Scientific American 1925-08: Vol 133 Iss 2

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ts = lit THE MONTHLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION NEW YORK, AUGUST, 1925 Saving the Motorist From Himself Conditions Which Have Led to Fourteen Percent of the Motor Car Deaths RNING signs will not do it; gates will not do it; horribly fatal examples do not do it. What will? If we knew how to save the motorist from the results of his own carelessness and haste, we could eliminate the annual number of automobile deaths in this country by at least fourteen percent; and while the number of grade crossings is being reduced by the construction of bridges, or underpasses, the proportion of motor car fatalities at railroad crossings is some one percent higher than was the case the previous year. W LEE es “Took Out for the Locomotive” We cannot blame the engineer, the directors or stockholders of a railroad company when a pas- senger train, running at some thirty to sixty miles an hour, strikes a motor car which has been stalled on the crossing, or which has been raced across in the vain endeavor to get ahead of the engine. To be effective and efficient, and in fact, to serve any useful purpose whatsoever, the passenger train must be run at as high a speed as is consistent with the comfart and safety of those whom it carries. A high-speed railroad train, even though equipped with powerful air brakes on every set of wheels, may require a thousand or more feet in which to be brought to a stop. Therefore, if safety demands that either the railroad train or the automobile must Bureau of Standards THE TEST CAR Note the two red-lead-loaded revolvers attached to the running board. One is discharged by the investigator and the other by the application of the foot brake By H. W. Slauson, M.E. be slowed down or brought to a stop before ap- proaching a grade crossing, expediency, efficiency and every known practical law of fairness and equity demand that it should be the motor vehicle which should “Look Out for the Locomotive” and not the locomotive which should look out for the motor car. But modern conditions of transportation and communication demand that there shall be tens of thousands of highways crossing railroads at the same level, for the billions of dollars required to separate the levels of road and track at such cross- ings, would create such a burden upon railroad, car owners and, in fact, all tax payers, that even the great wealth of this country is insufficient to accomplish such a task within the present generation. But the inability of a railroad train to stop in time to prevent accidents entails a legal and moral obligation upon the railroad company to furnish certain warnings, which can be heard or seen by those about to cross the track. Antiquated warnings such as engine bell and whistle, and “Stop, Look and Listen” signs placed directly at the side of the track are still in use, and have been supplemented by certain more or less ineffective devices such as flimsy, hand-operated crossing gates, automatic elec- tric bells and gongs, and flashing lights or waving semaphores. I referred to some of these warning signals as antiquated, not so much because of their nature, as Burean of Standards the lack of effectiveness due to their location. Every one, practically, is placed on the railroad property which, at most, extends only a few feet either side of the rails. To place a warning sign or a barrier at the very point of danger was all very well in the horse-drawn days when highway speeds of travel averaged five miles an hour. In those days, a vehicle could be stopped within fifteen or twenty feet, and a gate or warning sign placed directly at the crossing and which could be seen fifty feet away, provided ample space in which to avert all danger. Legislate Against Imitation Warning Signs We have referred in a preceding article of this series to the number of railroad crossing gates which have been literally smashed to kindling wood by the recklessly-driven automobiles which have tried to beat the railroad train to the crossing. This is the popular conception of the “gate crasher” but second thought will make us realize that not even the most foolhardy driver will wilfully and intentionally risk at least his radiator and windshield in an argument with a forty-foot stick of wood. As a rule, such a driver has been going too fast to be able to stop in time to prevent collisio: with the gate, or he has not received sufficient warning of the existence of a grade crossing which might lie just beyond the blind turn or the steep embankment. And speaking of warnings, let me again empha- MEASURING THE DISTANCE The distance traveled by the car between the firing of the warning signal and the application of the foot brake is indicated by splashes of red lead discharged by the revolvers

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zs Senne ial Brown Brothers :, 5 Ais A FRIENDLY WARNING The motorist is warned against driving down a steep ncline and is directed to a safer route size the danger and absolute menace of the small advertising signs which line our country roadways in complete or partial imitation of touring direction, cautionary signals and other information either valu- able or vital to the motorist. If you have passed a dozen signs in the last half-mile telling you to stop at Smith’s for ham and eggs, or at Brown’s for gasoline and oil, you will pay but scant attention to another one of similar size which may be intended to warn you that there is a dangerous railroad cross- ing five hundred feet around the next turn. Recommendations made by Secretary Hoover's Highway Safety Conference to the effect that road- side signs be restricted to vital and valuable warn- ings and touring directions, may, if followed by all of the state motor vehicle commissions, result in a very material saving of life at railroad crossings. But physiologists tell us that the reaction of the human mind to a visual warning is not as prompt as is that produced by sound, especially if such sound be in the form of a sharp report. We have showed in a previous article that a very definite distance is required in which to bring a moving vehicle to a dead stop, and that there must be added to this time a certain interval required for the mind of the & eenehemcnmtioreijngi + en 7 a es ‘ | a ——— -+. --—-_— | | | all sits Aa s N Reaction time ~- Seconds tnt I 2 The smooth curve indicates the average relation between driving reaction and years of experience. with no improvement thereafter Driving experience — A GRAPH WHICH SHOWS THE MOTORIST’S REACTIONS Note that “average perfection” is reached at the end of eight years, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN average driver to translate a visual or audible warn- ing signal into the necessity for an application of the brakes. A warning must first attract attention, and then impress upon the driver the necessity for reduced speed, or a complete stop. All of this takes time, and it is, therefore, absurd for a driver to say that he can stop “instantly” as soon as he hears or sees a warning signal. Tests recently made by the United States Bureau of Stand- ards have demonstrated in a scientific manner that even under the very best of conditions of prepared- ness, over one-half a second will elapse between the time that the driver has received the warning to stop, and the beginning of the application of the brake. In other words, these tests have showed that, when traveling at thirty miles an hour, the driver who is expecting any instant to be compelled to stop, will allow his car to travel twenty-two feet before he begins to slow it down. Women Equal Men The tests in question were made on a variety of human subjects and included the most experienced taxi drivers, college students and other normal operators of automobiles. Two revolvers were fastened to the right-hand running board of the test car, and so connected that the trigger of one could be pulied by the investigator who sat alongside the driver, and the trigger of the other operated as soon as the foot brake was pressed. These revolvers were filled with red lead, which would make a very definite and easily measured mark on any pavement. Each driver to be tested was told to hold the speed of the car at exactly thirty miles an hour, and to apply the brake as soon as he heard the first report of the tester’s revolver. Of course, the distance between the two red lead marks made by the revolvers would indicate, accurately, the amount of car travel between the stopping signal and the actual application of the brakes. This average distance of twenty-two feet, translated into time, amounted to .54 seconds. Now, remember that the human mind reacts more quickly to an audible signal, and that in every case the driver was expecting such signal at any instant, and therefore was mentally and physically prepared to shift his foot from the accelerator to the brake. Also remember that this was an average figure ob- tained from testing an exceptionally good class of drivers, although some of these required as much as a second and a half to permit wit and muscle to function. It is a gratifying tribute to feminine per- ception to note that the women drivers on whom such tests were made indicated an average practically the same as exhibited by the men tested under the ears AvucGustT, 1925 Brothers CONSPICUOUS AND EFFECTIVE A machine brought to a full stop before turning a danger- ous corner necessarily must go slowly in making the turn same conditions and with similar driving experience. Such figures indicating the mental and physical lag existing in every normal driver, added to the fifty to seventy-five feet required for good brakes to act before a car traveling thirty miles an hour can be brought to a full stop, may serve to explain, in a measure, the basic reason for gate crashing and other forms of railroad crossing accidents and fatalities. We cannot get away from the fact that speed at the crossing, or rather when approaching the crossing, is the contributing factor. This has been recognized by the highway safety conference, and is the reason for the recommendation that the highway commissioners, public service commission or other similar body be empowered in each state with the authority to designate certain highway and railway grade crossings at which every vehicle will be compelled to come to a full stop before reaching the rails. Maximum safety might require that every railroad grade crossing should be so designated; but it is obvious that this is impractical. Many country highways cross railroads on which but two or three trains a day operate in either direction. On other highways, there is such a veritable stream of traffic I

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AvuGusT, 1925 rd i, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ONE OF THE THOUSANDS OF ACCIDENTS WHICH OCCUR EVERY YEAR Flimsy railroad gates, ineffectively placed warning signs, dangerous grade crossings and last, but not least, careless driving often result in fatal accidents that for each car to stop would create such conges- tion as to cause cars to pile up for hundreds of feet. We know what happens during heavy traffic on a trunk line highway, if one car slows down or pulls off to the side of the road to discharge or take on a passenger. Imagine, then, the condition if every car was compelled to come to a complete stop as soon as it reached a given specified point. We might as well go back to the days of the ox-cart, so far as the speed of travel from present day methods is concerned. Basically, as already pointed out, one of the pri- mary troubles lies in the nearness of the barrier or warning sign to the actual point of danger. We must obtain the cooperation of railroad companies and county and township highway authorities to place semaphores, signs, lights, gongs and even gates more scientifically in keeping with the travel- scoot ay eS abil A DEATH TRA The motorist driving up this hill has little vision of the railroad crossing at the top Brown Brothers ing speed and stopping distances of modern trafhc. The fear of punishment or physical discomfort might serve more to deter the average driver from approaching a railroad crossing at too great a speed, than would the danger of loss of life, in case of collision with the on-coming train; for you will always find the motorist who is willing to take a chance in the belief that his usual luck will hold, but who will not face the certainty of car damage or other money and time consuming accident. For example, if an automatic device could be installed which would sprinkle broken bottles on the highway a half minute or so before the approach of a train, and which would remove this glass after the train had passed, and if this could be operated in con- junction with a plainly-read signal which would in- dicate when the road was glass strewn and when it was clear, we would find that every motorist would place tire value ahead of any desire to beat the train to the crossing. We might even place a series of “Thank You Ma’ams” or other bumps on every right-hand roadway two or three hundred feet from a railway crossing, and the physical discomfort attendant upon driving over these at high speed would cause the average motorist to slow down; and he would do so automatically after he had learned to associate such road conditions with every warning sign indicating a railroad crossing. Stalled Motors Cause Accidents ‘An ingenious automatic device has been suggested which consists of magnets embedded in the right-hand side of the road, and which, through the excitation of an especially installed electrical system connected with the ignition of every automobile, would cause the spark to be cut off whenever such automobile passes these concealed magnets at a speed greater than twelve or fifteen miles an hour. But one of the greatest causes of railroad crossing accidents is the motor which becomes stalled on the tracks directly in the path of the oncoming train. The operation of the device in question requires that the motor bonnet shall be raised to reset the ignition before the car can again be started, and there is the possi- bility that a car, the engine of which has been auto- matically stopped in this manner, would coast just far enough to reach the railroad crossing before the driver would realize what had happened. Of course, placing gates and other manually con- trolled devices two or three hundred feet on either side of every approach to a railroad crossing would entail the use of two operators, instead of one. By far, the large majority of railroad grade crossings do not warrant the employment even of one man to prevent conflict between railroad train and highway vehicle, and therefore, an automatic device is needed which will warn the motorist in ample time for him to apply his brakes and come to a complete stop. The problem is a tremendous one, and a fortune awaits the individual or company who can solve it. SHA oe Srote .* ie he © Brown Brothers AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION This sign gives the motorist sufficient warning to enable him to slow up or even stop his car

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80 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 > Fi THESE ARE THE LINES THAT GIVE US NEWS OF THE STARS The dark lines on these two spectra, placed together for comparison, indicate the atoms that exist in vapors through which the light has passed Matter, Ether and Energy Can Atoms and Electrons Be Destroyed and Is Matter a Form of Ether? LECTRONS and protons are the build- ing stenes of which matter is made. The atom of matter is composed of them, and all matter is composed of atoms. Electrons are evidently com- posed of ether, because whatever mass they have is represented by the energy of their electric field which is certainly an etherial phenomenon. Apart from this field they seem to have no other existence; they are electric charges and nothing else. We cannot make a similar statement about a proton, because we do not know enough. For that we must wait. The things that I might attempt to say about protons are too speculative at present, and would probably be wrong. Meanwhile we know that an electron has mass represented by its energy. We also know that a moving electron is more massive than one at rest, and that as its speed increases its mass and energy slowly increase also, preserving the same propor- tion to each other. Matter is turning out to be one of the forms which etherial energy can take—a very curious and permanent form, not easily changed into other forms. At least not the whole ef it is easily changed. The part of it which can be easily changed is the extra mass acquired by a moving electron. This extra mass behaves like additional matter, but not like permanent matter. When a moving electron is stopped, this additional matter disappears. It does not vanish into nothingness; it is changed into radia- tion. It is as though the extra mass were shaken off or shocked off from the electron. It travels out into space as a quantum of radiation, with the speed of light. It may actually be visible light, but it must be radiation of some kind, whether it affects the eye or not. In its best known and simplest form it is an X ray. All Radiation Comes from Electrons All radiation is produced by changing the motion of an electron. The kind of radiation depends on how fast the electron is moving and how quickly it is stopped. The electrons circulating round an atom have the power, the peculiar power, of drop- ping from one orbit to another, every now and then. Their orbits are not fixed like the orbits of the planets. It is as if Mars could suddenly drop to the orbit of the earth and begin circulating there. That is one of the peculiarities of atomic astronomy, one in which it differs from celestial astronomy. By Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. Where Does the Sunlight Go? The sun continually pours out vast quantities of energy into space. Other stars do the same. Some of the hotter ones give out millions of times as much energy as does our relatively small and feeble sun. What becomes of all this energy? Where do the light rays go? Does space absorb them or do they go on forever? It is possible, of course, that they do go on forever, continually farther and farther out into the. infinity of time. But Sir Oliver Lodge thinks that they may do something far more important. Perhaps they generate matter. Perhaps they turn into electrons and atoms, which may combine sometime to form new suns. Matter makes energy in the sun and in the stars. It may be that energy makes matter out somewhere in the depths of space. Atomic astronomy is in some respects simpler than celestial astronomy. All the planets or satellites revolving round the atomic nucleus are similar to each other, identical in everything except speed and position. Their orbits, although very complicated, are by no means distributed at random. Only some orbits are possible. The satellite or planetary elec- trons can occupy certain positions and no others. They can drop from one of these possible positions to another and when they do so they emit energy in the form of radiation. It is as though they were stopped at the new orbit and thrown into shivers by the stoppage, so as to emit X rays or light or some other kind of radiation. The kind of radiation they emit depends on how far they have dropped and where they drop to. If they drop from a long way off (say a milli- meter) to a position close to the nucleus, they get up a big speed, shiver quickly. They then emit ultra-violet radiation or X rays. If they drop only a little way, and still remain at some distance (say the millionth of a millimeter) from the nucleus, they emit infra-red radiation, the waves of which are shorter than those of visible light. Each drop nearer to the nucleus corresponds to a line in the spectrum. By analyzing the spectrum the structure of the atom has been made out. We have more to learn about this process of drop and why certain orbits only are possible, but all ob- servers agree that radiation is due to a sudden drop, although they may differ as to what the drop means and what kind of thing it is. This process is a reversible one. Not only is radiation emitted; it can also be absorbed. When radiation is absorbed the electron is jerked up again. How far it is jerked up depends on the kind of radiation. A “hard” X ray, consisting of very short wavelength waves, will jerk it up a long way, even out of the atom altogether. An X ray of longer waves or a ray of visible light will jerk it up from an inner atomic orbit to an outer one. From thence, in due time, it may drop back again, giving out exactly the same energy as it received when it made its upward jump. All these details can be followed, and are studied, by the great spectroscopic analysts who are now at work. Matter and Energy Are Equivalent What concerns us now is the fact that matter and energy are equivalent to each other. I do not say identical; they are different forms of energy. The important thing is that they are forms of energy, so that when one disappears the other makes its appear- ance. Energy is always protean in form. At one moment it can be mechanical strain, as in a stretched bow; at another moment it is visible motion, as in an arrow. At one moment it is in the form of compressed air or steam; at the next it is the revolu- tion of a fly-wheel. At one moment jt is a raised 20-ton weight; at another moment it is the heat and noise when the weight has fallen and crashed. At one moment it is the energy of an electric current, that is of magnetism; at the next it is the motion of a street car, propelled by that magnetism. At one moment it is an electric charge; at another it is the heat and light of a spark. So also, we are now surprisingly able to say that at one moment a portion of energy is matter, mass, inertia, momentum; and that at the next moment it is away traveling in the ether as radiation. We are also able to say that energy which is now radia- tion can make an electron jump, and thus constitute an electric current, with all its intangible and pro- tean properties. Are we able to say that radiation can actually

