. We have received r ’ wl /*s ’ ‘ . } 9 “y \ T; \ ofS ; \ f 47 ~ ; \y ‘ 4 \ a } je - ‘ : oe a ADS ‘s ese" nessa» ‘Rite. ‘ Mr. Rogers’ ten-inch reflector. Study the detail of the mounting Octol one r teur tachir says, ‘quak quake planet invent this r vatior je | ca the P orl lines 1 Mr fiel was be remar! care f¢ down receiv discov handit ‘Look fetchir HI for Nuts Augus hear t The at previo togeth about the nu the sa and it to pro soon t Peo east f addict, gather you ar are he the T top of of th Vermc crowd. of hor three } bring : others meani

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1929 sived Mar- tness New now t our yh of tness both f the y as s fit, nical man, t in t we fears ular- 2ived nl October 1929 one remarkable suggestion—from an ama- teur telescope maker, at that: ‘‘By at- taching a seismograph to a telescope,’’ he says, “it might be possible to record ‘quakes (they wouldn’t be called earth- quakes, of course) on Mars and the other planets.” What an idea! Thus is Yankee inventiveness vindicated. We are turning | this man over to Mr. Edison for obser- vation. HE following is quoted from the Publi- cations of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific: “The question whether Fraunhofer’s lines reveal the presence of gold in the sun Mrs. Wiesenberg with her Spring- field type telescope on a tripod was being investigated. Kirchhoff’s banker remarked on this occasion, ‘What do I care for gold in the sun if I cannot fetch it down here?’ Shortly afterwards Kirchhoff received from England a medal for his discovery and its value in gold. While handing it over to his banker he observed, ‘Look here, I have succeeded at last in fetching some gold from the sun.’ ” HE Fourth Annual ‘‘Convention”’ (in- formal get-together) of the Telescope | Nuts of America was held, this year, on August 10, at the usual place, Stellafane, near the village of Springfield, Vermont. The attendance was 121, twice that of the previous year. The first of these get- togethers, held four years ago, brought out about 20 amateur telescope makers, but the number has doubled each year. Project the same rate of growth into the future and it will require only a little calculation to prove that everybody on earth is certain soon to become a telescope maker. People come to Stellafane from the entire east for the opportunity to meet other addicts of this form of sport. These gatherings, the next of which, it is hoped, you are already planning to attend in 1930, are held at the clubhouse observatory of the Telescope Makers of Springfield on top of Mount Porter, one of the offshoots of the famous Green Mountains of Vermont, and “far from the madding crowd.’’ People who want the comforts of home stay at the hotel in the village, three miles distant; those who like to camp bring tents and pitch them near Stellafane; others to whom physical comfort has no meaning do not ‘put up” at all, they sit up SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 355 When Forest Giant Bows to Man After a crashing fall, and the mammoth trunk has been cut into mammoth logs, then— The sturdiest of wire ropes steps in for duty—the heaviest kind of duty; for these great logs must be dragged in and loaded onto cars, expeditiously and with safety to logging crews. Out where the giant Redwood, Spruce and Fir are “logged,” one is impressed by the amount of wire rope with one strand painted yellow, the distinguish- ing mark of Yellow Strand Wire Rope This powerful rope is the great pride—the ‘“pet’’— of a company that has made nothing but wire rope for over half a century. Its wires are drawn abroad, in the celebrated Sheffield Steel district, from equally celebrated Swedish stock. B. & B. Aerial Wire Rope For greatest economy under severe conditions, always Tramways have features specity Yellow Strand. that are well worth BRODERICK & BASCOM ROPE CO. investigating. St. Louis, Mo. Eastern Office and Warehouse : 68 Washington St., New York Western Offices: Factories: Seattle and Portland, Ore. St. Louis and Seattle Yellow Strand WIRE ROPE.

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A giant plane ~ dips and soars across the sky, leaving against the brilliant blue the one word ELECTRICITY fen stop and gaze at the huge letters written gracefully thousands of feet earth. an electrical expert has groomed for flawless sO above the Somewhere the giant plane its flight... every wire tested every electrical device in perfect running order. Today industry is as dependent upon the expert electrician as the powerful plane tracing the magic name and towns. To him come the profits of over countless cities industry and commerce. You, too, can be an electrical expert. | twelve. Write for the 48-page booklet. | ; j , lodday, J ] Use the coupon below. Ov New York ~~ Electrical School 26 N. Y.E. S. are Building ‘ New York " ieee, MAIL Ay Se ere mary ! THE NEW YORK ELECTRICAL SCHOOL | t 26N. Y. E. S. Building, New York. i i Please send me FREE your 48-p booklet It is ] understood that t request puts me u r no obligation | I 1 | ice cuas i eed el a l ! ; l : ! i RL St Bie e\-n ouarcee ee ete kee ° Den ca en eee Oe ss Oo Oh ee ree marian SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN all night to look at the stars and talk with other amateur astronomers, catching up on sleep later in their lives. And, ap- parently, a good time is had by all. No fixed program of papers or other bothersome formality is allowed to spoil these meetings, the only fixed event being the “big feed,’’ sometimes spoken of as dinner. This year the usual bean-hole beans (genuine bean hole, too) were supple- mented by some 19 marine acres of baked cli ns. Several enthusiasts brought their tele- scopes for all to see and admire, while still more brought mirrors to be tested. These | ranged from six inches in diameter up to To test the telescopes on the actual stars proved impossible this year because, for the first time since these con- October 1929 ventions were begun, it rained. However, a better test of a mirror can be had on an artificial star than an actual one, and people attend to ‘‘talk shop,’”’ not to see stars. Although it is nearly a year in advance. all you who are making or hope to make telescopes should pin up in the background of your mind a memorandum to attend the annual get-together to be held some time next summer. If the present rate of ip- crease is maintained it may then be neces- sary to provide a circus tent for visitors’ quarters. Certain it is that the amateur telescope hobby is waxing, not waning, The response to our ‘‘feeler’? on the study of microscopic pond life justifies publication of further articles. This, we hope, will be done next spring, as the sub- ject is not a winter one.—A.G.I., Tel. Ed, The Heavens in October By PROF. HENRY NORRIS RUSSELL, Ph.D. °K OVER aa At 11 o’clock: Oct. 7. At 101% o’clock: Oct. 14. At 10 o’clock: Oct. 22. N sun on the 8th. He rushes rapidly to elongation on the 23rd, but since he is close to perihelion, and only 18 degrees from the sun, he will not be easy to see. During the last week of the month he rises about 5 A.M. and may be caught before dawn. Venus is a morning star, rising about 3:30 when the month begins, but not until 4:30 at its close. Mars, after a long period of visibility as an evening star, is passing out of sight and can barely be glimpsed in the twilight. Jupiter is in Taurus and rises a little after 8 P.M. in the middle of the month. Saturn is an evening star in Ophiuchus, setting about 9 P.M. in the middle of the month. Uranus is in | Opposition cn the 8rd, being found in At 914 o’clock: October 30. The hours given are in Standard Time. NIGHT SKY: OCTOBER AND NOVEMBER ERCURY is in conjunction with the HEAD At 9 o’clock: Nov. 7. At 81% o’clock: Nov. 16. At 8 o’clock: Nov. 23. Pisces in 0h 35m 41s R.A. and 3°3’ north declination. An equatorial telescope or a good star map will be necessary to identify the planet as there are no convenient guide stars near by. Neptune is a morning star rising about 2a.M. Like Uranus, Neptune is invisible to the naked eye. The moon is new at 5 P.M. on the 2nd; in her first quarter at 1 P.M. on the 10th; full at 7 A.M. on the 18th; and in her last quarter at 3 A.M. on the 25th. She is nearest the earth on the 22nd and remotest on the 10th. As she sweeps around her track she passes Mercury on the 3rd, Mars on the 4th, Saturn on the 8th, Uranus on the 17th, Jupiter on the 21st, Neptune on the 27th, Venus on the 30th, and Mercury again later in the same day. Octo Th In only jn us heart ated trate phot¢ cealet oil. of th X-ray and ¢ slit d invisi made Thi result engin’ the V of Vic OW porta ing fe study ably newly electr WT machi high]; absen carry! the « angles Vir may | movir device the sh the ne out. aid ¥ being The weigh: yet it be mi This of dar and | patier graph: were camer By in oil, genolc titude tain r appar: ployec higher the n merse: unifor by ex GI U™ n many Pages summ “magi G. R. It i Writer Parch:

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or 1929 wever, on an people ars. vance, / make zround nd the e time of in- neces- isitors’ nateur aning, n the s tifies is, we € sub- l. Ed, 1S orth or a ntify ruide star tune 2nd; Oth; last 1e is otest her Mars s on e on cury | | October 1929 The Scientific American Digest (Continucd from page 344) In appearance the apparatus resembles | only remotely the X-ray apparatus now | in use. The Coolidge X-ray tube, the | heart of the apparatus in which are gener- | ated the invisible rays of light which pene- trate the body and make possible the photographing of bones and organs, is con- cealed in an aluminum container filled with | oil. It more nearly resembles the camera of the photographer than the complicated | X-ray apparatus one now sees in hospitals | and offices of physicians. An adjustable | slit diaphragm permits the passage of the invisible rays by which “‘radiographs’’ are made. This new shock-proof apparatus is the result of several years of development and engineering in the research laboratory of the Victor Corporation, under the direction of Vice President J. B. Wantz. “While X-ray apparatus, now so im-| portant in diagnostic work, such as locat- | ing foreign particles in the body and in studying fractured bones, has been reason- ably safe,’ Mr. Wantz declared, ‘“‘the newly developed apparatus is 100 percent electrically safe. “The complete insulation makes the new machine especially valuable when X raying highly nervous patients and children. The absence of all overhead or exposed wiring carrying high voltages also makes possible the obtaining of X-ray photographs at angles hitherto impossible.”’ Virtually any part of the patient’s body may be X rayed from any angle without moving the patient. Manipulation of the device to the patient’s position replaces the shifting of the patient’s position to suit the needs of the device, Mr. Wantz pointed out. Such manipulation is an invaluable aid when severely injured patients are being X rayed. The movable part of the apparatus weighs in the neighborhood of 500 pounds, yet it is so delicately balanced that it can be moved literally with the little finger. This feature, combined with elimination of danger from contact with exposed wiring and possibility of shock to operator or patient, makes it possible to obtain radio- graphs as rapidly as though a photographer were employing an ordinary high-speed camera. By insulating the actual X-ray apparatus in oil, another scientific obstacle in roent- genology has been overcome. At high al- titudes, such as occur in the Rocky Moun- tain regions or in South America, X-ray apparatus of twice the power usually em- ployed at sea level is necessary because the higher altitudes decrease the capacity of the machine. With the apparatus im-| mersed in oil the new machine operates uniformly at all altitudes and is not affected by extremes in humidity. Ghosts of Words ‘‘Walk’’ on Old Manuscripts ULTRA-VIOLET rays have achieved a new miracle. Ghosts of words erased | many centuries ago from old manuscript Pages are ‘“‘walking’’ in luminous garb, summoned back from oblivion through the ‘magic”’ of a Viennese scientist, Professor G. R. Kogel. It is well known that the old manuscript Writers often erased the hand lettering on SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN tor the Man who Cares Len after you would expect any shoe to have lost its shape and its smart- ness, THE FLORSHEIM SHOE is still giving service It is still shapely . still handsome still a pleasure anda credit to its wearer! Tue Pick... Style M-362 The FFORSHEIM Shoe Mol Sighs $10 re =X GS ~ Y, 357 Parchments and economically used the Noedkdu- ROOT Presents the CORB IN Registers in R.P M the Speed of MOTORS “ ‘T x Newesr addition to the VeepeR-Roor line of Speed and Production Counters. Centrifugal principle ; powerful, uniform action—as made by Corbin Screw Corporation for 15 years. Indicating pointer holds steady; gives precise, instant readings. Unaffected by tempera- ture or moisture. Price, f.0. b. factory, $30.00. Industrial Tachometer, measuring feet-per-minute, yards-per-minute &c:, $35.00 up. Write for Bulletin. Hand (PORTABLE) « CHOME Te, ) Venda -ROO |NCORPORATED HARTFORD, CONN. OFFICES IN PRINCIPAL CITIES; WRITE OR PHONE

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358 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PATENTS | TRADE-MARKS DESIGNS FOREIGN PATENTS MUNN & CO. PATENT ATTORNEYS Associated since 1846 with the Scientific American SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN BLDG. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN BLDG. 24-26 West 40th St., N. Y. C. Washington, D. C. | TOWER BUILDING HOBART BUILDING Chicago, Ill. San Francisco, Cal. VAN NUYS BUILDING Los Angeles, Cal. Books and Information on Patents and Trade-Marks by Request. Associates in All Foreign Countries. | | | AMATEUR TELESCOPE MAKING The results obtained by several hundred makers of telescopes attest the worth of this book, for all they know was obtained from it. $3 .O0 postpaid domestic SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Musical Sensation ADIO FE f=] ce E R CATALOG AT WHOLESALE PRICES i) -ACCORDEON. Pla yed by Music Rolls 196 pages of radio bargains. New Screen Grid, all- Without any knowledge of M e you play in a few minutes, | electric, A.C. Sets in beautiful consoles—also battery as perfect as an Artist, latest hits, song nd lances. Every in strument | operated sets as low as $15.95. Write today guaranteed. Circular No. F and roll’ list mailed fre ALLIED RADIO CORPORATION TREASURE SALES co. 711 W. LAKE ST., DEPT. 67 CHICAGO 1690 Boston Road New York | The famous Matthews “38” Stock Cruiser Speeds 15 to 30 mile Go anywhere ina | Matthews Cruiser All grades of Crudes and Fibres in large or small quantities Sold by KEASBEY & MATTISON ENJOY THE PLBASURES OF CRI ISING one eat | COMPANY Single Cabin, Do vir Do@ble ¢ abin, Singh Sport Cruisér, D Cabin. Sport Crui Ambler Q Penna. Mattheu i” Speed r tsk for Folder L. ’ THE MATTHEWS °O Port Clinton, Ohio, I Branches in Principal Cities Quality Service Since 1890 October 1929 |same pages over again. Masterpieces of |literature and important historic docu. |ments thus may have been wiped out jp |order to preserve facts that seemed of | greater value to the later makers of manv.- script books. Now, a communication to | the British journal Antiquity reports that a method of photographing the invisible | writings has been found. | To photograph the ghost writing a | mercury vapor lamp which generates ultra- | violet rays is used. A filter of glass almost black in color transmits only the ultra- | violet rays. When examined beneath these rays, many dyes and other substances take on a curious glow, or fluorescence, each substance exhibiting a characteristic color, By using a special filter it is possible to eliminate the surface writings and to photo- graph only the lost script. It has sometimes been possible in the past to restore invisible writings by use of chemicals, but the processes were damaging and not very satisfactory. The new method will enable scholars to probe into the past of any manuscripts, however valuable, and to make the ghosts not only “‘walk” but “‘talk.’’—Science Service. Bees’ ‘“‘Sweet Tooth” Scientifically Measured HE far-famed “‘sweet tooth’”’ of the bee has a sound scientific basis, according to a report on the chemical senses of in- |sects by Dr. Dwight Elmer Minnich of the University of Minnesota, appearing in the Quarterly Review of Biology. Tests made by a German scientist to determine the reaction of bees to the four classic tastes, sweet, sour, salt, and bitter, that are not dependent on the sense of smell, show, said Dr. Minnich, that bees will take saccharose solutions eight times as strong as man can tolerate. The bees’ reaction to acidity and to salt solutions, however, was roughly analogous to that of man. On the other hand, they would swallow solutions much more bitter than the experimenters in the research labora- tory could stand. Experiments with butterflies undertaken by Dr. Minnich brought to light the |rather surprising fact that some of our | common wayside butterflies taste with their feet. From this circumstance the en- tomologist argues that the gustatory nerve centers for these species are located in the tarsus, the division of the insect’s leg to |which the Service Iron Wire in Acid Acts Like Nerves STRIKING similarity between nerv- ous action, particularly heart action, and the behavior of iron wire in a nitric acid bath has been discovered and studied by Ralph S. Lillie, professor of physiology at the University of Chicago. He has been | working out the analogy for several years | and it forms a significant part of his theories | concerning nervous action which have been | published in book form and, more recently, in Science. According to A. J. Carlson, chairman of the Department of Physiology at the University of Chicago, the study of this similarity is of fundamental importa ce in the acquisition of knowledge concerning nervous action. ‘The obscure problems of physiology,’”’ said Dr. Carlson, ‘“‘and the problems difficult to work out on experi-