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i amend AvuGusT, 1925 generate matter, not only the temporary form of matter associated with electromagnetism, but the permanent form of electrons and protons? Here we must hesitate and proceed warily. We do not know that at present. There are some who think it prob- able, but all are willing to hesitate and seek the aid of further experiment. The birth of permanent matter would be a great discovery. But we can proceed, with some hope of getting an answer, to the converse question, Do an electron and proton ever clash together and obliterate each other in a pulse of radiation? Can matter, as we know it, radiate itself away and cease to be matter, until at some future time perhaps it can be recon- stituted? We cannot answer these questions yet. There are some who think that although the process does not go on as yet in our laboratories, under the conditions of temperature and pressure there available, yet in the extravagant conditions of pressure and tempera- ture which exist in the stars, the process may be occurring. The radiation of the larger “giant” stars is tremendous and it goes on for millions of ages without apparent diminution. The sun is rather a small star, but it is known to have been radiating for millions of years, perhaps for thou- sands of millions. How can we account for all that radiation? Astronomers believe they can answer this question first. They suspect that the very constituents of the atoms in the stars must be falling together. Per- manent matter must be disappearing. I do not say that it is true. No one positively asserts, as yet, that it is true. But if it were true, it would account for the energy. Matter may not be so permanent as we used to think. It seems permanent enough under terrestrial conditions, but we can see how the destruction or transformation of matter could pro- duce radiation. We are beginning to think that that is how some of the radiation is produced. Rivers and Rain Come from the Sun We can already say pretty definitely that wherever radiation is produced matter disappears. Whether it be only the temporary form of matter represented by the greater mass of a moving electron, or what has hitherto been thought of as the permanent form of matter, is the only question. The amount of _— o Barratt’s Photo Presa SIR OLIVER LODGE FACES THE MICROPHONE The views expressed in this remarkable article were first suggested by Sir Oliver in a series of scientific talks over broadcasting station 2LO, in London. Lady Lodge is seated opposite Sir Oliver, with the microphone between them SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Mount Wilson Observatory ANOTHER FAR-OFF UNIVERSE This spiral nebula, in the Constellation of the Great Bear, may be a great cloud of stars, comparable to the universe of which we are a part. Is its matter being wasted away or is it being reformed? radiation leaving the sun is known. A fair propor- tion of it is received by the earth. That is what is responsible for all the activities on the earth; the winds, the rain, the rivers, the vegetation, and life generally. But the radiation which the earth re- ceives is but a minute fraction of the whole. Ex- pressed as matter, it is about three hundred pounds a minute. The sun as a whole is losing four million tons of matter every second! Accepting what we have said about the connection between matter and radiation this amount is a mere question of arithmetic. Can the sun stand such a loss without perceptible diminu- tion? Yes, it makes no perceptible difference. The amount of matter even in the earth is 6,000 million- million-million tons. The sun has three hundred thousand times more than that. There is no dif- Bee HOW ETHER RADIATION IS STUDIED The remarkable instrument called the spectroscope serves to analyze the rays of light, whether they come from matter here on earth or from the most distant siars. Light from the electric tube at the right is analyzed in the photographic camera at the left 81 ficulty in supposing that it has been losin§ mass at much the same rate as now for ten thousand million years. Less than one-tenth of one percent of its substance would have been radiated away in that time. The antiquity of the solar system is fearful. Life on the earth, in some form or another, has been going on nearly all that time. But not for alli that time has there been intelligent life as we know it now. The ages of the earth’s past seem to have been a sort of preparation for the life and mind which now is and for the mind which is still to come. It has been a slow and laborious process. Has the outcome so far been worth all the labor and time spent in preparation? Faith is needed to suppose that. Mankind, with its trivialities, seems hardly worthy. Yet by faith we feel bound to suppose that there is some far-seeing Design, some lofty meaning in it all, and that the ultimate outcome will be worth while. The Grandeur of Man’s Mind Meanwhile here we are, conscious creatures en- dowed with the faculty of understanding; with the power of work and of mutual help. We have be- come agents in the universe endowed with conscious- ness. We are beginning to understand something of the processes at work. We are beginning even to have some power, not only of understanding but of helping, of doing things which would not other- wise have been done. And so, even while still on the range of the material universe, we may hope that mankind will become worthy of the magnificent scene in which its lot is cast. And we ourselves, though we are but a stage in the majestic pageant, can yet understand that here on earth is scope for free response to a Divine Will, and can wonder at the Patient Effort. Depend upon it, nothing is haphazard, things are not left to chance. Everything is amenable to law and order. Everything points to a rational Plan, of which we know neither the beginning nor the end, but towards which we can help. ‘In face of all that, shall we allow ourselves to squabble about triviali- ties! Or shall we realize that we are the heir of all the ages, that the destiny of mankind is being partly entrusted to us, and that humanity has a future, a potential future beyond our wildest dreams!

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN at The Skin Game AvucustT, 1925 In the Great Fur Masquerade, Muskrats, Rabbits and Weasels Pretend They Are Seals, Beavers and Ermines HE Colonel’s lady and Judy O’Grady are sisters under the skin,” is one of the well remembered lines of the bard of barracks. It might well have been uttered as he stood on the curb on Main Street and watched the stream of fur-clad girls pass by. Which was which he could not have told you. Try it yourself some time. The girls are buying furs now and soon they will be wearing them. A charming miss comes tripping along all togged out in her Sunday finery. Is she Judy who stands be- hind the ribbon counter in the Big Store, or is she the aaughter of the richest man in town, a charge customer in the same store? She snuggles in a hand- some coat of ermine skin. That garment must have cost $1,000 at the very least, you think. But it didn’t. That skin is white coney. Those creases by which you have learned to distinguish ermine have been put in with a hot iron. The garment cost exactly $54.50. It looks “just as good” as the genuine article and possibly will wear a lot better. Few products lend themselves so readily to imita- tion as do furs. Few are so susceptible to mis- representation. Within the next two months thou- sands of women are going to buy muskrat, rabbit or weasel skins in the belief that they are getting bargains in sable, beaver or ermine. So cunning is the imitation that the average man or woman will never suspect that the garment is an imitation. Microscope Infallible Test The one infallible test lies with the microscope. Each individual hair in the fur is of a shape and structure that reveals unmistakably what the animal is. The hair of one will appear long and straight; another will be seen as a series of cones strung one on top of another. One of the finest and mest prized of all furs is the sable. It belongs to the marten family and only the expert eye can tell it from its less expensive cousins. The animal is about a foot and a half long with a tail not more than nine inches. Its fur is soft and brilliant. The more uniform the color, the greater is the value of the skin. The country and climate in which the animal lives determine the color of the fur, the length of the hair, its thickness and the quality of the skin in general. Little wonder that an effort is made to imitate this By Milton Wright magnificent fur. The wonder is that cheaper furs are palmed off as true sable so successfully. Even the furrier must be keen to detect imitations, espe- cially when the imitating martens are cleverly dyed. The sable’s chief imitators are the Canadian marten and the weasel. Under the microscope the structure of the hair of each is seen to be radically different. Fads in furs come and go. Usually they are the result of an especially good catch, or the successful cornering of the market by a shrewd dealer. With a large supply of a particular fur on their hands the dealers are faced with two alternatives: to let the price drop or to increase the demand. With the art of propaganda in its present high state of per- fection it is easy to see which course is adopted. So adept have furriers become in popularizing par- ticular furs that they succeed in having an increased supply accompanied by an increase in price. a THE MUCH MALIGNED SKUNK One of the most valuable American fur bearers Pony coats illustrate the temporary demand for a particular kind of skin. A few years ago they were all the rage. Now one rarely sees one. The reason is that immense quantities of Russian ponies were in the hands of the dealers immediately following the World War and they were purposely made fashionable in order to dispose of them. Recently monkey fur has become popular. This fad, too, will die out in a short time. Monkey fur is not particularly expensive because so little of it is used in any one garment. It is used almost ex- clusively for trimming. For this reason there is not much temptation to imitate it, although in some cases Chinese human hair is used to simulate monkey. Naturally, the size of the season’s catch has an effect on the furs used to imitate other furs. Skunks and racoons, for example, ordinarily bring about the same price. When skunks are scarce and racoons are plentiful the racoons are dyed to imitate the skunks, and when skunks are plentiful and racoons are scarce, skunks are dyed to imitate racoons. Most Skunk Is Really Rabbit One of our most popular animals is the skunk. Yes, popular is the word, for out of the forty-eight states in which the skunk occurs, thirty-five give him protection. In most cases this protection was given at the urgent demand of the farmers who appreciate his importance as a destroyer of insects and small rodents. Europe appreciates skunk fur more than does America and immense numbers of pelts are sent abroad every year. The difference between skunk and sable is fairly easy to detect, the skunk hairs being much smoother. This is seen readily under the microscope where the skunk hair appears as a straight tube with a granulated center. In color the fur is a brownish black under the belly of the animal with lighter shades on the sides and back. So valuable is the skunk that it is imitated quite generally; and most “skunk” fur you see is in reality rabbit or hare. The hairs of both these imitators have distinctive micro-structures, so that it is not difficult to distinguish them from the more expensive and durable skunk. They are longer than skunk hairs and soft and silky. A useful little impostor is the weasel. Its fur is brownish red underneath and white on top. The . ‘e

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=~ 1 AvucusT, 1925 fur is of little value, and to make it look like sable it is dyed a dark brown. The microscopic structure of the hairs of the two animals is similar, a fact which makes identification difficult. The weasel also is the chief imitator of kolinsky, a popular fur obtained from the Siberian mink. One of the most prized of all furs is ermine. In reality the ermine belongs to the weasel family and very strongly resembles the ordinary weasel. Their habits are similar. The ermine is about eight inches long from the tip of its nose to the tip of its tail, with the tail itself about three inches long. The end of the tail is a beautiful black in all seasons of the year. In winter the ermine turns white, while common weasels remain at all times a uniform reddish brown. The beautiful contrast between the snowy white coat of the ermine in winter with the jet black tip of its tail is what makes the fur so valuable. White rabbit is often used to imitate the ermine but the substitute is not difficult to distinguish under the microscope. Conies are also extensively used as imitators. The imitators most difficult to locate, however, are the weasel and the marten, for the micro-structures of their hairs are very similar to the hair of the ermine. In recent years summer ermine has become pop- ular, and this reddish brown fur is easily imitated by using the skin of the weasel. Weasels are found in many countries, including our own, but the Chinese and Japanese weasels, being the cheapest, are the most generally used. Because their coats are of a champagne color they are easy to dye. Blue Fox Almost Unobtainable Among the rarest and most expensive furs are some of the foxes. The fur of the ordinary or common red fox is not particularly desirable in itself, but it is used extensively to simulate the finer and more costly pelts of its relatives. The skin of the blue fox is almost unobtainable and is especially valuable. This valuable animal’s hair is thick and the color varies from an ice blue to a lead blue; the bluer the fur the more costly it is. To dye the skin of a common red or gray fox so that it looks like a blue fox is easy. Unfortunately, when the gray fox is used the microscope shows no difference in the hair structure. There is, however, a difference in the quality of the hair, that of the blue fox being harsher and more brittle than that of the ordinary fox; but the main distinguishing point is in the tail, which is much shorter in the case of the blue fox. The silver fox and black fox possess beautiful furs, and because of the scarcity of the animals, the skins are costly and there is ample temptation to imitate them. It is not generally known that the A GROUP OF BELGIAN HARES The skin of this animal is used in the imitation of ermine, skunk and beaver fur SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN fur of the black fox is more valuable than that of the blue fox. The silver and the black fox inhabit cold countries like Siberia and Canada. Under the microscope it is not difficult to distinguish their furs from the dyed common fox. Fox is generally a spring and summer fur and is used for neck pieces rather than for coats. Red fox in its natural state has been popular this year, a fact which has subjected it to imitation. Wolf and dog pelts have been used for this purpose, after treatment in suitable ways. There is no resemblance between these substitutes and the hair of the fox. Another high-priced fur subject to imitation on a large scale is the chinchilla. This animal is a kind of rabbit and possesses a long bushy tail. The fur is of fine texture and does not wear well, but its 7 me 3 Py cm a LITTLE BUT U Our domestic pet not only catches mice, but her fur is some- times used in the manufacture of fur coats beauty and softness make it attractive and desirable. It is imitated extensively by the use of the skins of the rabbit and the hare. In general the darker shades in furs are more expensive than the lighter. Take the squirrels, for example. They are found almost everywhere in the temperate zones, but the Russian squirrel is the mdst desirable of all because of the dark cast in his coat. The texture of squirrel fur is more receptive to dyes than most others. For that reason squirrel is gen- erally the fur used when style originators seek to popularize new shades. It is a common practice to use the skins of the common squirrel to imitate the gray squirrel. The 83 gray squirrel itself is used to imitate the fur of the sable and the marten. At the present time the number of squirrel skins used in different parts of the world is enormous. They are either worked up whole, or the backs are cut out to make coats, muffs and neckpieces, whiie the bellies are used for linings. Many of the skins are dyed and blended into all kinds of colors, par- ticularly sable, and in imitation of chinchilla. Lambs are used extensively for fur garments. One that is especially prized is the astrakhan. This is the fur of a Siberian lamb that is born dead. The finest comes from the province of Astrakhan. The fur is glossy, short-napped and of a lustrous or moire black. When this fur is not obtained from still-born lambs it is derived from animals that are given special attention in the way of food and water. In South America new-born lambs are left on the prairie in mating season and die of exposure. Others are taken prematurely from the mother. These are known as broadtails and the operation involved in producing them is what makes them expensive. Broadtail fur is flat with just a suggestion of a curl. It is highly prized. Ordinary lamb fur, of course, is treated to imitate it. The beaver is also an important fur. It is highly prized and wears well. It is often imitated by the less expensive rabbit, hare and muskrat. No Deception About Hudson Seal The muskrat is one of our most important fur- bearing animals. It is found in the greater part of the American continent. He is about twenty-one inches long, including tail, or about four times as large as the common house rat. His fur is soft and thick, a rich brown in color, varying in shade with the season and the locality. With approximately six million muskrats being dyed in a single year to look like seals, it is little wonder that the muskrat supply is diminishing, and everywhere the laws restrict trappers more than formerly to prevent the taking of unprime skins. So satisfactory is the substitution of muskrat for Alaska seal that there has ceased to be any deception about it. Everybody knows that there is no such animal as the seal found in the vicinity of .Hudson Bay and that the Hudson seal is an animal unknown to natural history. Every woman knows that Hudson seal which both looks well and wears well is simply dyed muskrat. Muskrat, itself, is often imitated by rabbit and hare, but the imitation is easy to detect under the microscope. And so we might go on indefinitely. Things are not what they seem to be when it comes to fur coats and neckpieces. Only the expert can tell which is the real thing. All furs have a market value, and a fur cheap in price is apt to be cheap in quality Six million of them are made into coats annually—but none of them is called muskrat

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84 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 Our Point of View Abolish the Shipping Board ‘amen |! begins to be evident that both the | Administration and the country at large & are prepared to make a very drastic ys reorganization in the management of ; the great fleet of ships which was built to meet the emergencies of the late war. Obviously, the first step to be taken is to abolish the Shipping Board, which has made a woful failure of the administration of the costly properties under its care. The major item in these was a fleet of about 2,200 ships. Today that fleet has shrunk to about 1,200 ships. Of these, 887 are laid up and 320 are in operation. If we estimate the present total assets of the Shipping Board at, say, 300 million dollars, the net loss stands at about three billion dollars. This money has gone and may just as well be written off as a war loss. Under the Shipping Board’s management there has been a total deficit of from 50 million dollars down to last year’s deficit of 24 million dollars. The country is unalterably opposed to a subsidy, and it is beginning toe realize that making up the yearly deficit out of the Treasury is simply a subsidy under another name. Hence it is that the Adminis- tration and the’ country believe that the time has come for the Government to quit the shipping busi- ness. It begins to look as though the only people who have a real interest in maintaining the Shipping Board are the job holders; and now that the per- sonnel has been cut, even this aspect of the question is beginning to lose its appeal to the politicians. If any part of the existing administration is to be retained, it should be the Emergency Fleet Corpora- tion which, under Rear Admiral Palmer, one of the ablest of our naval officers, has been doing some really constructive work. We are inclined to believe that the best policy would be to transfer Admiral Paimer and his organization to some one of the government departments, and sell such ships as are serviceable toe private owners, to be operated under the American fiag. The rest of the ships should be sold as junk at the highest price they will bring, whether from Mr. Ford or any other man or com- bination of men who will put in a bid for them. It might be a good plan to allow the Emergency Fleet Corporation sufficient funds to maintain ser- viceable ships on certain mail and trade routes which it is desirable to keep open, but upon which any private organization will find it at present impos- sible to earn any income. Oil Pollution of the High Seas THE time has come to put an end to the abomi- nable nuisance caused by oil-burning ships dis- charging residue from their tanks or. the high seas and within the harbors and ports of the world. This filthy mess is a nuisance in more ways than one. It is defiling many of the most attractive bathing resorts on the sea coasts of the world. It is endan- gering the shipping in”our harbors because of the liability of the floating oil catching fire—something which has frequently happened with disastrous re- sults—and now the public has awakened to the fact that it is causing a widespread destruction of the bird life of the seas. The floating refuse gums up the feathers and the wings of sea fowl to such an extent that they are unable to lift themselves from the water, cannot move about in search of food, and simply drift as starving derelicts until they are cast up by the thousand upon the beach. Complaints of this nuisance have been growing in intensity and they are common upon both sides of the Atlantic—in fact, in all waters that are fre- quented by oil-burning ships. The matter can best be dealt with by an international commission, which should subject the nuisance to a thorough investi- gation and agree upon a code of laws which would make it as much an offense for a ship to discharge refuse on the high seas, or in any port or harbor, as it now is for any factory or domestic dwelling to deposit its refuse upon the streets or highways. We have sewage disposal and purification plants on shore, with an army of street cleaners, garbage carts, et cetera, to collect the daily refuse. It would be perfectly possible to install oil-separating apparatus on the ships, and maintain fleets of oil-refuse barges to receive the residue of the ships’ oil tanks and decently dispose of it. Motor-boat Versus Locomotive THANKS to the demand upon the daily press reporter by the city editor that he make his story “snappy, the reporter, however much he would like to give the plain unvarnished truth, feels himself impelled to give a strongly dramatic or sensational touch to his record of any event that can by any possibility be worked up as a leading attraction in his paper’s next edition. This was conspicuously notable in the account of the recent run down the Hudson River of Gar Wood’s two fast motor-boats, in the attempt to beat the time of the Twentieth Century train. The facts were given; but they were written up in a way which has left the impression on the mind of the public that a motor-boat can beat a fast express over a race course of something less than 150 miles. Without in the least depreciat- ing the very fine work done by the motor-boats, we feel it our duty to point out that this was in no sense a race, since the boat was under no restrictions as to speed, whereas the train was held down to its schedule. The Baby Gar IV made the trip from Albany to the Columbia Yacht Club, at the foot of West 86th Street, in two hours and 58 minutes. It was the privilege of the editor, when the 20- hour train was first started some twenty years ago, to make the trip from New York to Chicago and back in the cab of the locomotive. In starting the final lg, from Albany to New York, the train was 29 minutes late, and with six cars of 352 tons total weight behind the locomotive, the engineer had to make up 29 minutes of lost time. Altogether, there were thirteen slow-downs for taking water, passing through stations and rounding curves where the side hill was being blasted out to straighten the track, and so on, and, consequently, by the editor’s stop- watch timing, we ran for a great part of the distance at from 70 to 75 miles an hour. The train reached Grand Central station on. time, and we passed through Spuyten Duyvil, 131.73’ miles from Albany, where the train slowed down, at 9:15, having cov- ered the distance in 131 minutes, an average speed of over 60 miles an hour. This was done with one of the old Atlantic-type engines. What could be done with modern engines of twice the power can be readily understood. At one portion of the journey outward bound, stop-watch timing showed that we were making a speed of 84 miles per hour. If the modern express locomotive were in the racing business, even the very fastest motor boats of today could hardly keep a New York Central train in sight on that run. This Time the Mooring Mast Failed WHEN the Shenandoah broke away from her moor- ing mast, the latter pulled the metal nose cap out of the ship and held it securely aloft until it was taken down for inspection. When the R-33 broke away she pulled so hard on the nose of the mast that she tore it loose. She carried the wreckage across the North Sea, and it was still hanging in place after the ship had fought its way back to the hangar. In each accident, it seems to have been a heavy side gust that caused the break-away, and the condition of the wrecked structures, in the one case on the ship and in the other on the mast, prove beyond disputation that the maximum stresses are not those which occur when the wind is blowing parallel with the axis of the ship but when it suddenly shifts and strikes it on either bow. A most interesting attempt to estimate these stresses was recently made by the Navy Department, in which the heavy, axial spindle at the bow of the Shenandoah, which was bent when the ship was torn away, was investigated. The amount of pressure necessary to straighten the spindle was noted and a figure, if we remember rightly, of about sixteen tons was arrived at as representing the lateral force exerted at the time of the break. When the R-33 returned it was noticed that a large section of her bow extending back to the second ring was broken, and it looked as though a much larger section of her bow had been torn away than was the case in the Shenandoah disaster. Details of the accident are not available at the present writing; but it is stated that after she parted from her anchorage the ship lurched forward and smashed her bow against the mast—an explanation which certainly does not explain. Camille Flammarion Some of the sunlight passed out of the scientific world when Camille Flammarion went to his long sleep at the ripe age of 83. This great astronomer, for he was certainly that, was one of those outstanding scientists who, like Huxley, have the happy faculty of dressing profound scientific truth in the garments of everyday life, and casting upon it the light and sparkle of a rich and poetic imagination. What Huxley did for geology, Flammarion did for astron- omy; and he paid the inevitable price. For popular science, no matter how accurate and truthful, is more or less anathema to the academic and university mind. We once asked America’s leading naval archi- tect to write a story for the Scientific American telling how he went about the task of designing a transatlantic liner. He immediately and flatly re- fused, saying that it cost far more time and effort to write such an article than it would to write on the same subject a strictly technical paper. “Writing down” in science is an art calling for an unusual and only too rare type of mind. If Flammarion gave his imagination too free a rein at times, it is nothing to his discredit and, in the judgment of posterity, will not dim his great reputation. Born at Montigny-le-Roy on February 26, 1842, at the age of sixteen he became a student and assistant in the Imperial Observatory. While still a youth, he became editor of Cosmos; and in 1865 was scien- tist and editor of Le Ciecle. Three years later he made many balloon ascensions for scientific observa- tions. This led to his being made Director of the Observatory of Juvisy-sur-Orge. He was a volumin- ous writer in many fields of scientific research. —{—

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AUGUST, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN “Spirit Return”’ By J. Allen Gilbert, Ph.D., M.D. 85 ‘‘I approve of your suggestion to retain the envelope unopened and I continue the offer of $500 to any one who wishes to try further NVESTIGATION into “spiritualism” does not go far until it is confronted with both fraud and facts which we cannot explain if we are to accept them as stated. Somewhere there is ground for rational consistency if fraud and ignorance can be eliminated. That middle ground cannot be gained by dogmatic postulation of evident contra- dictions; nor can it be gained by the gulping down of unverified and unverifiable assertions without ground or reason. If “spirit return” is a fact, sooner or later it will be able to stand on its own feet without this eternal see-saw of ““Tis—Taint.” In- vestigation is the only means of settling the dispute. Some seven years ago, after having worked at the problem of “spirit return” quietly by every possible avenue of which I could avail myself and after having failed to get anything through the most accredited scientific, semi-scientific and even pseudo- scientific channels at my disposal, I decided to approach the general public. The fol- lowing letter was given to the Morning Oregonian of Portland, Oregon, and was copied rather widely through the channels of the Associated Press. Portland, Oregon, May 30, 1922. Mrs. J. Allen Gilbert (Florence A. Z. Gilbert) died December 17, 1917. For months previous to this time her death was a certainty. We were both deeply interested in psychology. Both also had friends who were firm believers in the phenomena of so-called spiritualism. Neither of us had ever had any experi- ences or found any data that left con- viction as to the possibility of the “return of the dead.” We felt sure that after her death messages would be brought to me from her friends who are believers along this line. In this I have not been disappointed. In order to get the affair on some sort of scien- tific basis, previous to her death she and I agreed upon a certain sign, counter- sign, password, code, or whatever one may see fit to call it, by which I might be able to recognize any communication from her as genuine in case such should be alleged. She was to make every possible effort to return but credence was to be given nothing by me unless accompanied by the countersign. Both of us deplored the enormous amount of fraud and deception that is practiced in this field. Repeated messages, reputedly from Mrs. Gil- bert, have been brought to me. In no instance have the transmitters of these messages been, able to obtain the countersign, simple though it is. In some instances, long conversations with her have been reported but when the countersign is demanded nothing is forthcom- ing and the messages cease from that source. I might add that these messages, if genuine, bespeak a lamentable decadence of mentality in Mrs. Gilbert as compared with my memory of her. until November 1, 1925.”’ This password or countersign was put in writing and placed in safe-deposit under triple seal. Attempts to reproduce it have been made through the most accredited channels for such phenomena, without avail. In order to stimulate attempt in this direction, and thus push the experiment in every possible way, I hereby offer a reward of Five Hundred Dollars ($500.00) to anyone who will obtain that countersign by communication with Mrs. Gilbert. In order to aid in such attempts, I hold myself in readiness to help by submitting to any reasonable conditions that give promise of results. (Signed) J. Allen Gilbert. CAN THIS PASSWORD BE REVEALED? The editor of the Scientific American holding the triply sealed envelope containing the countersign Naturally, the most interesting phase of the cor- respondence which came to me as a result of this letter, is the fact that up to date there have been sent in one hundred and thirty-nine definite coun- tersigns, all ostensibly from Mrs. Gilbert, all of them different (except three) and all of them wrong. This can only mean that each one, getting a message, got it out of his own subconscious or possibly out of a tricky conscious. With two or three exceptions the letters have the mark of sincerity upon them. The writers simply do not understand the phenomena they are getting. Aside from the nature of the letters as evidence of their sincerity, a moment’s considera- tion will convince anyone that they necessarily must be sincere. The conscious fraud has nothing but trickery as his stock-in-trade and is not going to be so foolish as merely to guess when he stands but one chance in billions of striking the true counter- sign. To fail would be to undermine his fraud Presumably, then, most of the messages are honest and sincere. Most of the countersigns submitted were claimed to have been obtained directly from Mrs. Gilbert. Many of them described hallucinatory images of Mrs. Gilbert as she appeared to them to deliver her countersign to me through them. Minute details of her dress and general appearance were recited. These descriptions were usually so wide of the mark that they bordered on the ridiculous. Some of the countersigns were obtained by interested parties through the mediumship of professional mediums employed for the purpose. Others were obtained through the Ouija Board and still others through automatic writing, several splendid specimens of which are to be found in the correspondence. One such specimen was written ostensibly by Mrs, Gilbert from the planet Venus. My name having been signed to the offer as “J. Allen Gilbert,” a good many answers were based upon a false assumption as to my first name, accepting it from Mrs. Gil- bert as John, James, Jimmie, Jim, only one hitting upon my true first name, namely, Joshua. This disclosure of “Joshua,” which I never use as a rule, is of no significance for after twenty years I still continue to get some mail addressed to me as “Joshua A.” due to my having foolishly yielded to the insistence of a Life Insurance Company that I should sign my full name to the applica- tion. Nor does Mrs. Gilbert seem to have any better memory as regards her own name than she has relative to mine. it under various circumstances as Susan, Annie, Louisa, Aurora, Sunbeam, Pussy and Anna, all of which have no connection or application to her or her life in any way that I know of. One of the newspapers in New England, when copying the letter, got my name “J. Albert” instead of “J. Allen.” The former gave just as good results as the latter, Mrs. Gilbert never seeming to detect the error in the name. Not one of the 139 countersigns submitted has the least resemblance to the real countersign, which will bear unmistakable evidence of its authenticity when revealed. One came in German which is not only misspelled but for my convenience is translated into “R. Yours.” Mrs. Gilbert’s knowledge of German was limited largely to reading though she could understand it poorly and speak it even more poorly. They certainly gave her a knowledge of the Bible which she did not possess when they reported her as quoting various Biblical references by book chapter and verse. One message was transmitted by Pro- fessor James whom I knew but slightly through his exchange lectures at Yale. Those who knew Mrs. Gilbert could certainly not imagine her saying, “Jim, (Concluded on page 143) She signs