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er 1929 eces of docu- out in med of manu- tion to ; that a 1Visible ting a 3 ultra- almost ultra- h these es take , each * color, ible to photo- in the use of naging nethod 1@ past le, and :”” but ally he bee ording of in- of the in the ist to e four bitter, ise of t bees times bees’ tions, . that would than i bora- taken t the f our . their > ene nerve n the eg to cience ves nerv- tion, nitric died ology been years ories been ntly, an of the this ce in ning lems 1 the peri- October 1929 NIQUE Regd. THIN LEAD Make fine lines in color Perfect for making neat, small figures, notations, check marks, ete. in color. Better than ink for clean, thin- line underscoring. Ideal for sketching and drafting. Sharpen in a pencil sharpener to a needle point. $1.00 ff Asst. No. 1116 (12 colors) $1. 00 f, Asst. No. 1117 (24 pencils) $2.00 / Atall dealers or write direct American Pencil Co. 542 Venus Bldg. Hoboken, N. J. ae A VENUS Pencil Factor Product On Improved Reception. from your present radio is now made possible by the— RADIO CLARIFIER $3.00 Postage Prepaid tone, decre interference and creases volume Overcomes fading of sound r vave length Easily installed on inside or outs ide erial. Simply cut wire near cabinet and connect between cabinet and aerial by using clips which are attache d to Clarifier Gives wonderful results. Satisfaction guaranteed orth many times its cost. Send $3.00 for immediate delivery. Descriptive literature on request. ROAT & LOHMAN, Dept. 404, Milton, Pennsylvania “‘WONDER”’ Cold Pipe and Tubing Benders Do Not Crack, Flatten or Crimp the Pipe Standard of the World Hand and B Motor Operated 148 rs Machines It clears the ases n od for American Pipe Bending Machine Co. 32 Pearl St. Boston, Mass. Senu for Cataiogue 250 POWER 5 MICROSCOPE 16 Educational, entertaining, this fine microscope helps all to know life that can't be seen ot unaided eye. Tiny insects look like monsters. Plant and mineral life reveal new wonders in form and color. Used by students, dentists, physicians, scientists—in home, office, school and laboratory. optical qualities. Magnifies 100 to 250 times. Tilting stand, fine finish, nickel trim, plush- § lined case, prepared slide, instructions. At your dealer or direct postpaid. Money back guarantee Other models $2.50 to $8.50. Catalog Free Wollensak Optical Company 913 Hudson Ave. Rochester, N. Y. Precise SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN mental animals must be through study on easily controllable materi- als. The work of Dr. Lillie on the iron wire, because it yields results so similar to the observable phenomena in living nerves, is highly suggestive with reference to further research and ultimate knowledge.” The freakish behavior of pure iron wire in nitric acid has long been known but it was not until Dr. Lillie began his experi- ments that the almost startling similarity with living nerves was discovered. In a popular demonstration of the experiment, a pure iron wire, 1 to 5 centimeters long, is immersed in a bath of nitric acid of 60 to 80 percent. A colorless film immediately at one end, a wave travels rapidly along the wire. If a small glass tube is placed in the acid around one end of the wire, rhythmical waves pass the length of the wire at a rate of from 14 to 120 times a minute, depending on the strength of the solution, the temperature, and the length of the wire. What happens, is that a sort of battery film, which molecule, has an electrical charge negative to that of the wire. When the film according to Dr. Lillie, is formed. The the film next to the bare spot. This con- — | tinues until the bare spot, which is seen as a wave, has passed the length of the wire. |The film forms again after the wave has passed. The glass ring at one end of the wire establishes an area of permanent activity because the acid becomes less con- centrated. Thus, as if the film were being continually scratched, rhythmical waves pass along the wire as rapidly as the film is re-formed. “The process may be re- garded,” says Dr. Lillie, ‘‘as a two-di- mensional explosion.”’ The analogy to nervous action is em- vhasized by the effect which outside factors have upon the rhythm of the wire. The influence of temperature, electrical polari- zation, concentration of acid, and length of the wire, have been shown by Dr. Lillie to be the same as the influence of these factors on living nerves.—Science Service. | Transport 29 American Passenger Air | (Continued from page 32 | indicated in an interior view on page 329. Three or four years back, airplane con- structors and operators, both in Europe and the United States, seemed to come to the conclusion that 100 miles per hour cruising speed was as fast as an airplane had to go, and that economy and load carrying capac- ity were more important than further in- crease in speed. But the sole justification of the airplane lies in its speed, and de- signers have found it possible to go well be- yond the 100 miles an hour mark. A cruising speed of 130 miles an hour is not uncom- mon, 150 miles is well in sight, and well informed men are of the opinion that 200 miles an hour is not an impossibility, particularly if such methods as refueling in the air are resorted to. Of course there is a difference between the cruising speed and the scheduled speed that .can be maintained in practise, allow- ing for stops and head winds. We will consider speeds now to be found on a few typical routes. approached | forms over the wire. If the wire is scratched | is the thickness of only one | is | scratched, a current sets up which dissolves | Especially driven devices horsepower motors, tion or series- are correct principles of design that embody every essential of a tory small motor.. Upon the motor depends the satisfactory performance of every | motor-driven | increasing performance. device...steady sales depend either wound... appliances... have | write SIGNAL ELECTRIC MFG. CO. [YPEWR rtab' pricessma Nitebeen vhaif. Oc overran). pn mort la completely rebuilt and refinished b Send us your motor problems.. been small motors since meeting many manufacturers’ needs... designing and 1890...today Menominee, Michigan Small motor specialist and upon designed for motor- s are Signal fractional induc- back of them satisfac-° = .a guaranteed per-. *: | formance that meets any manufac- | turer’s requirements for motor-driven building 359 -we we're ince 1890 Underwood, vite emington, ged ND NO MONEY! rand new. Guaranteed to-you payment plan and 10 day ‘iree trial ‘offer. . Amazing values—send at on aad Gls RA! SCIENCE | NEWS-LETTER offers . . ° Life-Continuation Courses = progress is so rapic ind revolutionary nowadays that no one can keep up with it without constant contact. The weekly,Science News-Letter, endeavors to provide “‘life- continuation”’ courses in all sciences. With life so complex, it is im- portant that the people as a whole should so far as possible, understand the aims and achievements of modern science. Not only because of the value of such knowledge to them- selves but because res¢ arch di- tly depends upon ation of methods. rectly or indire« popular appreci For individuals and libraries wishing the cream of scientific news, Science News-Letter is published each week. Introductory Offer—$2 for 6 months Science Service 2177 B St., Washington, D.C. 31 W. Monroe St. international Typewriter Exch., Bent. 1060, chicaeo DIGLATFT. LZFLT.

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360 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929

October Miami to Havana, large three-engined | oem plane, no stops, 261 miles in 2 hours 15 STAN —" minutes, or 116 miles per hour. STOCK | Kansas City to Los Angeles, in a Fokker GEARS | tri-motored F-10, with five ee | stops, 1917 miles in 13 hours 5 minutes, ‘ . | les an average of 108 miles per hour. Stocked for immediate shipment CIC St. Louis to Omaha, in a single-engined in large industrial centers | Be an electrical specialist. Gain _ success in this most six-passenger plane, with a stop at Kansas | fascinating and profitable field. Learn at National in the Ci ) 1h 3 1 | 34 . 4 CHARLES | center of tremendous electrical projects costing more than ity, 401 miles in nours 40 minutes or Send for 617 Arch St., $100,000,000.00 — unlimited opportunities now. 86 miles per hour. Catalog 54-S ’ 1) Phila., Pa Practical, intensive training by National's job-experience Tulsa-Oklahoma in a single-engined six- COMPANY method in 6 to 9 months. All technical essentials included ‘ = ‘ 6 cae School endorsed by leaders in electrical industry. You learn passenger plane with two intermediate | — aan all branches of electricity; radio. Million dollar institution; stops, 132 miles in 2 hours, or 66 miles per all modern equipment and training facil- , G E ities. Life scholarship. No age limit Free FREE hour. A fe by A employment service. Over 17,000 success- a . . ‘ * cod lapedenten, Stehmen. Sin, theeueel Chicago to Dutra, in a three-engined Rea Kinds—Small | 84-page catalog sent FREE. Write today. Ford plane, 250 miles in two hours and a fl mgs meinen complete line of wear |} scl NATIONAL FLECTRICAL CCHOOL half or 100 miles per hour. eee = seni aoe an kinds. scl ‘ It would appear that in the large modern ee eae Bi | To\ Dept. 302-EC 4006 So. Figueroa, Los Angeles, Calif. airplane an average scheduled speed of Pte dys pti | HO > > r 7 . | VAI over 100 miles per hour may readily be 105 South Jefferson Street Chicago WORDS OF | expected. The best trains maintain an average of 50 miles per hour, but distances MAGIC POWER iy sail run 25 percent more than by air |BECOME A FOOT CORRECTIONIST _ ulti-millionaire e to tween any tw snta 5 ee ESE — jthat is ini multi-millionaire gave to between any two points. The advantage $3,000 to $10,000 yearly in a business of your own—many —— _WoRDS that created the rich man's mil of the plane is already tremendous and it | are making it in the New Profession of foot correction; = lions E ae ae ‘m. They made him +] 5 not medical nor chiropody. Openings everywhere with worth a Qi weer a villion doll rt OS ee Do you will grow. : all the trade you can attend to; easy terms for license and boar Med ggg nat thes wth Hos calle thie oaese. $t ie ~ may be of interest to reproduce the |training by mail; no. further capital ——. o goods. to yours free >. os od pi 32 years of age follow ing table prepared by the Boeing buy; no agency or soliciting. Write today for full details, paring for a w« ion in the big pay fields of Cc ompany. STEPHENSON LABORATORY Drafting, Engineering, Electricity or Architecture through ss 23 Back Bay Boston, Mass. any one of tl : | without bayonet, $19.50. Packing charge 50c extra. as ba * dytloag NO EX PE RII NCE I and ae } highe st tare harge d. Ball cartridges $3.50 per 100. New catalog, illustrated, “ epecial place needed. A Rania fe tim ai | Western Air Express charges 33 dollars | a Sa eee ANY is now starting. co if vou mean strictly business 1 for the 365 miles between Los Angeles and | Special new circular for 2c stamp. Established 1865. ears I 1 i pecial f em METAL CAST PRODUCTS COMPANY San Francisco, which works out to 9 cents | Francis Bannerman Sons, 502 B’way, N-¥. City guara Dept. S 1696 Boston Road New York City 1 - omeaieansnnataes Tet “I ——! | a mile. ASTRONOMICAL CRES S ir Li , » 998 wition toe ss ; a = ae - — . agen be TELESCOPES ween Detroit anc eveland for dollars By Our Profit-Sharing Plan or 9.1 cents a mile Send for Catalog Exp ADUATES S EED oy PRES ; WM. MOGEY & SONS, | . . Jour ci _— ae de aS Sue ro Somewhere around 10 cents a mile would | ne. ) oft ou owa 8 dents srté rf : y § 3 . - . | Sle 7 way——now doing over $30,000 a year. Another in appear to be a fair average figure, which PLAINFIELD, N. J. HENR R iscons over $10,600 the first 3 » r night e _ Classes. Call oF write for FREE BOOK. ie is perhaps twice as much as the cost of : ———_—— j ——- Chicago School of Watchmaking travel on the best trains. When time saved | Waterpower Engineering PA Dept. 5604, 549 W. Randolph St., CHICAGO is taken into account, these prices are not Home Study ane = aie likely to alarm the business man to whom H. von SCHON, Consulting Engineer CONN! " 10d « ~ « ; tc + : . ~ ies _ 7 a shown VACUUM CLEANER MEN—Yoour celection of 30 speed of transportation is a highly impor- | 289 Parker Street, “ Newark, N. J 1? leading makes, rightly rebuilt vacuum cleaners. tant factor. Seeat $5. a Ali fully r guarante¢ d. te rfe - | AGENTS 500% PROFIT PA in action and appearance. Any quantity desired. 70 abet cae neh iseataeiesr eae writ (| |(C)UR readers may ack whether with KES) cuarantenn coun tear etre | |. money for you. ALS se Its, . . . . " or store eo a RENE same rom reports to the Department of | 30 po cng tonnage <8 eT S.A Commerce, it appears that costs for multi- | BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENTS sell e Vv n . . ° 4 ‘. Pome. » = ) u F. ¢ 0% € aracteris a. 130 thens Ave., eveland, engined planes vary from $.753 to $1.07 per cine eo ee ; mile, while the single-engined 200 horse- Singapore, 5.5.” UNISOL MFG. CO., = power plane averages $.71. Large machines | Agents for'Straits Settlements. Jersey City, N. J.,U. S.A. —

in California ; J tore be profitatte, evenrwithout the belp'of ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS? | | ax airmail. Small passenger planes would tHe A. H. S. ELEC. SERV. & ENG. BUREAU, Rendering ‘40 to75 owadk appe: ; not appear to be : ofitable < ider- | Personal Service, will solve them for you through the Mail with rie P Ra ad ae noni heen Precision. P. O. No. 132, FLUSHING, NEW YOR RK ‘ for Auto Men. aicces i aeaices ;

is necessary before passenger

operators can really settle the problem of a| [iaretasa) ts remunerative fare that will be satisfactory | #\KSaKS “METAL CHECKS a il bi open $404 to all concerned. | & od, STENCILS of successful g Prospective travelers will be interested| & re SEALS - Auto Book un in the charges for baggage. As the carrying pecan doa SENDFOR WY oNG FREE! (2°23) <0" Saedie ucssamneliesnkon capacity of the airplane is strictly limited, 5 Nearest ere ey wl 4 snd sarge mansecment. fos lied NATIONAL AUTOMOTIVE operators cannot afford to be liberal in the | TLE i uusconsedee Les honcles datltonen matter of baggage. Twenty-five to thirty | "Sgeaaeee se eee ceh ee , 1.8 lor ' Oute