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AvucustT, 1925 Plumbing the Depths of Neptune’s Secrets Fables of the Sargasso Under the Acid Test of Science mmye|tiE sea is the great father of romance and a home of marvels. Shakespeare in King Richard III. very well sum- marizes the matter in Clarence’s dream when he says: “I saw a thousand fear- ful wrecks; a thousand men that fishes gnaw’d upon; wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, inestimable stones, unvalued jewels, all scatter’d in the bottom of the sea.” The subject of oceanography is an important one, and one which is interesting to everyone. The newest expedition, under the auspices of the New York Zoological Society and led by Dr. William Beebe, has attracted great attention, as the aims of the explorers have been focussed on several very important things, such as the Sargasso Sea, the Humboldt Current, and the weird Galapagos Islands. Modern newspaper science is one thing, while the results of an expedition published two or three years after is another, therefore, the Arcturus was equipped with powerful wireless transmitting apparatus in order that the readers of our great metropolitan newspaper, The New York Times, could be informed daily (static permitting) of the adventures and dis- coveries of the band of men and women scientists that formed the expedition. We shall not concern ourselves in this article with the discovery of two volcanoes erupting in Galapagos, or with the big tide rip where the Panama and Humboldt Currents meet, but will consider only the Sargasso Sea. The “Lost” Continent of Atlantis Say what you will about the Beebe Expedition to explore the fabled Sargasso Sea, one great thought exists in the lay mind. Will there be any discoveries by these argonauts of sci nce which will tend to substantiate the story of Atlantis? We are afraid not, for the oft-discussed lost continent below the lazy weeds of the Sargasso Sea probably never existed. Atlantis was the creation of old and inaccurate chroniclers who gathered and warped miscellaneous data of history and physical phenomena. All the stories of the powerful capiial as outlined by Plato are now believed to be pure fabrications. If, how- ever, you still want to believe that this lost con- tinent did exist, you can read Ignatius Donnelly’s “Atlantis,” for this almost forgotten author was a most convincing writer. Sea lore teaches us that the Sargasso Sea is indeed the “Port of Missing Ships,” the “Ocean Graveyard” or “Davy Jones’s Locker,” for under the sluggish weeds are triremes, caravels, galleons, windjammers and tramp steamers. It is not only to the classical authors to whom we owe a mass of misinformation on this subject but we find that such a charming writer as T. A. Janvier who wrote in 1896, added to the confusion. Sir John Murray, the famous English ocean ex- plorer, says: “The famous Gulf Weed characteristic of the Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic belongs to the brown algez. It is named Sargassum bacciferum, and is easily recognized by its small berry-like bladders. * * * Tt is supposed that the older patches gradually lose their power of floating, and perish by sinking in deep water. * * * The floating masses of Gulf Weed are believed to be continually replenished by additional supplies torn from the coasts by waves and carried by currents until they accumulate in the great Atlantic whirl which sur- By Albert A. Hopkins Fellow of the American Geographical Society of New York rounds the Sargasso Sea. They become covered with white patches of polyzoa and serpule, and quite a large number of other animals (small fishes, crabs, prawns, mollusks, and so on) live on these masses of weed in the Sargasso Sea, all exhibiting remarkable adaptive coloring, although none of them belong properly to the open ocean.” From antiquity down through the Middle Ages, the ocean region westward of the Azores was called the “Sea of Darkness.” It must, indeed, have been a fearsome task for Columbus to guide his little fleet through the waters so unlike the clear Mediterranean. His sailors were naturally terrified, for they could not conceive of seaweed without rocks, so to assure them, records show Columbus hove the lead line, and found no bottom. The name was originally “Sargaco” now changed to Sargasso and was derived from a word meaning “Sea of Little Grapes” referring, of course, to the berry-like bladders noted above in our quotation from Sir John Murray. It is perhaps unnecessary to state that the Sar- gasso Sea lies between the United States, the Greater and Lesser Antilles and the West Coast of Africa. The North Atlantic area of the Sargasso Sea is about SCIENTISTS ON BOARD THE ARCTURUS Dr. William Beebe is showing some of the finds to the members of the expedition of the New York Zoological Society half that of Europe so it is to be seen that the Arcturus has considerable territory to cover. We also show interesting sketches from the /llus- trated London News and some of the actual photo- graphs taken on board the Arcturus. The area of the maximum distribution of weeds is an elliptical tract with the clockwise-moving cir- cuit of the North Atlantic Drift Current. The im- pediments to the progress of vessels is possibly due as much to the absence of wind as the presence of weed in the calms of the Horse Latitudes. Surround- ing the ellipse is a well-defined oval ring in which the weed is more thinly distributed; and outside of this, another space with even more scattered dis- tribution. Many of you have gone to Bermuda probably without knowing that these charming isles are within the confines of the Sargasso Sea! The distribution of seaweed is shown by the map which indicates three belts. In the region of greatest abundance the surface of the sea is covered with the weed to the extent of from ten to twenty-five percent. In the next belt the amount is between five and ten percent, while in the outermost rim the dwindling distribution does not rise above one per- cent. As floating chaff or cork to which a circular motion has been given in a basin crowds together toward the pool where there is the least motion, so does the Sargasso weed tend to collect in the calmer tract within the circuit of the North Atlantic drifts. We must not suppose that all the detached weeds find their way into the seaweed meadows. The coasts of France or Great Britain show evidences of the distance to which these escaping weeds may be carried. A bunch of weed detached from the Ba- hama Islands would make the passage to Cape Hat- teras (six hundred sea miles) in about a fortnight at an average rate of two miles an hour. The farther passage to the Azores would require about six months. Once drawn into the Sargasso Sea, the weed has a new future opened to it, because here, especially in the most densely weed-covered part which roughly coincides with the region of frequent calms, the meadows are rarely disturbed save by an ocean swell—the reflection of some distant storm. Life swarms in this meadowy sea, and the Sargasso weed lives on until overcome by the decay of its buoyant bladders, when it slowly sinks into the depths of the ocean and gives place to a fresh supply floating in from the encircling path. Vast Islands of Seaweed Some idea of the quantity of weed that must pe afloat over the surface of the Sargasso Sea may be gained from experiments made in recent years. A net with a mouth twenty inches wide was suspended from a long outrigger for a period of two hours when six sea miles were traversed and thirty-five pounds of weed were secured. This would give about ten tons to the square sea mile. Other tests have shown as high as eighteen tons per square mile. Where the northeast trade winds blow, gaging by these measurements, the amount might be five tons to the square mile and in the calms of the Horse Latitudes perhaps as much as forty tons. The great- est amounts are nearly always visible in calm weather when it collects in “islands” several hun- dred yards in diameter with clear water between them. In every large patch of weed there is flotsam and jetsam in which, to quote the Ancient Mariner, “slimy things do crawl upon a slimy sea!” It is an eerie feeling that creeps over the beholder on a dark, clear night when myriads of stars are reflected from the glassy surface of this sea and the floating islands of weed rise and fall in long, low swells as if through the respiration of some gruesome monster lurking under the sea. The Sargasso Sea demonstrates the capacity of nature to fit the living to an environment such as surrounds the specialized life of the ocean abysses. Here we must leave this fascinating topic for its ramifications deal with oceanography, natural his- tory, botany and geology. It is indeed a wonderful area, and we marvel at the courage of Columbus, who led the Santa Maria, the Pinta and Nina across this mysterious trackless, treacherous area. — i

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AUGUST, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ss —_" ; ey ee fe ARGONAUTS OF SCIENCE SEEK THE MYSTERIES OF A MARINE AREA HALF THE SIZE OF EUROPE This “Port of Missing Ships,” this “Ocean Graveyard’ affords a happy hunting ground for Society. Our engravings show the method of measuring the density of the weed, some of naturalists with leanings toward oceanography. The Arcturus is the latest vessel to explore the flora and fauna of the sea and how the movement of the weed makes and breaks vast these eerie depths under the leadership of Dr. William Beebe of the New York Zoological patches. Drawn by Mr. G. H. Davis from material by Capt. C. C. Dixon, F.R.G.S. Courtesy of the ‘*Iiiustrated London News"’

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Remarkable New Tests F'avor the lr is unusual, even in this age of scientific activity, to have three independent in- vestigations in an important field re- ported at almost the same time. Yet this has recently happened, and the question at issue is the widely discussed one of relativity. First among them we may take the recent work of Professor Michelson and Professor Gale of the University of Chicago—which deals with a subor- dinate, but very important, phase of the problem. We all remember how Michelson and Morley, many years ago, made their famous experiment, designed to detect “ether-drift”—that is the motion of the observer and his apparatus through the ether which carries light-waves. No effect was detected, even at different seasons of the year when the earth was certainly moving in different directions, and this led by degrees to the development of the theory of relativity, according to which the very constitution of nature is such that no experiment whatever can tell whether the observer and all his apparatus are at rest or all are moving together at the same rate and in the same direction. But alternative explana- tions were possible—they always are—and one of the most plausible of these was the idea of “ether- drag.” According to this, any solid and massive body in some way drags the ether with it, leaving that at a distance unaffected. Now Michelson and Morley set up their apparatus in an underground room so it is conceivable that the ether within this room was dragged along with the earth, and that this accounts for their result. Apparatus Set Up in a Vacuum The recent experiment tests this possibility in a different way. Four mirrors are set up at the cor- ners of a rectangle so that light is reflected from one to another and returns to the starting point. By the familiar device of a half-silvered mirror, a beam of light is divided into two parts, one of which goes around the circuit “with the sun” and the other “against the sun.” The two beams are then brought together, and produce interference fringes. if the earth were at rest, the two beams would take exactly the same length of time to make the circuit, and the fringes would be found in a certain stand- ard position. Uniform motion of the whole earth— such as its orbital motion about the sun practically comes to—would make no difference in the times of the two beams, whether on the ether-drift, ether- drag or relativity theories. But the earth’s rotation is a different matter. The beam that goes around with the sun finds the earth rotating to meet it— each of the four mirrors advancing by a minute amount as the light travels toward it, while the beam going against the sun finds the mirrors retreating. The latter, therefore, take longer to make the cir- cuit, and come in late, displacing the fringes. This is the effect to be anticipated on the old, or ether-drift theory, and the theory of relativity also predicts a positive result, for in this case all four mirrors are moved in different directions by the earth’s rotation. Detailed calculations show that the two theories predict exactly the same shift, which comes out proportional to the area enclosed by the path of the rays. On the ether-drag theory, how- ever, the ether should share the earth’s rotatory motion, and there should be no shift at all. To get a reasonable shift, the enclosed area must be large, and its perimeter at least a mile. Experi- ments made at Mt. Wilson in the open air showed visible fringes, but these were so much disturbed by By Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D. the effects of varying density of the air, that no good measures could be made. So Professor Michelson—always resourceful—set up his apparatus near Chicago, put it on level ground, and in a vacuum. Long lines of twelve- inch pipe were laid, connecting the piece on which the mirrors were mounted, and a powerful air-pump reduced the pressure inside them to little more than one percent of that of the outer air, so that the light on its long circuit of more than 6,000 feet met with less disturbance than in 100 feet of common air. Under these conditions, the images were steady, and good measures could be made. The observed shift was 0.230 “fringes” or just 1/200,000 of an inch, while the predicted amount was 0.236, the difference being over 1/7,500,000 of an inch, and within the errors of even this exceed- ingly accurate measurement. This result represents the mean of no less than 269 separate observations and may be regarded as final. Though consistent with either the old theory or Einstein’s, it appears te dispose of the idea of “ether-drag,” and to put one of the rivals of relativity quite out of court. THE SPECTACULAR EINSTEIN PIPE EXPERIMENT Two rays of light racing in opposite directions around this one-mile rectangle did not come back together, thus favoring the Einstein Theory The second investigation is a repetition of the Michelson-Morley experiment, by Professor D. C. Miller. Having already confirmed the negative re- sult obtained in the underground vault, Professor Miller, to test the ether-drag hypothesis, set up his instruments on the top of Mount Wilson—in a build- ing as light as is consistent with proper protection of the apparatus. A long series of measures here, after laborious clearing out of spurious effects, leave outstanding a clearly observable fringe-shift—not as large as would be required by the old theory, but very similar in nature. By themselves, they would indicate a partial ether-drag, as if the ether on the mountain top was partly, but not entirely, dragged with the earth in its motion. In view of Michelson’s experi- ments, this explanation appears to the writer very dubious. It is very hard to see how the two sets of results can be reconciled. AUGUST, 1925 Einstein Theory In the present case, in spite of all the careful precautions taken,*the existence of such still-elusive errors appears to be more probable in the second set of experiments; for the very condition that they be made in as light a housing as will protect the very delicate apparatus from the disturbing influence of differences of temperature, magnetic forces, and so forth, renders them more subject to residual dis- turbances than the observations made in an under- ground chamber. The third observation is the more definitely astronomical of the three, and is reported by D-. Adams from Mt. Wilson. It deals with the third of Einstein’s predictions—the shift of spectrum lines toward the red when they are produced in a strong gravitational field. This test has been applied to the solar spectrum but the predicted shift is small—corresponding to that produced by a velocity of 0.6 kilometers per second and several other influences—some of them still imperfectly understood—affect the positions of solar lines so that the existence of the “Einstein shift” though indicated by the long and careful work of Dr. St. John is still doubted by some observers. Nature Provides Decisive Test Nature has, however, been very kind to us—pro- viding us with a far more decisive test. Sirius has a faint companion star—only about one-ten-thou- sandth of its brightness, though of forty percent of its mass—which is one of the most remarkable objects in the heavens. Though it gives out only about 1/300 as much light as the sun, its spectrum is of the F type, indicating a temperature a good deal higher than the sun’s and a greater brightness per square mile. On this basis Eddington calculates that its diameter should be only one-thirty-fifth that of the sun or hardly more than three times that of the earth—but this means that the star’s density should be fifty thousand times that of water. Till last year this seemed absurd, but Eddington showed them that in the inside of a star, where the outer portions of the atoms are stripped off, the remaining fragments of atoms should be capable of being driven very close together by great pressure, so that even this enormous density is quite believable. But, if this star is so small and massive the Ein- stein shift (which is proportional to the mass divided by the radius) should correspond to a velocity of fully 20 kilometers a second and be measurable. The spectrum has been photographed several times at Mt. Wilson, in spite of the great difficulties caused by the close neighborhood of Sirius, and the radial velocity measured. Fortunately, the value to be anticipated can readily be found by correcting the velocity of Sirius itself for the orbital motion of the companion, and is accurately known. The ob- served velocity comes out more than thirty kilo- meters too great—corresponding to a shift of the lines to the red in the direction predicted by Ein- stein, and to an even greater amount than Eddington calculated. It appears, therefore, that the trend of Einstein’s predictions is at last decisively verified and that the companion of Sirius is even smaller in diameter than Eddington’s calculations (which in such a case can at best only be approximate) made it. The existence of stars of enormously high density is confirmed; and the observational evidence in favor of all three of Einstein’s predictions is now so strong that in the writer’s opinion, at least, there is no good reasons for regarding the substantial cor- rectness of his principles as any longer in doubt. Tana at wna

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en So AuGUST, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 89 J. EB. Haynes, Si. Paul How the True Cattalo Is Bred REAT scientific interest attaches itself to the work being done by the Canadian Government in breeding hybrids at the great Buffalo Park, near Wainwright, in Alberta. In this breeding work, Hereford, Shorthorn or Aberdeen-Angus cows have constituted the foundation females and purebred bison bulls the males. The offspring is called a hybrid buffalo. The product of two hybrids has been designated as cattalo, and this term is now generally accepted by stockmen. he v . ‘ ie J ms wg! RS A TRUE CATTALO The offspring of two hybrid buffalo In the hybrid and true cattalo are many outstand- ing characteristics that are highly desirable. First of these must be placed the hide. This is very similar to that of the buffalo in quality. The hair is thick and the hide has great warmth. Robes made from such hides have long, thick hair that possesses a beautiful curl and luster. Any settler living in the prairie provinces of Canada would certainly appre- ciate the qualities of such a robe. Then in the second place, cattalo are remarkably rugged. They are specially fitted to weather the terrific gales that seem to have their origin in the Medicine Hat region. Such cattle face the storms instead of drifting with them, as do the domestic cattle. They are far better able to resist the inroads of disease. In the third place, these animals are like the bison in that they are able to forage and thrive on pasture that might mean starvation for a domestic cow. During the winter they nuzzle down through the snow and get feed. They do not require shelter. Such are the desirable features of the new types. However, Nature has gone to a great deal of trouble to make sure that a buffalo shall remain a buffalo and a domestic cow a domestic cow. There are barriers between them that are almost insurmount- able, as the men in charge of the breeding work have found out. Most of the male calves are born dead. Often the cow herself succumbs. Or even if the male calf lives, it is likely to prove infertile. One great difficulty to overcome has been to get adult bison bulls to associate with cows of alien blood. Here has been the solution. Buffalo calves have been kidnapped and placed with domestic cows. When a domestic cow is first introduced to her foster bison son she nearly does a double hand- spring with excitement. Later, through the efficacy of linseed oil and the help of Father Time, family matters are adjusted and the foster son is in good standing. It has been found that bison and domestic George F Paul THE BUFFALO’S FRIEND , James Wilson, in charge of animals used in hybridizing calves that are raised together from calves readily consort later in life. So much for the mating of bison and cattle. Now a new angle of the experimental work should be touched upon-—the inclusion of the Asiatic yak in the breeding program. It has been found that the yak crosses readily and safely with domestic catile. The yak appears to be the missing link between bison and cattle. The yak is about the same size as the Aberdeen-Angus. It has a mane-like fringe along the flank, long hair on the sides, and a tail A HYBRID BUFFALO Product of a domestic cow and a bison bull much like that of a horse. It is free from disease, and has proved itself a wonderful ranger, with- standing hard winters without any sheiter. A suc- cessful cross has been made of a yak sire and a bison dam. As this cross was not accompanied by abnormalities, the indications would support the theory that che yak holds an intermediary relation- ship between the bison and the domestic. Naturally this work of producing new types is slow at first, but as the calves reach maturity there is far greater hope that in the not too distant future beef animals with bison blood in their veins will be feeding on the great stretches of the prairie provinces where winters are long and severe.

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Contact and Refueling Now Accor By Major H. H. Arnold, United States oy sys i Lat ee. et pig internsaucnal News Keei ( eer FT ER the Wright Brothers made their len| first flight in an airplane on December f| 17, 1903, both airplane and engine de- perfect these aerial vehicles by increasing their radius of action so that they could be universally used with the same degree of success as the existing modes of | i i J sieners endeavored to transportation. In the beginning it was a long struggle between the engine builders and the plane designers for, as rapidly as the plane designers increased the efhciency of the planes to such an extent that they utilized the full power of the engines, another engine would appear with greater horse- power and a lesser weight-power per ratio and the struggle was on again. In any successful aerial venture and also in mili- tary aerial operations, planes must not only remain in the air for long periods of time, but also be capable of carrying an additional useful load of passengers, mail, express, or bombs and ammunition. To accomplish this, some new, at present unknown, device or change in shape and structure of existing types or an entirely new motive power must be developed which will give much greater power with a corresponding decrease in the weight of the engine and also in the fuel it consumes. No Precedents to Follow In the meantime people everywhere are endeavor- ing to increase the radius of action of existing types. Thus it was that the idea of making contact between airships germinated and was tried out at Rockwell Field in the Spring of 1923. taking place daily in aero- As is usually the case in advances that are nautics, there were no prec edents to follow. The idea itself was simple—send up one plane and send another up when needed, carrying gas, oil, water or feod to be transferred to the duration plane. In carrying out the idea, however, the procedure was not so simple. The first requirement was to get two pilots who were so wel! trained that they could verfectly. The next step was the development of systems in synchronize their fiying the two planes, one for sending gas or other supplies down and the other for receiving such supplies when they came within reach. This step was purely mechan- . " . . ical ana no diff ulties were encountered. To convey the gas, oil and water from one plane to the other, a 10-foot, metal lined, flexible, one-and-a-quarter-inch steem lose was used. The method of procedure was to drop the hose from one plane and let it hang SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN while the plane continued on a straight, horizontal flight. In the meantime, the duration plane would come under in such a position that the man in the rear seat could reach out and get the end of the hose, insert the end into opening of a tank, open a valve and, after getting sufficient supplies, turn the hose loose. Contact Made with Ease Two preliminary trials had demonstrated beyond question the practicability of the experiments, so that unqualified success was expected when Lieutenant Lowell Smith, Commander of the round-the-world flight and Lieutenant J. P. Richter left the ground at Rockwell Field at 5:04 a.m., August 17, 1923. So certain of success were the crew working on the ground, that a schedule for transferring supplies was made up in advance and, it may be remarked, was actually followed as planned. The schedule was: 10:00 a.m. Transfer of 90 gallons of gas 12:00 Noon Transfer of lunch 2:00 p.m. Transfer of 90 gallons of gas 4:00 p-M. Transfer of 90 gallons of gas 1:30 p.M. Transfer of 15 gallons of oil 5:30 p.m. Transfer of 90 gallons of gas 6:00 p.m. Transfer of supper 6:30 p.m. Transfer of as much gas as they would take. Following day: Daybreak Transfer of 90 gallons of gas 7:00 a.m. Transfer of breakfast 8:00 a.m. Transfer of 90 gallons of gas. For the remainder of the day adhere to the sched- ule of the previous day. The ease with which the two planes made contact was remarkable and, before the first day’s flight was finished, the two sets of pilots had become so adept that a plane would leave the ground, make contact, deliver 90 gallons of gasoline and be back on the ground in 15 minutes. Lieutenants Smith and Rich- ter were amply supplied with substantial hot food while on the flight. During the first day everything went according to schedule; but on the second morning there was a low-hanging fog that permitted a ceiling of only about 200 feet being reached at the clearest points and fifty feet at many other places. As a matter of fact, the two planes refueled while they were not over fifty feet above the water. The gas had just been transferred when they ran into a fog bank and were forced to separate. AUGUST, 1925 Later the fog cleared and the other contacts were made without any trouble. Troubles did not come singly and preparations cannot always be made in advance to meet every emergency. About the middle of the morning, as Smith was turning north from the Mexican border, Smith at once correctly diagnosed his trouble as a stoppage in the gas line. At first it seemed that nothing could be done; but necessity is the mother of invention. The country that he could reach for a forced landing was so rough that he surely would have crashed if he went down. He grabbed the only thing in sight, a flashlight, hit a three-way valve in the gas line, smashed the light, but cleared the line. took hold again and the plane missed the rocky cliffs alongside of a canyon by inches; but they were clear and on their way again. When they landed on August 26, 1923, at 6:19 P.M. they had broken all existing records for speed and duration for over 2,500 kilometers, remained in the air for 37 hours and 15 minutes, and covered a dis- tance of 3,293 miles at an average speed of 88 miies per hour. During the flight they had received from the ground 687 gallons of gasoline, 38 gallons of oil and had served to them four hot meals. his engine started missing badly. The engine Refueling Accomplished Against Odds This proved conclusively that an airplane could be kept in the air over a station until the engine, plane or pilot were out; but did not prove the practicability of the method at other than specially prepared sta- tions. Following this success, plans were made for a refueling trip from the Canadian to the Mexican borders. For this purpose, Smith and Richter left Sumas, Washington, at 6:30 A.M. one morning in October, 1923. After circling over the Canadian border, they headed for Eugene, Oregon, some 372 miles away. At Eugene they were met and, while continuing on their course, given a load of gasoline. At Sacramento, California, 440 miles from Eugene, they were again met in the air and given another load of gas. That evening, at 6:43 P.M. they crossed over the Mexican border, 1,297 miles from their starting point. This proved beyond any doubt the practica- bility of making contact and delivering fuel in the air under any and all circumstances. They had refueled in fog, over strange places, while crossing over mountain ranges in Oregon and while over the long, smooth Sacramento Valley. For many reasons, it was most desirable, if pos-

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AUGUST, 1925 sible, to be able to take planes up in the air attached to dirigibles, cut them loose and let them continue in flight under their own power. The natural sequence to this, to have the plane return to the dirigible and re-attach itself to the dirigible was just another step. The first attempts along this line were carried out at Dayton, on October 8, of this year. A small plane, piloted by First Lieutenant C. V. Finter, U. S. A., was taken up in flight while attached to the Army dirigible TC-3. As the Army had only small non-rigid types in their service, the largest having only 200,000 cubic feet capacity, it was necessary to take up a small plane; but the experiment itself would prove the practicability of taking up any size plane, provided a sufficiently large dirigible was - available. Weight of Planes Not Felt The dirigible left the ground, climbed to an altitude of 2,500 feet, and then the pilot of the plane started his engine and cut the plane loose. There had been much discussion as to what would happen to the dirigible when it suddenly lost that much weight. However, the pilot of the dirigible never knew that the plane had been cut loose until he saw it circling under him. It was comparable to the loss of weight in the transfer of fuel, during which the pilot of the upper plane could not tell that he was losing weight with the transfer of gas, although he was losing it at a rate of about 150 pounds a minute. As for the pilot of the plane which had.been cut loose, both plane and dirigible were attached and accordingly were moving at the same rate of speed. This speed was slightly in excess of that required to keep the plane in flight so that, after heading the plane down until he was clear, there was no difference between that flight and any other one. The next stage of the experiment was to attach a plane to a dirigible while both were in flight. There was no doubt in the minds of anyone, who had given the matter a thought, that this would be a simple matter provided the necessary quick attaching device was available. The maneuvering for position for attaching was simple—but could a pilot maintain that position while he was endeavoring to attach the plane to the dirigible? That was the question. Fortunately, the matter had been given some thought before and the necessary mechanical devices were ready for use. The flight was made at Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois. The same dirigible and plane were used as before. The dirigible went up f REFUELING IN THE AIR International News Reel Lieutenants Smith and Richter in lower plane and Hine and Seifert in upper plane, flying over Coronado, California SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN oe oy HOSE ATTACHED TO PLANE Through a nozzle of 4#-inch hose, 50 gallons of gasoline may be sent up in two minutes, or about 10 gallons of oil in three minutes and flew a straight course at an altitude of about 2,400 feet. In the meantime, the plane maneuvered for position until the pilot, attached the coupling device and then stopped his engine. The feat was accomplished. Great Increase in Cruising Ranges Thus the cycle of closely allied experiments is completed and they all have for their object the same end—to increase the cruising ranges of planes by external means. Heavy bombers with their full load of bombs can now leave small airdromes and, after getting into the air, take on their full supply of gas and continue on their flight. Thus, they will be able to take advantage of their full radius of action where formerly they could only partially fill their tanks when they took off with a full load of bombs. Torpedo planes, which now have difficulty in leaving the water, especially when it is glassy, can leave the water with the 2,000-pound torpedo and a small quantity of gas. After getting into the air they can be refueled and continue on and operate at points over 200 miles from shore; whereas for- merly they were limited under some conditions to points only 75 miles away. a International News Keel 91 Commercial planes on long transcontinental trips can be refueled in the air and make trips with full loads without landing. This means a saving of sev- eral hours in the arrival of the plane at its destina- tion, and it might very well mean the difference between landing at the destination before or after dark. Combination of Dirigible and Plane Ideal For a long time it has been a question as to the best method of patroling, with planes or dirigibles, long stretches of our coast-line, where, in time of war, there could be no attempts at landings made and yet, on account of the uncertainties of war, the coast-line must be patroled. It does not seem quite economical to maintain a network of airplane patrols when their services would be of so much value at other places. Consider, then, a dirigible of over 5,000,000 cubic feet capacity, with fifteen planes attached, assigned to the patrol. The dirigible can operate over a thousand miles out at sea. It can locate any vessels approaching the coast while they are many miles away and before they can see it. It can also radio into the shore stations the strength, composition and location of these surface craft while they are still three or more cruising days from shore. Now, consider a fleet of planes dropping from the dirigible, circling over the ships on the water, drop- ping bombs, raking the decks with machine-gun fire, meeting the hostile planes as they are launched, one at a time, and destroying them. The combination of plane and dirigible seems to approach the ideal. The large dirigible is a moving airdrome, it moves where it is most needed and then launches its planes, thus adding over a thousand miles to their cruising distance. This method of operating may be carried much farther. A fleet of these dirigibles might he sent out for offensive operations, planes, and others bombing planes. All would be fully equipped and ready for action. When such a fleet approaches the hostile objective, the planes will be launched, the bombardment planes for de- struction and the pursuit planes for their protection. These planes will fly to their objective and, after carrying out their mission, will return to their ele- vated airdrome. Thus the war in the air is carried beyond the limits placed upon it by the theoretical radius of action of the planes and everyone must be prepared for it It is unquestionable that future warfare will be vitally affected by this new method of operation. some carrying pursuit AIRPLANE SUSPENDED FROM TC3 Photograph taken just after the plane had flown up and attached itself to the dirigible at an altitude of about 2,500 feet