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THE MOST WONDERFUL ONE QUARTER TURN HOSE | Sand and Water, ever Patent No Avenue, Chicago, CONNEC TION for Air, Steam, Gas, Oil, wn to the public Price $5,000 1,591,871. HEIN RICH, 2135 South Michigan Ill. PATENT FOR SALE “ S. and Canadian Patents. A useful com- bination twine holder and cutter, wherein the twine may be cut after a desired length of same has been removed from the holder. Will sell outright or on a royalty basis. Address R. SALVAGGIO 1330 Magazine Street,

Magnified 225 Diameters ULTRALE NS MICROSCOPE At last a high powered microscope is within the means of all who v ish to study, observe and experiment with the vast world of minute objects invisible to the naked eye. Such fun it is, as well as educational. No technical train- ing required, yet hundredsof scien- tists and teachers are using this in- strument. Gives enormous magni- fication and _ per- fect nd

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN | pounds are generally allowed free, with a | charge of 50 cents per pound for additional weight. Some companies allow no free baggage but charge a low rate per pound. | In at least four cities ‘‘air travel con- | solidated ticket offices’ are to be found. | The first was established by Air Associates in New York City, the second in Los | Angeles under the auspices of the Auto- | | mobile Club of Southern California, a third | in Chicago, and a fourth in the premises of the Cleveland Automobile Club. They are | all busy and rendering a much needed | service.

TO matter how safe air travel may be, the questions of the liability to pas- | sengers of the carrier and of insurance will naturally interest all. At present the exact responsibility of an | aircraft operator to his passengers is diffi- | cult to determine, owing to lack of legal precedent. Major G. L. Lloyd, an au- thority on aviation insurance, in a paper | lread before the International Civil Aero- nautics Conference in Washington seems to be of the opinion that an airline operating on regular schedule will have all the liabili- ties of a common carrier and perhaps some additional ones owing to the somewhat greater hazard of flying. A signed release from liability given by a passenger before a flight should be slight | defense under the common law, if negli- gence can be clearly established. Of course there will be great difficulties in establish- ing negligence in aircraft accidents. It is to be hoped’that our operators will adopt a | liberal policy towards passengers in case of | accidents, protecting themselves by taking | out large policies for liability. Insurance for passengers is now available in a number of ways. Coupons for specific | flights on regular airlines, similar to the | |railroad accident ticket policies, can be readily purchased at rates varying from | 75 cents to $1.50 per 1000 dollars per flying | day, but the amount of insurance obtain- able is limited. (We believe that rates are coming down and that two dollars will now buy 5000 dollars in insurance.) Annual ooo ai are available from 15 dollars per 1000 dollars and upwards. Pan American | Airways operating between Miami and Havana, Miami and Nassau, and Miami and San Juan include a 500 dollar accident insurance policy for each passenger in the price of the fare. The practise of life insurance companies varies widely. A writer in Air Travel News | has canvassed many large companies and | finds the following practises: Bankers, Iowa—occasional flights as passengers, no extra premium; Canada | Life—no restrictions on passengers; Equit- | able, N. Y.—no restrictions on passengers; Home—occasional fliers treated on indi- vidual merits; Metropolitan—no restric- | tions for occasional fare-paying passengers; Mutual Life—occasional fliers and passen- | gers at extra premium depending on flying done; New York Life—occasional flier extra |rate depending on flying done; Travelers, | occasional fliers given consideration. | There is no doubt that life insurance |ecompanies will adopt a more and more liberal viewpoint as passenger flying be- comes more common. For the time being | prospective passengers will do well to con- | sult their companies whether with regard | | to policies already written or for new poli- cies. | (To Be Continued) | 4

361 At leading stores or Order Direct

HAMLEY started somethin in Toilet Kits Aq; ; The style in toilet cases has definitely fj i) swung to this solid-leather box... Pye made by real saddle craftsmen from iF solid leather. A plain box, but such a box! No trick of design or finish can approach its rugged solid-leather honesty. Simplicity itself —no fussy loops to waste time in packing. A great gift! A wonderful utility. Order one now. At leading stores or by mail, postpaid, from Hamiey & Company, world's champion Saddle- makers, 96 Court Street, Pendleton, Oregon. Medium * 85¢x344x1% $ 6.00 Large *9%24%22% 7.50 Extra large *10'4 x 534x234 10.00 * Inside measurements. Name or initials embossed on lid, 25c¢ extra. HAM LEY KIT

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362 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 19 Our Choice of Recent Books Modern Scientific Knowledge By Frederick A. Cleveland, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor at Boston University A 550 page well illustrated survey of modern scientific knowledge of nature, man, and society, written by 14 different scientists, some of whom are noted. It covers the sciences of astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology; it also covers anthropology, psychology and sociology. The book was prepared to orient college freshmen in the whole field of science, tefore they began to specialize, and is therefore uitable for the general reader. It has schoolbookish earmarks but the style of the text metter is clear and lucid. $4.70 postpaid. Meteors By Prof. Charles P. Olivier, Dir. Observatory Univ. of Pa. HIS is the standard work on meteors and comets, and is the last word. Written by “the principal American authority on the subject,” to quote Professor Russell in the present number, some of the subjects treated are: how meteors are observed; comets; meteor showers; computation of orbits; theory of lunar craters; origin of meteors. $6.20 postpaid. The Earth By Harold Jeffreys, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Prof. Cambridge Univ. “THE second and greatly revised edition of a noted book for the student of geophysics, the full title being “The Earth, its Origin, History, and Physical Constitution.” Among subjects treated are: tidal theory of origin of solar system; origin of moon; age of earth; seismology; theory of isostasy. The treat- ment is largely mathematical but the mathematics merely prove the statements of the text and, as the author says, may be skipped if desired. The book is essentially for the student and presupposes some knowledge of astronomy and earth science. $6.70 postpaid. Elementary Mechanics By J. J. Reynolds, Prof. Math. and Theoret. Mechan. Lehigh OTHING further than geometry, trigonometry, A. and algekra is required for a comprehension of this lucid and well developed text. All the material is of a very practical turn and the data avoid in- volved computations. A beginning course in tech- nical analysis. $2.70 postpaid. Elementary Organic Chemistry By F. H. Constable, St. John’s College, Cambridge HIS concise summary broadly covers the whole ground and treats thoroughly most of the im- portant topics in elementary work. Reactions common to a class are studied and then applied to a particular example. A general knowledge of practical methods and terminology is presupposed, $2.15 postpaid. Chemistry in Daily Life By S. Glasstone, Ph. D. University of Sheffield ATHER more extended and a bit more detailed than many of the books that have appeared on this subject. For this reason it is a more valuable reference and at the same time the presentation is so well considered that none of the aspects of a text are appreciable. $2.40 postpaid. The Science of Psychology By R. H. Wheeler, Univ. of Kansas ASED upon laboratory analysis and experimental investigation including measurement of social attitudes, animal and child behavior, influence of social environment, et cetera, this treatise considers the subject upon the principle that parts are to be explained in terms of the whole, not wholes in terms of parts. A new and interesting treatment which is readily acquisible. $4.00 postpaid. Principles of Economics By F. S. Deibler, Prof. Economics, Northwestern Univ. HE scope of this work is confined to the more general and basic principles. Seventeen well- known economists and industrial leaders here present the results of their study of economic changes in this country since the war. The survey which furnished the background was conducted with unprecedented thoroughness. More than two hundred experts and a large number of organizations collaborated. $7.70 postpaid. Money By Samuel Crowther OW to make, use, and invest money. The writer’ has been co-author of works with some of our most successful industrialists and sets forth his ideas in pungent, straight-to-the-mark sentences which carry many of the characteristics of the men with whom he has associated. Well worth careful perusal. $2.15 postpaid.

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»ber 197 a yn le 50 re October 1929 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN | | _—_— Raw Materials of Industrialism By H. B. Killough, Asso. Prof. Economics, Brown Univ. L. W. Killough, Asst. Prof. Economics, Wellesley LL the raw materials of the world are surveyed to arrive at a basis of trade and commerce by dividing the subject into five parts: textile fibers, crude forest products, population and food supply, minerals, and fuel power. A comprehensive resumé of wide research. $3.90 postpaid. Aerial Navigation and Meteorology By Lewis A. Yancey RITTEN by the man who accompanied Lieut. Williams on his recent flight to Rome, this re- vised and considerably enlarged edition is a practical, non-technical manual for aircraft pilots, students, and general reference. It describes the instruments and their use in aerial navigation, air commerce regulations, applications of meteorological informa- tion and is withal an excellent practical guide. $4.20 postpaid. Oxy-Acetylene Welder’s Handbook By M. S. Hendricks, Ed. The Acetylene Journal VERY concise (4°¢ x 6°, 208 pages) volume covering in logical and convenient form all the considerations which are inherent in the best practice. Enough of the metallurgical aspects are included as seem essential to a good understanding of the “why” of certain practices. An interesting chapter on weld- ing properties of common metals is admirable. $3.15 postpaid. Roadside Development By J. M. Bennett E have all passed through country where a new wonderful road has been built, but the scars of its accomplishment have bitten into our consciousness until we wondered if too big a price in natural beauty had not been paid. The author, with years of ex- perience and study, has innumerable practical sug- gestions which make for conservation and beauty with utility. A most entertaining, practical, and excellent book. We highly recommend this unique study to property owners, public utility corporations, and all those who are interested in or vote on highway improvements. Abundantly illustrated. $5.20 postpaid. Kings of Commerce By T. C. Bridges H. H. Tiltman ERE are twenty-six sketches of the lives of men who attained unique success in business. Many of these are Englishmen, much of the material being new as far as we in this country are concerned. Twenty-four interesting photographs of the subjects of the sketches are reproduced. $3.15 postpaid. The Story of the Baltimore & Ohio R. R. By Edward Hungerford URSUANT to its one hundredth anniversary, this railroad’s history, which is as well the record of the social and economic life of the territory it serves. has been set down with most entertaining manner in a spirit which well reflects the importance and color of so large a factor in our early develop- ment. One reads through the two volumes with the many illustrations scarcely realizing the extent of the text nor the faithful research which made the story possible. $10.00 postpaid. Sea Lore By Stanley Rogers NXTOW that sailing vessels have all but disappeared + from the high seas, a book of this kind has a distinct place in literature for its historical import- ance. The details of rigging and design are authentic, coming from an accurate study of original sources. 125 illustrations are drawn by the author. $2.90 postpaid. Pioneer Heroes By J. Walker McSpadden OMPANION book to “Indian Heroes” which appeared last year, this tells the story from the white man’s standpoint. The author has a gift of combining historical fact with a most readable style. This is the type of American history one can heartily recommend. $2.15 postpaid. , Long Ago Told By Harold Bell Wright ITH enthusiasm we work of one of our most popular writers. For years he has lived near the Papagos Indians, studying their ancient lore, manners, customs, and rites, and absorbing their tales by the fireside. Having won their trust and affection he sets forth with his char- acteristic fidelity to geographic and personal detail, many of their beautiful legends which are clothed in appropriate simplicity of expression and feeling. A worthy contribution to the literature on the Indian. $2.50 postpaid. Internal Combustion Engines By L. Streeter and Lester Clyde Lichty THOROUGH revision of this standard textbook on the fundamental principles of the theory and design of internal-combustion engines. The treatment of the combustion process, of cycle effi- ciencies, of the cooling of engines, and of the carbure- tion of liquid fuels has been thoroughly revised to include the latest data available. $4.20 postpaid. For Sale by SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN recommend this latest .

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN October 1929 a Commercial Property News Facts and Notes of Interest to Inventors, Patentees, and Owners of Trademark Rights Mechanical Wonderland [NVENTORS, and all others who may wish to see a remarkable display of work- ing models illustrating fundamental prin- ciples of mechanics, will be interested in the *‘mechanical wonderland”’ in operation at the Museum of the Peaceful Arts, in the Scientific American Building, 24 West 40 Street, New York City. More than 200 working models, simplified and built to a scale which readily shows the essential principles involved, are arranged in such a way that the visitor may study funda- mental principles of physics and methods, old and new, for the ultilization, direction, and transformation of various forms of energy. The display was designed by William Clark, who turned his mechanical ingenuity to the task of creating a moving display which would present important mechanical principles with such simplicity that they may be understood by the layman. By assembling the working parts of his models in convenient sizes, with cut-away sections to reveal the action which takes place as the devices are operated, the designer has pre- sented the wonders of mechanics in some- what the same way a showman marshalls the creatures of the animal kingdom. His original plan was to make a tour of the country with the ‘“‘mechanical circus.’’ Although all of the models shown in the exhibit are representations of common me- chanical principles and their application for various uses, many visitors entertain some doubts as to whether there is some trick behind the operation of such devices as square gears, out-of-line and eccentric drives, peculiar pulley arrangements, and universal joints which simulate the involved gyrations of a clever contortionist. In addition to the numerous industrial applications of the various mechanical principles, the display reveals also the modus operandi of such devices as watch and clock escapements, and various household de- vices. A particularly popular part of the exhibit shows the operation of 12 of the essential parts of the modern motor car, in cross sectional detail, including the internal combustion engine, carburetor, steering ar- rangement, brakes, transmission, and dif- ferential drive. Hair Waving Apparatus Patented IFFERING from the prior art in that it is adapted for use only once, a new apparatus for waving hair has_ been been awarded a patent. Former inventions covering heating coils having permanent form and intended for continuous use were held by the Board of Appeals to contain no suggestion of the apparatus revealed in the petitioner’s application. The patent was allowed after two of the claims had been amended; several claims were dismissed from the appeal, and the action of the examiner in rejecting five other claims was upheld. The new apparatus consists of a flexible envelope to enclose the prepared strand of hair, a pad for holding moisture to be va- porized in the envelope, and an electrical heating coil; the three parts are formed into a collapsible tube. The ends of the coil are adapted for detachable connection with a wire leading from a source of current. After being used once, the apparatus is discarded. Patentability of Combination of Prior Practices Upheld in Infringement Suit PATENTS covering a process for apply- ing plaster to concrete and masonry walls and ceilings were held valid and in- fringed in a recent decision of the District Court for the District of Maryland in favor of the Vortex Manufacturing Company, et al. The novelty of the infringed patent (Parkin Number 1282460), according to the court, resided in the application to walls and ceilings of a moisture-impervious fluid bond material at normal temperature, together with the application of an inert material, and the plaster. While the prior art dis- closed the various features of the invention, none of the earlier inventions suggested the co-operation of elements upon the principle adopted by the patent in suit, since none of the prior patents called for the application of asphalt to walls at normal temperature, in conjunction with the application of gravel and then plaster. Because of the commercial success of the process, which is indicative of its utility, the court held that doubt as to patentability should be resolved in favor of the patent. The burden of proof as to infringement rests with the plaintiff, while the burden as to invalidity and anticipation rests upon the defendants. The true test of the patentability of a combination of prior processess, the court stated, is whether there has been brought together for the first time their different elements into a unitary whole forming a process that is both new and useful. The Parkin patent was found to meet this test. Mark Refused Registration—Held Ornamentative Only \ HETHER a mark functions as a trademark depends upon the im- pression it produces upon the mind of the public, according to a statement made by Assistant Commissioner in ruling that the McDougall Company, of Frankfort, Indiana, is not entitled to register a pictorial repre- sentation of a teapot with steam issuing from the spout, as a trademark for kitchen tables and cabinets. Registration was re- fused on the ground that the symbol is merely ornamental, and was not used as a trademark. Although it could not be said that a representation of a teapot is descriptive of kitchen cabinets and tables, when the teapot is shown by itself, when applied to other articles it indicates that the table or cabinet is to be used in the kitchen, according to the ruling. Moreover, the mark renders the table more ornamental. The specimens filed show a table having a figure of a teapot at the four corners of the central panel and x t/ \ | 0 os ; To omen Oct cent abo miss min the sugg mar obse pror geni occu sum been of tk elect ever influ perf inve man For com For pliar him Mur shad time the « the : elect met!