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 A Record of Achievement HE startling proportion of revolutionary inventions created by Americans since the modern American patent system was founded is neatly and strikingly ex- emplified in a simple but graphic ex- hibit that has just been installed by the officials of the United States Pate: t Office. On a large bulletin board in the main rotunda of the building are mounted about seventy-five printed copies of United States patents granted to American inventors for contributions of fundamental importance and of pri- mary character. They embrace endeavors which on the whole have had a greater social and industrial effect on civilization than those of any other coun- They comprise particu- larly those advances in applied science which espe- try during the same period cially distinguish our present civilization. Electrical energy for communication and in the industrial arts was first applied on a large scale in this country and far above all other countries is America’s lead in electrical invention. The tele- graph and the telephone were the first notable com- mercial utilizations of the electrical current, while the electric light started the modern electrical age of power, heating and lighting. Another department in which the United States shines even more preeminently, and which charac- terizes American industrial life more peculiarly, is in the invention and use of labor-saving devices. These are what distinguish American industry above all other differences and are mainly responsible for her disproportionately huge productive capacity. It is the labor-saving device that has made the United States so enormously wealthy, placed such a large number of its population in a position of material well-being, and provided its wage earners with an earning capacity of about three times that of its nearest European competitor. They cannot in the small space devoted to the display, include examples of the tremendous strides made in automatic machinery since the beginning In paper bag making, roll- ing mill practice, foundry operations, steel produc- of the present century. tion, and most especially in automobile manufac- ture, have been devised machines of wondrous in- tricacy which with unbelievably skillful automatic By William I. Wyman Principal Examiner, Patent Office operations carry forth manipulations of complexity and sensitive nicety, and with unimaginable increase of production. In three industries examples are given of the in- machinery which have quickened their processes so tremendously as to occa- sion large social consequences and to be equivalent to the introduction of new arts. In steel making, machinery has largely supplemented or displaced manual labor, making it possible to double or triple output with a practically stationary force in the last quarter century. Shoe machinery has made production of footwear almost an entirely automatic affair, while inventions in the automatic production of glass bottles, sheet and cylinder ware in very recent years have not only marvelously increased the output, but have eradicated methods of manual production which have a history of thousands of years behind them and which a short time ago could not be conceived to be carried through by machine procedure. troduction of automatic Progress Based on these Patents Recently, for the first time in the history of in- ventive endeavor, applied science has entered the In the phonograph, the motion picture and radio, the amusements of the entire field of romance. world were simultaneously and radically reorgan- ized. With the exception of that occasioned by printing, all the variations in the social changes that have occurred since the beginning of recorded history have not equalled in telling effect the result made upon the purely domestic habits of the world’s population by these few inventions. Their economic importance is correspondingly heavy, but it will take years to properly appraise it, as their ramifica- tions are so diversified and their effects so indirect. The typewriter, the cash register, the vacuum cleaner, the safety razor, are all so typically “Yankee” as to be readily recognized as such, and these contributions of universal convenience need no further comment. For certain other activities, such as chemistry and warfare, Yankee genius is not supposed to be espe- cially adapted, and yet outside of coal-tar products, America’s creations are the most notable in chemical products and her contributions to the art of warfare are second to none. Vulcanized rubber is the most valuable product that has ever resulted from a single act of invention. To enumerate the revolver, the machine gun, the turret, the improvements in the submarine and the airplane, is enough to substan- tiate America’s primacy in this field. As to the airplane, an essay could be devoted to its coming possibilities. It has added a third dimen- sion to transportation and thus infinitely multiplied the rights of way over all other modes of travel. Without entering into the controversy now raging, this much is certain: it has injected into warfare an element which cannot be met entirely by instru- ments which operate in only two dimensions. As an instrument of peace, this most revolutionary con- tribution of American inventive genius is fast in- creasing in utility. In warfare, for evil or good, an instrument has arisen whose potency cannot be ignored, whose possibilities as an engine of destruc- tion cannot be exaggerated, and to whose develop- ment every ounce of American energy should be devoted. With the exception of very few patents exhibited, all disclose inventions which have originated new arts or affected profoundly our economic or social structure. These few exceptions relate to improve- ments which have given trend to the development of the basic invention, or are typical of early progress in the field, or are illustrations of many labor-saving substitutions in industry. The telephone transmitter, the electric heater and the iron and steel patents are illustrative of these several instances. There can be no question of the overwhelming relative importance of the part taken by American inventors in transforming this old world of ours. A mere perusal of the listed patents is sufficient to create that impression. No study of this im- pressive display can help but establish that invention as covered by the protection of the patent system is the basis of our industrial life, and that the whole superstructure of our economic well-being rests thereon. Since the establishment of the patent system, every notable invention has been protected by the grant of a patent by one of the industrial nations. THE IMPRESSIVE DISPLAY IN THE ROTUNDA OF THE UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE Printed copies of patents grafted fer contributions of fundamental importance and of primary character. In the left-hand illustration, Assistant Commissioner Dr. Kinans is shown at the left of the display and Commissioner of Patents Thomas W. Robertson is at the right

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AuGustT, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Radio at the North Pole MacMillan Expedition to Test Effect of Aurora Borealis on Short Wavelengths Copyright, Underwood & Underwood Captain MacMillan and his Eskimo pup, “Kudlah” ATE this summer Donald B. MacMillan’s ninth arctic expedition expects to dis- close by radio many secrets of the far north, which have long been concealed and protected from civilization by ice and cold weather. The explorers hope to ascertain whether or not there is an area of land over a million square miles between Alaska and the North Pole, and they will release the news of their findings via the ether. Robert E. Peary in 1906 saw what he believed to be the horizons of this unexplored arctic region, and MacMillan in 1914 observed the same headlands, but they vanished like a mirage. The broadcasting equipment will be tuned to the 20-meter wavelength, because experiments have shown that the 20-meter signals at high noon are inaudible under 500 miles, but at greater distances they are much stronger than those radiated at night on higher wavelengths. The expedition during August and September will be in daylight twenty- four hours of the day, after passing 60 degrees north latitude. MacMillan plans to anchor his ships, the Bowdoin and Peary, at Etah, Greenland, where the base will be established. Those who can read the Continental Morse code will understand the short wave impulses sent out by John L. Reinartz, low-wave expert of the expedition, as he flashes daily bulletins from the Northland. It is hoped that voices will also be sent into space just as they are from the broadcasting stations, and, if arrangements can be made, accord- ing to E. F. McDonald in charge of radio on the trip, the folksongs of the Eskimos will be sung. There are eighteen thousand amateur operators in this country and many of them have built short- wave receivers to tune in the signals from the polar regions. MacMillan will stop at Godthaab to ex- amine traces of 124 farms and the foundations of a dozen temples, the remnants of a settlement believed to have been established there by Eric the Red. At Turnivak, he will inspect the ruins of a colony thought to have been founded by Lief Ericson. The story of what the explorers find in these ancient settlements will be radiated into space. John L. Reinartz, MacMillan’s operator, has done considerable experimenting with short waves at his home in Manchester, Connecticut. Before he left for the north he explained the phenomena encoun- tered by him in reaching extremely low wavelengths. By Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr. He pointed out that code work in the daytime has been accomplished on as low as ten meters and that he had experimented with parasitic frequencies wavelengths below the possibility of measurement by present-day instruments. These frequencies are so extremely high that they are actually approaching the speeds of molecular vibration. The transmitters of the expedition have four wave- length ranges, the lowest being 20 meters, then 40, 60 and 180. It is planned that the 20-meter channel will be used during the period just preceding and following noon. The 40-meter wave will, in all probability, be employed during the hours surround- ing midnight, which will be daylight in the arctic but darkness in the lower latitudes. Eighty meters is an emergency wave to cope with unanticipated conditions and the 180-meter channel will be used to demonstrate that the 180-meter wave will not function over a great distance, unless freak atmos- pheric conditions are encountered. On the MacMillan trip in 1923-24, the 180-meter wave gave good results after the arctic night set in and there was no appreciable interference from the Aurora Borealis even when the ship passed through the Aurora belt, after which the Aurora display was in the south instead of the northern sky. Tests will be made to determine the effect of the Aurora on the short wavelengths. It may be found that low waves will not penetrate the Aurora band and if so the 180-meter set will be used. MacMillan has found static bad in the arctic, especially during magnetic storms, when the dis- turbances were so violent that the magnetic needle traced like a scribbling pen across its record sheet on a revolving drum. It was also found that the northwest winds, carrying crystals of frost, created electrical impulses in the air, causing a roar in the phones. The explorers expect to pick up entertainment from the broadcasting stations, chiefly, those in the mid-west and far west, because the expedition of 1923-24 did not hear any of the broadcasters- in the Eastern section of the United States after they passed the coast of Newfoundland. After a series of tests conducted at the naval air station at Anacostia, D. C., it was decided that the navy planes accompanying the expedition will carry different radio sets to cover all possible contingencies that may arise. One plane is equipped with the standard navy aircraft spark set. The other has a short-wave transmitter operating between 20 and 60 meters. The navy set is considered superior for communi- cation between the plane and the base ship while the plane is aloft. The short-wave set will probably be able to communicate with the base ship or the outside world in case of a forced landing. The operation of the navy set depends upon a wind- driven generator, which is effective only when the plane is in the air. The short-wave set was found to be ineffective when the plane was in flight, be- cause of interference from the ignition system. The low-wave set which depends upon batteries will be of greatest use when the plane is on the water or on land and when the engine is dead. mitter weighs about 100 pounds. Each trans- 75° 70° UNDER THE AUSPICES OF seeeeeee Route of Ships vocuce Proposed Routes of Exploration Flights °. wo 200 300 400 500 = Sr — STATUTE MILES Drawn in Map Dept of The National Geographic Society THE MACMILLAN ARCTIC EXPEDITION _-™ THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY sseses Route of Planes to Establish Airplane Base = —_— 120° 10° 190° 90° 80° Copyright, The National Geographic Society ! Map showing proposed routes of Captain MacMillan’s expedition

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN “ote tne BL BE BOMBING THE U. S. S. NEW JERSEY FROM THE AIR AUGUST, 1925 How Explosive Are Explosives? Special Technicians Test the Sensitiveness, Stability, Power and Rate of Explosion of the Many Kinds of Explosives by Scientific Methods OME explosives, such as nitroglycerine, substances; while others, such as black powder, are mixtures of several Some explosives are extremely sensitive, while others require a powerful blow to cause explosion. High explosives are violent, exploding at the rate of sev- eral miles per second. These are used when a shat- tering effect is desired, as in the artillery high- explosive shell. Others burn comparatively slowly, producing a pushing rather than a shattering effect. These are the propellanis and are used to fire pro- jectiles from guns. There are various special kinds of explosives for use in mining operations. The so-called “safety explosives” which are used in coal mines are so composed that they give off but little flame on ex- ploding, and thus they reduce the danger of setting fire to coal dust or inflammable gases. The particular purpose for which any explosive may be used is determined by a series of more or less standard tests. These tests include the deter- mination of the sensitiveness of the explosive to mechanical shock and heat; also the stability, power and the velocity of explosion. are single substances. Falling Weights Test Explosives The method usually employed for the determina- tion of the sensitiveness of an explosive is to subject a small amount of it confined between steel surfaces, to a direct blow from a falling weight. The height from which the weight falls is varied until that just sufficient to cause explosion is determined. The sensitiveness of a number of the more common ex- plosives, determined in this manner by Will, is given below. In each case one-tenth of a gram of explo- sive, placed in the impact machine, was struck by a falling weight of about four pounds: By G. A. Rankin Chemist, Chemical Warfare Service Height of Fall Explosive (approximate ) Mercury fulminate ...................... 34 inch Nitroglycerine, dry ...........0004 54 inches Dynamite, Number l.................. 234 inches Dynamite, Number 1, frozen...... 91, ___ inches Blasting gelatin .................. atinnens 434, inches Gelatin dynamite ...............s000000 654 inches Gunpowder, sporting ................. 28 inches Gunpowder, blasting .................. 3 inches Se ee 16 to 26 inches STE “Sinlepiniicninnihinlelnesneunnsinimeiiia 23 to 71 inches II snnckicssitetaligiininseseininiesne 13 to 30 inches a ae 4 inches Guncotton, 15 percent water...... 14 to 37 inches Guncotton, 20 percent watet...... 74 inches Nitrocellulose propellants .......... 12 to 21 inches Explosives somewhat less sensitive than mercury Courtesy of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines THE COMMONEST TEST OF ALL Before the explosion the hole in the lead block was cylindrical. The work done in enlarging the hole can easily be calculated fulminate, such as nitroglycerine, can be employed in considerable quantities if proper precautions are exercised. Nitroglycerine is, however, too sensitive to be transported by common carriers. It is possible, however, to prepare explosives containing nitro- glycerine which are much less sensitive than straight nitroglycerine. This is accomplished by mixing nitroglycerine with some suitable inert or less ex- plosive material such as kieselguhr, or wood pulp and sodium nitrate. Temperature Affects Sensitiveness Physical condition also has a marked influence on the sensitiveness of an explosive. For example, an explosive in the form of a fine powder is much more sensitive than it would be if this powder were compressed into a hard cake. Thus, powdered T.N.T. can readily be exploded with a mercury ful- minate cap; whereas when fused into a hard cake, as in an artillery shell, it requires a much more powerful blow to cause it to explode. This is accomplished by a heavy, so-called, “booster” charge of a somewhat more sensitive explosive than T.N.T., such as tetryl, which, encased in a tube, is imbedded in the T.N.T. Temperature also has a marked effect upon sensi- tiveness. The higher the temperature, the more sensitive the explosive. This is illustrated by the data giving the sensitiveness of dynamite at normal temperature and when frozen, the frozen dynamite being much less sensitive. Thus, it is apparent that the sensitiveness of an explosive is a property that does not necessarily remain constant. If an explo- sive is too sensitive for a particular purpose, it is not a difficult matter to reduce the sensitiveness by the desired amount. In doing this, however, there is always the danger of destroying other desired properties.

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AvuGusT, 1925 An explosive is said to be stable if it does not undergo chemical decomposition or physical change under the conditions of storage to which it may be subjected. An unstable explosive may entirely lose its explosive properties due to chemical changes. Even so sensitive an explosive as mercury fulminate has been known to lose its ability to explode as a result of chemical decomposition. On the other hand, an explosive may become more sensitive or may even explode spontaneously as the result of chemical instability. In addition to chemical stability one has also to consider physical stability. Thus, dynamites con- taining nitroglycerine, which is a liquid, may sweat or exude the nitroglycerine, bringing the sensitive- ness of the explosive up to that of nitroglycerine. Other explosives which contain substances such as ammonium nitrate, which readily take up mois- ture from the atmosphere, may be rendered abso- lutely unfit for use as explosives in a short time. Explosive mixtures made up of powdered materials which are not properly incorporated may become unstable when transported and jarred, due to the segregation of the various constituents. For that reason it is desirable that an explosive be a single chemical substance rather than a mixture. Rate of Detonation Can Be Determined The power of an explosive is the amount of destruction or work which it will accomplish under suitable conditions. The work is accomplished by the sudden liberation of gas at a high temperature. There is a great difference in the rates of explo- sion for different types of explosives; consequently there is a great difference in the nature of the work When ignited, slow ex- plosives such as smokeless powder burn from the surface inward, and the velocity of burning never exceeds several yards per second. The work which is performed by this type of explosive is in the nature of a push and is employed for firing pro- jectiles from guns. If, however, the high explosive, T.N.T., were substituted for smokeless powder to propel a projectile from a gun, the rapidity of the explosion would break the gun before the projectile had barely begun to move. Another method of testing the power of explosives involves firing a charge in a steel bomb provided with gages for measuring the pressure generated. This also enables one to determine the total amount of heat of the explosion and the volume of gas. Still another device is the ballistic pendulum. which they can perform. 2 - Courtesy of the U. 8S. Bureau of Mines DOWN measures the explosive’s power ANOTHER GUN’S THROAT The amount of swing of the ballistic pendulum when one gun is shot at another gun SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ROR ee AG NBL ee ii tems gg yet la ia ye Courtesy of the U. S. Bureau of Mines HOW SENSITIVE? The height from which the hammer of the impact machine falls to cause explosion determines the sensitiveness of the explosive This consists of a heavy mortar suspended from an axis so that the amplitude of its swing can be measured. A charge of explosive is fired from a gun into the mortar and the extent of the swing imparted to the mortar is taken as a measure of power. This method is useful for comparing both low and high explosives. The rate of detonation is one property of explo- sives which can be determined with considerable accuracy. There are two standard methods for this determination. One of these makes use of an elec- trical equipment connected by wires at two or more points in a string of cartridges containing an ex- plosive. When the charge is fired, a recording in- strument measures the time as the explosive wave travels from one wire in the explosive to the next wire. In the other method use is made of the fact that if a detonating fuse is laid on a lead plate and Courtesy of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines 95 an explosion is started simultaneously from both ends, a sharp line will be left on the lead where the two explosive waves meet. It is thus possible by connecting known lengths of two explosives, con- tained in suitable cartridges, and firing them with suitably placed detonators, to determine the relative rates of explosion of the two explosives. Neither is the rate of detonation affected materially by the strength of the detonator or the blow used to initiate Nitro- glycerine, however, is peculiar in this respect. If fired with a detonator of medium strength, the rate of detonation is about a mile and one-half per sec- ond; while, if a powerful detonator is used, the rate is increased to over four miles per second. A term used in connection with high explosives which implies both power and rate of detonation is “brisance.” Thus an explosive which combines great ordinarily detonation. power with a high rate of detonation is said to be very brisant. tained by multiplying the power, as determined by the lead block test, by the velocity of detonation. It may also be determined by detonating cartridges of explosives on copper cylinders. A measure of brisance may be ob- Explosives Tested in Miniature Mines There which determination of the fitness of an explosive for a particular purpose. The United States Bureau of Mines has developed special tests for the permissible are many other tests involve the explosives, that is, for those which may be used in coal mining operations in the United States. For these tests a special gallery is provided. of boiler iron, and is 100 feet long by six feet, six inches in diameter, and is closed at one end with concrete. , holding finely powdered coal dust such as would be found in a mine. A certain percentage of natural gas is also admitted to this gallery in order further to simulate mine conditions. In order to be placed on the list of permissible explosives, ten shots of a weight equivalent to one- half pound of the standard forty-percent dynamite fired into eight percent of gas must cause no ex- plosion; ten shots of the same weight fired into four percent of gas with the addition of twenty pounds of coal dust must cause no explosion; and ten shots of the same weight fired into forty pounds of coal dust must cause no explosion. Thus, it will be seen that there are certain stand- ard tests to which explosives are subjected, such as sensitiveness, stability, brisance and velocity. It is made Shelves are provided in this gallery for TESTING “SAFETY” EXPLOSIVES Coal dust and inflammable gas in the artificial mine must not ignite when safety explosives are fired in it

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN e AvucustT, 1925 id Affairs—II By H. E. Howe Courtesy of Dr. C. H. Herty Weereees|N ADVANTAGE in world position has many times been lost because of the diligence of another nation in chemical research. We are indebted to necessi- ties growing out of the Napoleonic wars for at least two important chemical develop- ments. Qne of these is the production of sugar from beets. At a time when France was thoroughly blockaded and importation became next to an im- possibility, the only source of sugar known was the cane of the tropical countries. The beets available did not contain more than five or six percent of sugar and this was accompanied by so many foreign materials as greatly to reduce its purity. No doubt the first sugar from beets was far from satisfactory, but it was very much better than no sugar. The English sugar traders became alarmed and offered the French scientists sums large for those days to suspend their research, but all propositions were refused. Wars Stimulate Research From that time the beet sugar industry has been developed net only in Europe but in the United States and constitutes one of the best examples of what can be achieved through scientific selection. Today whole crops of beets run well above 14 per- cent of sugar with a purity that is quite satisfactory. Concurrently the scientific methods for the extraction of the sugar from the beet, the purification of the sugar, the use of the waste beet pulp, and the utiliza- tion of other waste products has gone forward. Whereas it once required beets from one acre to produce 300 pounds of commercial sugar, we now obtain 3,600 pounds from the same area. Before the World War the production of beet sugar in the world had come to exceed that of cane sugar by several percent, and from an importer of sugar France had become an exporter. A few years ago France exported as much as 250,000 tons annually. Another invention resulting from the Napoleonic wars was LeBlanc soda. Previously the important source of sodium carbonate was the native sesqui- carbonate of Egypt, Africa, and South America. The normal carbonate or soda ash is prepared from this natural compound by continued boiling. Soda ash or the normal sodiuia carbonate is one of the most important basic heavy chemicals. It is used in many industries and processes and any nation must be assured a satisfactory supply. Since the blockade prevented France from importing with any degree of certainty, LeBlanc was called upon to find a way out. The process which he developed is operating almost unchanged to this day, although it could not have persisted but for the market developed for hydrochloric acid, an important by-product of the process. The LeBlanc process begins with common salt and another heavy chemical, sulphuric acid. The process consists essentially of three parts. The first, which is the conversion of sodium chloride into sodium sulphate by the action of sulphuric acid, really in- volves two chemical reactions, both of which produce hydrochloric acid as a by-product. The next step is the decomposition of the sodium sulphate or salt cake by means of calcium carbonate or limestone and coal at a high temperature, whereby a crude mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide known as “black ash” is obtained. The extraction of this and the purification of the sodium carbonate it contains constitute the third and last step in the process. This process has since been displaced to a large extent by the Solvay or ammonia soda process, which is based upon the fact that the bicarbonate of am- monia is decomposed by a strong solution of sodium chloride or salt. In practice, salt brine is first saturated with ammonia gas. The cooled ammonium chloride liquid is then charged with carbon dioxide under moderate pressure in carbonating towers. ; THE BEGINNING OF SUGAR Negro women gathering the cane in Cuba From the solution the bicarbonate of soda separates out, leaving the more soluble ammonium chloride in solution from which the ammonia is recovered. The bicarbonate of soda is calcined and converted into the normal sodium carbonate or soda ash. The siege of Paris gave us oleomargarine, which no doubt was a poor substitute for butter at the time, though none the less welcome. Since then margarine has become an important item of com- merce. Dairy countries such as Holland and Den- mark and agricultural states like those of our middle west consume margarine in quantity. With the in- troduction of nutritious coconut oil into occidental diets, margarine is now made of wholesome vegetable oils, churned in milk in plants which are models of cleanliness. The one point of weakness in the opinion of dietitians has been the absence of that unidentified, unisolated accessory food substance called fat-soluble vitamin A. This objection is largely overcome in the case of the highest grade margarines by the admixture of butter which also imparts color. Importance of Supporting a Nation’s Scientists From the research now in progress we may ex- pect the perfection of methods for preparing con- centrated vitamins on a commercial scale which will make it possible to add them to otherwise satis- factory foods. This type of research is of utmost importance, not simply because of its relation to this one type of food but to others which, thanks to chemistry, can be prepared from staple raw ma- terials. As a result of research, milk can be dried without affecting its physiological characteristics. This dry milk is soluble and may be stored for months. If the fat is first removed, the dry skim milk will keep indefinitely in tins. Neutral refined coconut fat can also be kept without developing rancidity for a long time. Since these two basic materials can be made into milk or cream, with practically any de- sired percentage of fat, where and when needed, they offer great advantages in transportation and storage, with a guarantee of cleanliness and quality dificult to obtain in many quarters of the earth, particularly in the tropics. This type of food is wholesome and nutritious and satisfactory for adults. When chemical and biological research make it })0s- sible to add the fat-soluble vitamin, a food in every way equal to ordinary milk will be made available. Nations also lose a world advantage when their Ph

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AUGUST, 1925 scientists are compelled to go elsewhere for support in developing their discoveries to the commercial production stage. It was due to such causes that Germany had the opportunity to develop the dye- stuff industry and that the great Brunner-Mond establishment grew up in England. An effort to ruin England’s West Indian trade by granting sugar bounties in France, Belgium, Germany and Russia forced England into industries using the cheap sugar of the continent. Sugar-containing foods remained an item of English trade even after she again took up refining following the abolishment of the bounties in 1899, America Breaks Sicily’s Corner in Sulphur Japan has for years enjoyed a monopoly of cam- phor which has been a distinct advantage to that country. Camphor is used extensively in the arts, notably for the production of celluloid, motion pic- ture films and the like, and in international relations cannot be ignored. This advantage to Japan has been partly lost of late through the demonstration that camphor trees can be grown in other countries, through the remarkable synthesis of camphor in the laboratory, and through research which has been successful in producing certain substitutes for cam- phor. It is said that for some industrial purposes none of these materials give quite the same result as the native camphor; but there is no reason to doubt that the cause for any difference will be found and the need completely met. Like soda ash, sulphur is basic in the chemical industry, particularly in those phases essential for the sinews of war. Sulphur is the raw material for making sulphuric acid. The prosperity of a nation in peace and its strength in war can be almost measured by its production and consumption of sulphuric acid, and it has even been said that the civilization of a country can be so estimated. For- merly, sulphur-bearing ores were brought in quantity to this country, partly because of the value of the ore, but largely for the sulphur content. In other parts of the country research has shown how sulphur fumes from the ore roaster can be turned into sul- phuric acid production. The Sicilian corner on sulphur, managed by an English syndicate, has been entirely broken through the success of chemical engineering in America. Sulphur formerly came almost entirely from Sicily, where it occurred in concentration in various rock formations from which it was melted in crude kilns. This sulphur was seldom pure and was unsatisfac- tory for some uses. It was known that a thousand feet below the surface in Louisiana and Texas de- posits of sulphur were to be found. Several attempts to reach them had only resulted in a loss of life and Photo by International SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN investment. Then came a chemical engineer who believed that he could successfully work within those narrow temperature limits where sulphur changes from an easy running liquid to a viscous sticky mass. His plan was to force superheated water and steam down to the deposit where the sulphur would melt and, under the pressure, flow to the surface. When the experimental plant was ready and the first hot water turned into the pipes it was but a few moments until a stream of liquid sulphur more than 99 percent pure made its appearance at the surface. Presently the operation was stopped and it was weeks before it could be made to function again. However, it had been demonstrated that the plan was sound, and the engineer persisted. Today, America has the commanding position with respect to sulphur. Indeed, but for an arrangement with the English syndicate regarding price, the entire Sicilian industry would have been destroyed and the people left without a means for earning their liveli- hood. It is interesting to note that when the report of how pure sulphur was being pumped from the ground in America was first made to the English sulphur syndicate, the man who had the temerity to pass along such an exaggerated Yankee story was dismissed. Canada enjoys a certain power through her great resources of nickel and asbestos. She has also relied upon her wood pulp, a product of chemical industry, to back her claims in international councils. Efforts to Break Potash Monopoly Few nations have been so favored as has Germany through the control of the natural resources made valuable by chemistry. This is particularly true of the great potash beds which, however, were not dis- covered until long after the deposits had been worked for ordinary salt. With the utilization of rock-salt deposits in various localities, a time came when the price of salt fell and the Stassfurt works ceased to yield their former large revenue to the Prussian Government. With a view to making them more valuable, it was decided to sink the shaft further in the hope that rock salt might be discovered. At a depth of 1,800 feet a stratum of rock salt was found, but in reaching it the shaft passed through a heavy deposit of refuse salts which were considered worthless. Chemical analysis showed these salts to consist largely of magnesium-potassium chloride, potassium chloride alone, and a mixture of these compounds. The Dutch scholar Van’t Hoff demonstrated that these materials could be separated by crystallization, and today these refuse salts are the world’s chief source of supply of potashes and potassium salts. An effort is being made in the United States as a Courtesy Union Sulphur Company PRIMITIVE SALT INDUSTRY OF CHINA Bags of salt loaded on native boats and carried to the coast or wherever the salt is needed 97 result of war activity to break this potash monopoly. While a part of the deposit is no longer German property, the deposit as a whole is very important in international affairs and might at any time give those nations controlling it a commanding position. The natural lakes of Nebraska, the alunite ores of Utah, and the greensands of New Jersey are sources of potash but at present prices cannot compete with the low mining and purification costs abroad. The fact that the greensands of New Jersey yield as a by-product the material for sand lime brick in an area where construction creates a. demand for this building material may well prove a saving factor in that instance. The greatest deposits worked in America are those at Searles Lake, California, where research similar to that conducted by Van’t Hoff on German deposits but of a different and higher order of complexity, has shown that the mixed deposit of that lake can be commercially separated. Potash of high purity is being produced, with quantities of borax among the by-products. We are also told that Texas may at any time be able to announce extensive potash deposits. Italy is supporting research in the hope of recovering great quantities of potash from her mineral leucite. now being New Explosives Change World Relations The changes in world relations due to new ex- plosives will be obvious. Many world policies were changed with the completion of the Panama Canal, which would have been impossible but for the work of medicine and sanitation combined with chemical explosives. Our most recent example, TNT, was responsible for the rapid reduction of those Belgian cities which were protected with concrete fortifica- tions. Concrete, itself made by a chemical process, might not have been so easily crumbled but for the research on toluol. Toluol is used as a basic material in certain types of dyes. When it is nitrated, two mono-nitro-toluols are formed simultaneously. One of these nitro-toluols was desired for dyes; for the other there was no known use. Research was therefore under- taken with two objects in view; larger proportion of the mono-nitro-toluol which was wanted for dyes, and second, to discover a use for the other variety. Little progress was made, and sud- denly the problem disappeared from the scientific literature. After Liege it became known that upon further nitration it had been found that tri-nitro-toluol could be formed from that mono-nitro variety undesirable for dye uses. Consequently efforts were bent toward increasing rather than decreasing the toluol which could be transformed into this high explosive. mono- first, to produce a A SULPHUR BIN This looks like a lumber pile but in reality it is sulphur marked by the lumber frames