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1929 _ ———_ tion, i the ciple 1e of tion ‘ure, ‘avel ' the , the ility ent. nent n as ipon of a ourt ight rent ig a The test. id is a im- the 3 by the ana, pre- uing *hen ; re- 1 is as a it a e of ipot ther inet x to the lens pot and October 1929 centrally on each of the drop leaves, just above the lower edge. The Assistant Com- missioner ruled that the mark directs the mind to the table and the proposed use of the table, and does not serve to indicate or suggest ownership or origin. Thomas E. Murray, Noted Inventor, Dies EW American inventors have attained success as noteworthy as that which marked the rise of Thomas E. Murray from obscurity as a machinist to wealth and prominence as an inventive and executive genius. At the time of his death, which occurred on July 21st at his Long Island summer home, the 69-year-old inventor had been granted more than 1100 patents; most of them were confined to the development of electrical and gas appliances, but almost every phase of modern industry has been influenced by his work. During the World War, Mr. Murray perfected a method of welding shells, and invented a process which resulted in the manufacture of 240-millimeter mortar shells. For these contributions he received high commendation from the War Department. For his numerous inventions of safety ap- pliances, the Franklin Institute awarded him the Longstreth Medal of Merit. Mr. Murray’s ability as an executive over- shadowed his inventive genius, and at the time of his death he was known chiefly as the organizer and former executive head of the allied Edison companies, which supply electric light and power for the New York metropolitan area. New Process Patented for Mining Sulfur PROCESS for mining sulfur by under- +4 ground fusion with hot water has been patented by Wilbur Judson, as an improve- ment on the Frasch process by which aban- doned mines may be operated. Several claims in the Judson application were held unpatentable, including one directed broad- ly to ‘‘the conservation» of hot water by balancing underground pressure,’’ which was held to be for a result without including the means to accomplish it. Other claims covering a process for mining sulfur, simply stating that the desired underground pres- sure may be obtained by introduction and withdrawal of water, were heldunpatentable also. 5 The claims allowed are directed to a proc- ess for mining. sulfur, setting forth the feature of maintaining a predetermined or balanced pressure in the underground sul- fur deposit, by withdrawing cold water from the lower portion of the deposit and hot water from the upper portion of the de- posit, and the re-introduction of the with- drawn hot water, with or without purifica- ion. Joint Use of Trademark Upheld; Oral Assignment Invalid [N a suit for infringement of a registered trademark, in which the appellee had entered a counter-claim for affirmative re- lief based on its ownership of the same trademark, both bills were dismissed by the Cireuit Court of Appeals for the Second District. It was found that the appellant had at least impliedly consented to the use by the appellee of the trademark in question, and that the appellee’s registration of the mark at a later date was ineffective. The SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN suit was brought by Alfred G. Belden against Sophar Mills, Incorporated. It was decided that since the appellant took the appellee into the business of A. G. Beldon and Company, in which the trade- mark ‘‘Pycnoleum”’ was used on lubricating compounds, belt cleaners, et cetera, the appellee was entitled to continue use of the mark after appellant severed business connections and established his own busi- ness. On the other hand, the court ruled that a registration of the mark obtained by the appellee in its own name immediately after appeilant severed business relations was ineffective because the mark was a symbol of the Belden company’s trade. The opinion also holds that an oral as- signment of a trademark right is ineffec- tive to transfer title, it being stated that such an assignment must be in writing, and is void unless recorded in the Patent Office within three months from its date. The appellee was not held liable for infringe- ment for continuing the use of the trade- mark. Federal Trade Commission Backs Cut-Rate Druggists ]F your druggist sells Hooligan’s Half- Dollar Hose Supporters, and decides to mark them down to 19 cents, that is his privilege. And if the House of Hooligan, or anyone else, should seek to persuade him to desist from the practice, he may simply say, ‘‘Will you please go to the Federal Trade Commission?’ The illus- tration is rather fanciful, but it is one way of saying that the Federal Trade Com- mission stands back of the brand of com- petition practiced by the cut-rate drug- gists, et al. In a recent ruling, the Commission or- dered Johnson and Johnson, manufacturers of medical and surgical supplies, to desist from their established practice of seeking to control the retail selling price of ‘‘John- son’s Toilet and Baby Powder.’’ One phase of the company’s efforts to maintain a fixed uniform selling price for its products was to send a printed communication en- titled, ‘“Notes Concerning Resale Prices,” to the 30,000 retail stores with whom it deals directly. The notice specified a minimum resale price, an amount designed to give the merchant a ‘‘reasonable’’ profit under ordinary circumstances. 365 But such practices and ‘agreements’ prevented retail merchants from selling the goods at lower prices, according to the Commission, and such reductions might be warranted by trade conditions generally. Competition must be allowed to thrive, everyone will agree. It is evident that modern business, exemplified by the amazingly successful chain stores, has little regard for the quaint, old-fashioned policy, “‘Live and let live.’’ Manufacturers interested in the welfare of independent dealers have tried to protect the ‘“‘little fellows’? from the cut-throat competition of the chain organizations, with very little success. In the Colgate case, the Supreme Court of the United States made a sweeping decision to the effect that a manufacturer can refuse to sell his goods to any dealer, just as a dealer has the right to buy from whom he may choose. This was modified, in effect, by the Beech Nut Packing Company case, and others. However, as long as a manu- facturer refrains from making ‘“‘agreements”’ in restraint of trade, by using printed lists of resale prices or any other means frowned upon by the Federal Trade Commission, he can refuse to sell to any store or chain of stores whose methods he may dislike. As modern business is constituted, such a practice is bound to have little effect. Registration Denied Because Applicant Had Not Shown Trademark Use ULING that the applicant had not shown trademark use of a mark for which it sought registration, the First Assistant Commissioner of Patents re- cently upheld the decision of the examiner against the petition of the Toledo Scale Company. The mark in question included an outline of an elongated label bearing the words, “‘Toledo Scale Company,’’ and beneath them the notation, ‘‘Silvite,’’ under which were placed the words, ‘“‘Rust Re- sistent Finish,’ and under that, ‘‘Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A.’’ The application was for a trademark to be used on electroplated me- tallic finishes. In denying registration for the mark, it was pointed out that the applicant sells no separate goods adapted to be used as a finish upon either articles, but merely sells the scales and the scale parts with the finish Patents Recently Issued Classified Advertising Advertisements in this section listed under proper classifications, rate 25c per word each insertion; minimum number of words per insertion 24, maximum 60. accompany each insertion. Payments must Anyone desiring the address of a patentee listed in this section may obtain it by addressing Munn & Co.; those desiring official copies of patents herein listed, may secure them by remitting 15 cents for cach one (state patent number to insure receipt of desired copy) to Munn & Co., 24 West 40th Street, New York City. Chemical Processes PROCESS OF PRODUCING CALCIUM CARBIDE AND Pic IRON—Combining the two processes into one operation, allowing the iron oxide to be reduced in the manufacture of calcium car- bide without increasing the cost so that the reduction of the iron is accomplished without expense. Patent 1719970. Hilliary Eldridge. Designs DESIGN FOR A DECORATIVE MOULDING— Patent 78884. De Escott Green. DESIGN FOR A LIPSTICK HOLDER—Patent 78886. Harry B. Grubb. DESIGN FOR A CIGAR LIGHTER—Patent 78877. Richard A. Cromwell. DESIGN FOR A TURBAN—Patent 78890- Dorothy Long. DESIGN FOR A CANDLESTICK—Patent 78984. Mac W. Reh. DESIGN FOR A SHOE HEEi. —Patent 79073. Sol Greenwald. A COMBINATION FOUNTAIN Craig R. DESIGN FOR PEN AND PENCIL—Patent 78794. Sheaffer.

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366 Electrical Devices ELectric HEATER—Adapted to be embodied in the form of a hot water bag, the electric ele- ments being associated with heat absorbing and radiating elements, resulting in a quick heating and a comparatively slow radiation. Patent 1719722. Charles F. Peterson. Motor—Of the solenoid type, in which rela- tively high rotational speed may be obtained by either alternating or direct current, and in which the rotatable element will serve to cool the motor. Patent 1719761. Alexandre F. Godefroy. Corp HoLpER—An attachment for electric flatirons, an element having a laterally deflected lower end with screw hole to receive one of the handle fastening screws, the upper end being bent to constitute a cord clamping member. Patent 1719766. Alfred Hopkins. TERMINAL PROTECTOR Hoop—Which is particularly applicable to the positive terminal of a storage battery for the purpose of preventing the corrosion which usually accumulates there from spreading to other parts of the battery. Patent 1722203. William B. Day. SLow-AcTING Crrcurr CONTROLLER—Capa- able of many uses such as delaying the ex- tinguishing of a cellar lamp until one has ascended the stairway, or allowing one to re- tire to bed before the lamp illumination is ex- tinguished. Patent 1720896. Frank W. Hader- man. Of Interest to Farmers POWER-DRIVEN CORN-CUTTING ATTACH- MENT FOR BINDERS—Which may be quickly and easily attached to and detached from the tractor by which it is driven, the connection being flexible eliminating undue strain upon the parts as it passes over the field. Patent 1719033. Lars G. Viking. TRACTION PLOow—Whereby adjustment may be made for obtaining desired depth of furrows, compensating for irregularities of surface, for moving the plows into and out of contact with the soil. and for entirely releasing the implement when encountering obstructions. Patent 720608. Fred W. Reimold. REVERSIBLE PLOw—Which is adapted to be secured to the draw-bar of a tractor, will make a relatively wide cut, and is constructed with means for regulating the angle of inclination and controlling the depth of cut. Patent 1721456. Garnett O. Lee. CONTAINER—Adapted for shipping apples, fruit or vegetables, including a pair of tub- shaped sections, equivalent to baskets, which may be easily filled, secured together, end to end, and shipped as a barrel, and returned as nested baskets when empty. Patent 1721448. Foster J. Heacock. Of General Interest EGG BEATER—Which is portable, and may be held in one hand while being operated by the other, and in which the egg is entirely enclosed during the beating operation, in a spherical container. Patent 1719973. Thomas _ L. Frates. NAPKIN DISPENSER—A metal casing wherein folded paper napkins are properly held in posi- tion so that when a napkin is removed by grasp- ing one of the edges and then pulling, the next napkin will automatically take its place. Patent 1719690. Charles H. Coons. COCKTAIL-SHAKER Top—A cap which will function as a beverage shakers, wherein oppositely extending spouts are pro- vided with a strainer connected therewith to pre- vent ice and other material from moving out with the liquid. Patent 1719688. William F. Bruning. stopper for SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN applied to them. It was suggested by the Commissioner that registration would not be denied if the applicant sold the material to be afterward applied to the scale and seale parts. It is specified in the trademark statute, Section 1 of the Act of February 20, 1905, that the owner of a trademark may obtain registration by complying with certain re- quirements, among which are the following: “The class of merchandise and the partic- ular description of goods comprised in such class to which the trademark is appropri- ated.’”’ The decision held that the appli- cant had not complied with this specifica- tion of the statute, and therefore had not shown trademark use. Photoelectric Comparator LTHOUGH the claim was rejected for a method of measuring the speed of a rotating body, patent was allowed on an- other claim covering a method of compar- ing the speed of one rotating body with that of another, in a recent decision of the Board of Appeals. The decision was made in recognition of the advantages in conven- ience and the saving of time with such an arrangement, particularly in its applica- tion in an electric system for simultane- ously comparing a watt-hour meter with a standard meter. Speeds of movement of two rotating de- vices are compared by ‘“‘photoelectrically generating current impulses having frequen- cies proportional to the respective rates of movements of said devices, converting said impulses into alternating currents and com- paring the frequencies of said alternating currents by measurement on a common scale.”’ War Claims Arbiter Announces Liberal Policy OMPENSATION for alien patents ap- propriated or licensed by the United States government during the World War will be allowed in the approximate amount that probably would have been agreed upon in fair negotiation between an American citizen and his government. In announcing this policy, the War Claims Arbiter, Judge Edwin B. Parker, has reserved the right to determine the weight of evidence in all cases coming under his jurisdiction. While both the value to the owner and to the government will be considered in each case, neither value will decide the fixing of compensation to be awarded, according to the Arbiter. Approximately 70 cases in- volving alien claims to patents were dis- posed of in an order made public July 18, dismissing or otherwise acting on motions, cases, and stipulations of counsel growing out of seizures and alleged seizures by the Federal government, or other activities on which claims were based. Under the Settlement of War Claims Act of 1928, aclaimant is entitled to some compensation for the license which the government took and held. Compensation implies that the license has some value, and the fact that the government as a willing buyer wanted the iicense, took it and held it, implies that it has some value, however small. Under the Act of 1928, the Custo- dian has returned claimant’s patents to them, subject to the government’s license, thus in effect reasserting the government’s rights under the license. October 1929 SAFETY Razor—Especially designed for use in connection with blades of the double-edge flexi. ble type, for preventing angular displacement of the blade, and for insuring the proper registra- tion of the edges with the teeth of the guard, Patent 1719670. John F. O’ Malley. LAMP-SHADE-FRAME CENTER ELEMENT ~ Which may be spun or stamped from sheet ma- terial to provide a hub and outwardly projecting sections, and to become substantially an integral part of a lamp shade frame without resorting to welding or soldering. Patent 17345 (Reissue), Kornel C. Berger. PENCIL SHARPENER—Comprising a block of rectangular form capable of utilizing safety razor blades for sharpening pencils by a trim- ming of the wood in such manner as to reduce to a minimum the danger of breaking the lead. Patent 1719714. Jerome J. Miller. FURNITURE CONSTRUCTION—In which red cedar may be used as a core for veneered furni- ture, such as clothes chests or the like, the forma- tion of the cedar being such that the greatest amount of oil fumes will pass therefrom. Patent 1718585. Edward Roos. EDUCATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL DEvVICE—In- cluding physical embodiments of the sun and earth arranged in such manner as to demonstrate visually, the inter-relation of the sun and earth. particularly with respect to the seasons of the year. Patent 1719723. David Phillips. INSERT FOR CASTINGS—By which two mem- bers may be joined without drilling into or through either for the reception of a bolt, the bolt being mounted inside, and not visible from the outside, or marring the outer appearance. Patent 1719739. Lafayette H. Caldwell. SAFETY RAzoOR—The handle of which has a flexible section produced by a coil spring, the blade holder being so constructed as to permit of the ready insertion and removal of blades. Patent 1719675. Charles T. Sirch. EQUALIZING DEVICE FOR EXTENSION TABLES —The racks being so arranged as to preclude all possibilities of disengagement of the pinions, thus maintaining the extended portions at equal dis- tance from the central support, thereby properly distributing the weight. Patent 1718635. Earl H. Cook. FOUNTAIN PEN—Having a clip attached to the cap for engagement with a garment pocket, and for holding the cap in a vertical position with the open end upward for ready reception or removal of the nib end of the pen. Patent 1720559. William I. Light. MATCH AND CIGARETTE HOLDER—By means of which a package of cigarettes will be securely held in connection with an ordinary match book, so that the two may be at all times conveniently available. Patent 1720589. Solomon Danab. SQUEEGEE—Or scraper, having a body and handle receiving socket, wherein either metal or rubber blades may be used, and may be readily applied or removed at any time. Patent 1720630. William Eiermann. SAND-BLAST CARVING AND METHOD OF MAKING THE SAME—For forming relief carvings of leaves, stems and berries, in which the leaf is concaved in surface contour and has sharp edges, while the stem and berry are convexed in surface contour and have smooth edges, by the use of a “‘coating”’ which resists the blast of abrasive material. The inventor has _ been granted three patents, 1720567, 1720568 and 1720569. George R. Philip. Loop CONSTRUCTION—Formed from a single strip of metal to provide integral means for attaching the same to the handle section of women’s pocket-books or hand bags, to produce a slidably adjustable and ornamental handle. Patent 1720617. Charles Wolf. BOTTLE CARRIER—Including a hand grip and a pair of pivotally mounted spring pressed members to be forced over the top of the bottle and automatically grip the same, particularly adapted for conveying milk bottles. Patent 1720500. Harold E. Watrous. fag mil dio. mir han hole dro fror Kal whi yet rela ada Ha

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1929 use in > flexi. lent of vistra- guard, ENT— *t ma- ecting itegral ing t Ssue), ek of safety trim- uce to lead. 1 red furni- orma- eatest -atent —In- n and strate earth, of the mem- ito or t, the > from rance. has a g, the mit of lades. ABLES ide all ;, thus al dis- yperly Earl ed to ocket, sition ion or -atent neans -urely book, iently anab. r and tal or -adily 0630. » OF ‘vings leaf sharp vexed ‘Ss, by ast of been and single s for yn of »duce ndle. » and essed ottle October 1929 THERMOSTATIC AIR CONTROL—Adapted to be disposed at any point in a room for auto- matically controlling the flow of air or other fluid to regulate the opening and closing of radiator valves, thus regulating the temperature of the room. Patent 1720572. Alexander A. Riccio. FruIT MASHER AND STRAINER—Comprising a container having a closure at the top, and a strainer intermediate its ends, a beater rotatably mounted for crushing the fruit and impressing the juice, and means for discarding the skins and Patent 1721340. Fannie Giboney. STORE SYSTEM— Wherein a portable receptacle is successively moved to a plurality of atten- dants, who place the ordered merchandise into the receptacle from bins or shelves arranged along the path of the receptacle. Patent 1720917. Melville M. Moore. STRETCHER—An adjustable rectangular frame and a pair of rollers on which lace or heavy curtains, or articles such as blankets, may be stretched for drying after washing, the device is particularly adapted for blankets. Patent 1722217. Alfred Hopkins. Cup VASE AND SPRAY HOLDER—A simple con- struction formed by the association of a water receiving element, and wires, for holding flowers in summer or a spray of holly in winter on a grave, adapted to be driven into the ground. Patent 1722197. William H. Carnoe. CARPET BEATER—Constructed of several lengths of wire which are interengaged and twisted to provide a blade, the free ends being interlocked to afford a shank for the reception of the handle. Patent 1722162. Harold F. Teetsell. GAs-METER FITTING—Designed to prevent leakage at the meter, due to the loosening up of joints and connections due to vibrations either within the house, or caused by the passing of heavy traffic. Patent 1722236. Adolph Scone- berger. seeds. DispLAY DeEviceE—Affording means for dis- playing various articles, such as postage stamps, butterflies, and other articles, at the same time affording the maximum visibility and protection against contact with other objects. Patent 172222: Ernest V. Puklloc. 22223. S1IgN—Having removable sign characters, and holders for suspending the characters, and a sup- port for removable backing strips of fabric or any other flexible material to harmonize with the colors of the sign characters. Patent 1719267. Albert Holder.» JOINT COVER FOR PEws—A metal cover strip for blind division connections so constructed that it may be assembled and held securely in place to form a blind division without the use of nails or screws on the face. Patent 1722226. John L. Kessler. CorreE Pot—Having heat transmitting tubes so arranged as to conduct heat to the major portion of the water within the receptacle, and to prevent extinguishing a flame, in the event of the liquid boiling over. Patent 1722936. John A. Myers. Hardware and Tools OPHTHALMIC-LENS-THICKNESS CALIPER—A gage for measuring the thickness of the center of a lens, the thickness at a radius of twenty millimeters from the center, and for determining diopters and fractions of diopters, either plus or minus. Patent 1719652. John T. Collins. COMBINED SPADE AND PLANTER—A portable hand-operated tool which will easily make a hole of required depth in prepared soil, and will drop into the hole the desired number of seeds from a hopper. Patent 1720601. Godell Kalenoff. Lock—Having a relatively massive bolt, which is substantially proof against jimmying, yet may be thrown with little manual effort by a relatively light and simple key, particularly adapted for garage door locks. Patent 1720590. Harry W. Evans. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN LaTcH ATTACHMENT—Designed for embodi- ment in a latch for dumbwaiter doors, function- ing in such a manner that it cannot be manipu- lated from within the elevator shaft, thereby becoming a burglar-proof latch and avoiding the necessity of a separate bolt. Patent 1721345. Joseph H. Levinson. LockKING DevicE—For locking nuts against “backing off’? through vibration, but so or- ganized as to permit release of the locking means and removal of the nut without injury to the nut or bolt. Patent 1722231. Early R. Penny and James W. Farrior. PORTABLE POWER-OPERATING HAMMER— Which is capable of being manually moved over sheet metal work, such as motor vehicle bodies and fenders, to remove from the metal undula- tions of any configuration to restore the metal to its original form. Patent 1718425. John R. Hilstad. H1INGE—Including a pair of plates adapted to be set into a closure and closure frame, and vested cup-shaped bearings integral with the plates defining relatively large, approximately semi-spherical bearing surfaces. Patent 1722204. Ernest Flagg. Heating and Lighting HEATING AND VENTILATING APPARATUS— Adapted to create a current of heated air, com- paratively cool air and for controlling the flow, for use for dry rooms, offices and dwellings where different temperatures are required, for regulat- ing fresh air and ventilating. Patent 1719659. Alfred Hopkins. LamMp—A construction applicable to stan- dard portable carbide lamps, as used in mines, whereby the user of the lamp may, as frequently as desired, force carbon deposit from the burner nozzle. Patent 1721422. Albert J. Utz. HEAT CONTROL FOR Gas CooKsTOVES—For modifying the effective cooking temperature after the material being cooked has_ been thermostatically acted upon for a selected pre- determined period of time. Patent 1719991. John F. Newsom. Machines and Mechanical Devices GRINDING MACHINE—The grinding plates of which are scored, furrowed or serrated, thereby setting up an epicycloidal grinding action which imparts a peculiar mulling or rubbing and thoroughly reduces the material fed between the plates. Patent 1719784. Mortimer G. Ross. LIquID-MEASURING-DISPENSING TANK—Em- bodying a plurality of compartments gradu- ated in size and of varying capacity and arranged to dispense the contents of any one or more of the compartments at the will of the operator. Patent 1719748. Arthur R. Bateman. COUPLING CONNECTION FOR Pump Rops— A simple, reliable and quickly adjustable means, for connecting the upper end portion of a pump rod or sucker so that the rod length can be varied releasably to the vertically reciprocating part of the pumping jack. Patent 1719664. Arthur L. Ligon. DISHWASHING, STERILIZING, AND DRYING MACHINE—Comprising dish-holding baskets which move along rails in a rectilinear tunnel under the successive action of jets of washing and rinsing waters, and currents of drying air, supplied by centrifugal pumps. Patent 1720622. Jules L. Breton. TOWEL CABINET—A mechanism in which a continuous strip of towel is fed and at each movement different advertising matter dis- played, the dirty towel being returned to the cabinet for convenient removal when strip is exhausted. Patent 1720218. Albert L. Jones and Henry C. Ruschmeyer. MOLD FOR CASTING STEREOTYPE PLATES— Having an insulating layer of paper, or the 367 like, on the core, one end of the insulating sheet being clasped by a spring, the other wound around a spindle, that it may be stretched smooth by a hand-wheel. Patent 1720585. Carl Winkler. PACKING—In which the necessity of con- stantly adjusting the packing nuts and glands is obviated and yet a proper effective and uni- form packing is maintained, particularly de- signed for use in connection with engine pumps and compressors. Patent 1720563. Clarence A. Neal. GEARING FOR REVOLVING SPINDLES—The teeth of the worm wheel being broad so that when worn it may be moved on the shaft, and fixed in a new position for driving the spindle, thus increasing the life of the gearing. Patent 1721433. John Degerth es FELTING WOOLEN AND LIKE TEXTILE FasBrics HAvING Woon. POWDER INCORPORATED THEREWITH—By mechanism which causes a repeated circulation of the fabric through a soap bath, containing wool powder in suspension, and incorporating said powder by PROCESS FOR means of pressure. Patent 1721470. Etienne Ricalens. ANCHORING DEvicE—Comprising the com- bination of rigid plates having rows of holes for the insertion of stakes which are driven into the ground to form an anchorage for heavy horizontal traction in operations performed by winches. Patent 1721436. Jean Dubois and Bernard Plantade. PHONOGRAPH ARM—So constructed that the maximum output of the needle vibrations will be transmitted into sound waves and incur mini- mum loss by absorption in the mechanical parts of the apparatus. Patent 1721362. Robert S. Weir. FLUSH VALVE—Which eliminates the use of the diaphragm, and substitutes a metal wall capable of resisting the attacks of foreign matter forced against it by water pressure, particularly adapted for use in marine work. Patent 1722155. Claus D. Myer. METHOD OF REMOVING SEDIMENT FROM THE TANKS OF OIL-BURNING SHIPS AND TANKERS— Whereby the sediment may be liquefied by the use of a solvent and the addition of hot water and steam, then pumping the liquefied sludge exteriorly of the ship. Patent 1722211. Stephen Guardino. FLUSH TANK—Having a removable guide so formed as to guide the flush valve directly to its seat, a stop means preventing unnecessary move- ment, and a float valve for preventing overflow. Patent 1722200. Thomas H. Chadwick. PuLP SCREEN—For handling a wide variety of pulp, such as ground wood pulp, sulphide pulp, soda pulp, sulphate pulp, defibered waste paper, subjecting the stock to a thorough washing, and retaining only the best quality of paper-making fibre. Patent 1722874. Harold D. Wells. Liquip DISPENSER—Particularly adapted for use in connection with road machines, such as rollers, in which it is desired to apply to the sur- face of the roller a liquid which will prevent sticking of the roller to road surfaces. Patent 1722907. James Liddle. Medical and Surgical Devices BeED—Which is convertible, having sub- stantially the appearance of an ordinary sleeping bed, but having removable parts with sub- stitutions therefor, readily adapted for use a3 an obstetrical delivery bed, with means for greatly assisting nature, and the attendant. Patent 1719677. Robert C. Sutton. DENTURE-ATTACHING DEvIcE—Wherein re- movable spring means are presented engaging oppositely facing side walls, for resiliently yet firmly clamping interlocking parts to resist accidental removal, yet permit of easy removal when desired. Patent 1720587. Jacob and Simon Arkus.

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368 oo Engineering Learn at Home MECHANICAL sign, construction and operation of machines Engineering embraces the de- and machine tools. It is a profession which offers almost unlimited opportunities to men who combine natural mechanical ability with technical training. For this is The Age of Machinery. Al- most every convenience, luxury or necessity which we enjoy depends on machinery for its production or adaptability to our needs. Every new invention multiplies the oppor- tunities for competent designers, builders, erecting engineers, etc. One of the best ways to train yourself to secure a position as a Mechanical Engineer is through the home-study courses of the International Correspondence Schools. complete | especially These courses are date, and they are meet the at home. and up-to- arranged to needs of the student who studies They are particularly helpful because they are written by well-known mechanical engi- neers who have had years of practical ex- perience in this field and who know the quickest, best way to solve every problem. Just mark and mail the coupon and we'll gladly send you Free Booklets describing the I. C. S. courses in Mechanical Engineer- ing or any other course in which you are interested, Mail the Coupon for Free Booklet INTERNATIONAL rot dose ge hereto SCHOOLS “The Uni Box 6111-8, Scranton, Penna. bligation on r my part, ple > send me P f ir 48-page t ned 2 ' wt ‘Who Wins and Why,’ the position, or in the lify t ich I have marked at C Mechanical Engineering (J Toolmaking L}) Mechanical Course LJ Blacksmithing and Forging Drafting Patternmaking L)Mechanical Drawing CL) Foundrywork Complete Shop Practice ()Machine Shop Practice ar tect or ber and Steam Fitter ar mber g and Ventilation fetal rker O)\irplane Engir Mathematics [ Rad City State if « reside in Canada, send this coupon to the International Correspondence Schools Canadian, Limited, Montreal, Canada | | | SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Sith, October 1929 INDEX TO ADVERTISERS SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN—OCTOBER, 1929 Allied Radio Corporation 358 American Lead Pe cil Co 359 American Pipe Bending Machine Co 359 Francis Bannerman Sons 360 Bartlett-Hayward Company 351 Bernard & Heller 361 Charles Bond Company 360 Broderick & Bascom Rope Company 355 Chicago School ing 360 Chic 1g0 Stor k Gear 360 Chicago Technical College 360 Columbia University 349 Crescent Tool Company 361 Dodge Brothers Trucks Second Cover Elec. Service & Eng. Bureau (P.O. Box 132 360 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc 275 Florsheim Shoe Company 357 Ford Motor Company (Aviation) 280 Gillette Safety Razor Company 276 Hamley & Company ; ‘ 361 Harper & Brothers 347 J. J. Heinrich 361 International Correspondence Schools 368 International Typewriter Exchange 359 Keasbey & Mattison 358 La Salle Extension University 361 Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce 278 Masonite Corporation 339 Matthews Company 358 Metal Cast Products Company 360 Metallic Sign Company ; 360 Milwaukee Die Casting Company 353 Wm. Mogey & Sons, Inc é 360 Munn & Co 358 & 361 National Automotive School arenas 360 National Electrical School ’ 360 N. Y. Electrical School : 356 Packard Motor Car Company Third Cover R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company Fourth Cover Roat & Lohman 359 & 361 Salvaggio ee Ree 361 Schwerdtle Stamp Company ; 360 Science News-Letter . : male 359 Charles A. Scott aos 361 Signal Electric Mfg. Company Lees 359 S K F Industries, Inc BP 273 Speednut Wrench Corporation ‘ 350 Stephenson Laboratory iets 360 Timken Roller Bearing Company 341 Treasure Sales Company... eiatar stale 358 Unisol Mfg. Company aces toe : 360 United Enterprises, Inc ; 360 Veeder-Root, Inc , 357 A von Schon ‘ 360 rn Electric Company 345 \ ghouse Electric & Mfg. Company 343 Vollensak Optical Company 359 Peuety Sehr, GAP... 0:5, 65 :0:650408 4:05 F 361 Western Advertising Representative Blanchard-Nichols-Coleman Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and San Francisco, Atlanta SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING COMPANY Munn & Company, 24-26 West 40th Street, New York ORSON D. MUNN, President LOUIS S. TREADWELL, Vice-President JOHN P. DAVIS, Treasurer I. SHELDON TILNEY, Secretary EDITORIAL STAFF ORSON D. MUNN, Editor ALBERT A. HOPKINS LBERT G. INGALLS Lovis S. TREADWELL A. P. PEcK F.D McHvucu Henry W. 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929 T RA Stalwart and majestic elephants, their howdahs and trap- pings resplendent with rare fabrus and prectous jewels, brought the Princes of India to the Durbar ceremonies PRINTED IN U. S. A » BY ART COLOR PRINTING ¢ OMPANY, DUNELLED - . WwW N S r OR F A FES ACKARD luxury is mental no less Ps physical. It is as definitely a thing ofthe mind as of the body. The Packard owner gains as much satisfac- tion from Packard reputation as from the quality and appointments of the car itself. The feeling of complete security born of easy control, safe steering and effort- less braking, is a luxury. So is the assurance of brilliant and trustworthy performance—and the pride in a uni- versally acclaimed, unchanging beauty of design and color. Nothing the world can offer is funda- mentally finer than the Packard Eight. That knowledge, perhaps, is the great- est Packard luxury of all. For more than thirty years Packard has specialized exclusively in luxurious transportation. And today’s Straight Eights, refined and improved, excel every famous Packard of the past. PACKARD H O * OWN S&S «© + oe

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Why CAMELS are the better cigarette Camels are made of the choicest tobaccos grown—cured and blended with expert care. Camels are mild and mellow. The taste of Camels is smooth and satisfying. Camels are cool and refreshing. The fragrance of Camels is always pleasant, indoors or out. They do not tire the taste nor leave any cigaretty ajter-taste. © 1929, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, Winston-Salem, N. C.

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