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98 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AuGusT, 1925 Dr. Albert Neuburger ~ Daylight, Twilight and Mist in the Movies sealN THIS country the glass studio is a Ne | most effective part of the equipment ‘al used in motion picture photography. “em; Almost every “movie fan” knows that it is because of the warm climate and sunny skies of California that a large part of the motion picture industry of the country has in recent years become concentrated in Hollywood; and the long, warm days and strong light of California, to- gether with the glass studio, form an ideal combina- tion for the production of artistic motion picture films. By means of the glass studio, daylight is so diffused that shadows are eliminated and there is an even illumination. In order to control the light, curtains ate so arranged that any degree of illumi- nation may be obtained. By Edward Ellington When daylight fails him, the producer merely switches on as many lights as he sees fit. In fact, in the average studio, electric lamps are employed the greater part of the time because of the ease with which they can be arranged and controlled so as to produce those wonderful lighting effects which play such an important part in the best films of the day. We rather pride ourselves on this phase of our moving picture production, and justly so; but occasionally something comes from abroad which shows us that we have not a monopoly of artistic lighting effects. Some of the recent developments in Germany are noteworthy. On these pages we present two photographs which have come to us from that country and which we think are rather re- markable in their effective lighting. The Germans have ai enormous fund of material which may be used in the production of motion pic- ture films in the great epic the “Nibelungenlied.” We in this country are familiar, of course, with Wagner’s massive cycle, “The Ring of the Nibelung”; and we know that an effective production of the opera calls for a truly stupendous combination of music, dramatic action and advanced stagecraft. It is for the purpose of producing motion picture films of the Wagnerian-opera type and of giving such themes the proper background, and the neces- sary accessory lighting equipment that a German firm of motion picture producers, the Decla-Bioscop Company, has had built a huge “daylight hall,” as they call it, in which it is possible to produce films which require special lighting effects. One of these

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AUGUST, 1925 films, for example, recently produced by this firm, was “Kriemhild’s Revenge.” In this “daylight hall” it is possible to produce the delicate shades of twi- light and the blackness of night, the soft, mystic light pouring through the rose window of a great Cathedral and the last rays of twilight slanting through the forest. The “daylight hall” is very large, and has no roof. Mountains and woods have been built into the hall, and a gallery runs around the side and back of the building. In the gallery are stationed various spot and flood lights. sible to take photographs during the twilight hours By means of these lights it is pos- and to bring certain groups into prominence by Just as in night scenes with which we are familiar, where darkness and the sharp lights of street lanterns, or of shop-windows or of the lamps of a motor car are photographed effectively, in this hall the soft shades of twilight are filmed, and the slow, gradual and harmoniously changing shadows of approaching night are shown. Certainly the producer of some of our modern moving picture films has some pretty difficult prob- lems to work out, and his is an art which requires not only ingenuity but certain technical knowledge Imagine, for example, a film representing lighting them effectively. as well. Dr. Albert Neuburger SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN a horseback rider speeding across the Scottish moor while mists are rising to envelop him and his horse. While it might not be difficult to reproduce an effect resembling fog, the difficulty would come in the attempt to effect a mist thick enough to completely hide the bodies of horse and rider, but which would leave the head and shoulders of the rider sufficiently visible to be photographed. Imagine, too, that this rider is on his way to a castle which finally appears on the horizon shimmering in the northern lights. Anyone who has ever had the breath-taking joy of witnessing the northern lights could not but won- der how a mere photographer could anywhere nearly approximate the almost uncanny electric glow, the first coming of the pale lights, quivering and filling the wide spaces of the sky with uncertain shimmer. But the prosaic photographer has found a way to produce the effect of these natural phenomena to a degree, at least. The mist keeping to the ground, for example, is produced by the use of vapors which condense to mists in ordinary temperature; and the condensation is quickened by some artificial assist- ance, such as powerful refrigeration. For the production of imitation northern lights, dozens of giant searchlights, each operated by sev- eral men, are stationed in the galleries of the roofless FILMING A CATHEDRAL SCENE IN THE OPEN AIR 99 hall. The searchlights are directed in such a manner that their rays are directed back and forth over the background of the scenery. Each of upon a stand, which may be made to tremble and shake slightly. They are moved without interruption in a certain rhythm, turned on, or off, and'kept in a trembling movement constantly, the while; a violet them is set light plays over the flickering, shimmering ensemble. In this way is the illusion of the magnificent north ern lights produced. As a matter of fact, the scenic effects called for in the successful production of Wa perhaps more easily obtained by modern motion equipment than by the methods of modern stagecraft; neTian opera are picture most advanced and most of us know how crude and almost ridiculous some of the most sublime moments of Wagnerian opera may become without the proper scenic accompaniment. For example, imagine the passing of the gods into Valhalla over the rainbow bridge when the rainbow bridge is obviously, as it so often is with small operatic companies touring the country, of crude “Die construction. The great operas, “Siegfried, Walkiire,” all offer untapped source of material for beautiful and edu- cational moving picture films. “Gotterdammerung,” an almost A remarkable example of German photography showing mystic dawn in the cathedral. Note how the lighted candles shine clearly against the light of early dawn streaming through the windows

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100 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN BRITAIN’S FLEET AvuGusT, 1925 Lerr: British battleship Royal Oak showing “bulge” or “blister” protection (1924 Photograph Cribb) reproduced from “Jane’s Fighting Ships 1924 (Sampson, Low, Marston & Com- pany, Ltd., London). Ricut: British battleship Revenge in action against German forts on the Belgian coast in 1915. (The ship is equipped with bulges or blisters and, in order to give greater range to her guns, is shown heeled over by emptying the bulge on one side while the opposite bulge is left full of oil or water.) (From “The Dover Patrol 1915-1917” by Admiral Sir Reginald Bacon—George H. Doran Company) Another Side of the 5-5-3 Argument An Article by Captain Dudley W. Knox, U.S.N. (Ret.) Reproduced as It Comes to Us salURSUING our policy of giving both sides of a controversy of general in- terest, we publish herewith the argu- ments of one of the chief proponents of the theory that our battleship fleet is considerably below the strength allowed by the 5-5-3 treaty. In a subsequent issue Mr. J. Bernard Walker, our naval expert, will answer the various points in detail. Captain Knox’s letter and article follow.—Editor. Washington, D. C., April 29, 1925. Editor, Scientific American, 233 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Dear Sir: I note an article in the current issue of your paper by Mr. J. Bernard Walker entitled “Last Word on the 5-5-3 Ratio.” It is my opinion that the article seriously misrepresents the question of the relative strength between the battleship fleets of the United States and Great Britain. There are important omissions of fact and some of the facts stated appear to be incorrectly inter- preted. The general effect created by the article is that the modernization of certain of our older battle- ships recently authorized by Congressional action is not necessary. Mr. Walker advocates no reduction in the appropriation asked for for “repair work” but the modernization authorized is so comprehensive as to be beyond the scope of repair work. To fail to complete the author- ized modernization would in my opinion, result in a serious impairment of the sea power of this country regardless of any comparison with the British fleet, since other fleets are to be con- sidered also. J therefore deem the article harm- ful to the maritime interests of this country and suggest that you give me the opportunity of re- plying to it in the next issue of your paper. Very sincerely, Dupiey W. Knox, Captain, U. S. N. (Ret.) That the American battleship fleet is substantially stronger than the British battleship fleet is the prin- cipal contention of an article by Mr. J. Bernard Walker in the May issue of the Scientific American. In conclusion, presumably on account of such alleged superiority, he limits his recommendation of what should be done to our battleships to “repair work.” It should be understood that the last Congress, following the recommendations of the Secretary of the Navy, and the President, authorized extensive “modernization” of six of our oldest battleships. Nine million dollars, one half of the total amount ultimately necessary, was appropriated for this specific purpose. Alterations Will Increase Fighting Power The modernization plan is much beyond the scope of anything which could be characterized as “re- pairs.” It amounts to extensive alteration of design. The deck is to be armored as a protection against aerial bombs and the plunging effect of modern long range gunfire. The underwater hull is to be pro- tected against damage from mines, torpedoes, and bombs, by fitting “bulges” or “blisters,” which as their name indicates, are structures built on outside the old hull. They project ten feet or more beyond the original underwater side of the ship and extend longitudinally through most of her length. Another large item of modernization is the con- version of boilers and bunkers so that oil fuel may be used instead of coal. This will increase not only the maximum distance which the vessel can steam, but also her dependability for sustained high speed —a very important feature in battle. All of these large alterations of design are in- tended to increase the fighting power of the ships— to bring our fleet more nearly to a 5-5-3 ratio in battleship strength which it is now below. Naval officers and civilian officials recommended increasing the elevation limits of our battleship guns to give them greater range as an additional item of modern- ization necessary to the same end. The British gov- ernment considered that this would be a violation of the Naval Treaty. French and Japanese authorities supported the American view as to treaty interpreta- tion. President Coolidge maintained that we had 2 legal right to elevate the guns but settled the con- troversy by striking the gun elevation item out of the modernization program on the ground of national economy. Mr. Walker has revived the gun elevation con- troversy after it had been settled for several months. There would be little need of my further perpetuat- ing it herein, except that his argument to prove that we did not require greater gun elevations furnishes equally good reasons against the other items of modernization. If our fleet is already above the standing of five in the 5-5-3 ratio, if we already “have the whip hand,” as he claims, there is little reason in our spending $18,000,000 for the purpose of attaining that ratio, in the face of a firmly held national policy of economy. The three principal fallacies in Mr. Walker’s exposition of the relative strength of the American and British battleship forces pertain to questions of (1) maximum firing range, (2) speed, and (3) tactics. In order to demonstrate these fallacies the more clearly I will refer to his own tabular state- ments, reproduced herein (tables on the following page) from his original article. With regard to the question of maximum firing ranges eight of the British capital ships listed have the ability to shoot about 5,000 yards farther than stated in the table. No such correction can be applied to any of the American battleships. The discrepancy arises from the fact that the five ships of the Royal Sovereign class, together with the Repulse, Renown, and Warspite, are equipped with “bulges” or “blisters.” As explained above, these queer structures are for the primary purpose of protection against underwater damage from mines, torpedoes and bombs. But they offer an important additional advantage of permitting the ship to be easily heeled over a few degrees, by pumping the oil or water, which they normally contain, from the blister on one side while leaving the other side filled. The manifest effect of this upon guns pointed outboard is to increase the angle between their axis and the horizontal, and thus permit them to shoot farther.

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AUGUST, 1925

CAPITAL SHIPS OF THE BRITISH NAVY Turret Guns |& 2 4 5 Name of Shi ge ies get & g fe ame or: up e&8 es gE ¥ £2 =e a: §aq|felsea] £5 | EE] & ASS] RO [SS.E] cm nr as Royal Sovereign.| 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 21.6] 25,750 Royal Oak...... 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 21.5} 25,750 Revenge........| 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 21.9) 25,750 Resolution . . 15 42 | 20 | 24,300} 21.6} 25,750 Ramilies........| 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 21.5) 25,750 Malaya......... 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 25.0} 27,500 WOME. . 6. coe 15 42 | 20 | 24.300) 25.0) 27,500 Baernem......... 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 25.0) 27,500 a Elizabeth.| 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 25.0) 27,500 Warspite........ 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 25.0) 27,500 eens rarer 15 42 | 30 | 30,300) 31.5} 41,200 Renown......... 15 42 | 20 | 24,300} 31.5} 26,500 Repulse......... 15 42 | 20 | 24,300) 31.0) 26,500 [> ee 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800) 29.0) 28,500 Benbow. . ....| 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800) 21.5) 25,000 Emperor of India} 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800) 21.5) 25,000 Iron Duke....... 13.5 5 | 20 | 23,800) 21.6; 25,000 Marlborough. ...} 13.5 5 | 20 | 23,800) 21.6) 25,000 Thunderer....... 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800) 21. |*22,500 King George.....} 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800] 21.4; *23,000 Bah 62:3 ...| 13.5 | 45 | 20 | 23,800) 21.1) *23,000 Centurion...... is. 5 | 20 | 23,800) 21.9) *23,000 Grand Total... . .. .980,450 *These four to be scrapped when Nelson and Rodney are completed, when total will be 558,950, against United States 525,850; the extra ton- nage allowed to offset greater age of British Fleet.

Republished from our May issue This is not an ideal way of gaining increased range, but it is much better than no way. The disadvan- tages are a temporary reduction in speed and im- paired armor protection on account of lifting the lower edge of the armor belt close to or above the water-line. The latter disadvantage disappears when the enemy guns cannot reach. Special appliances for quickly flooding or emptying compartments, such as are commonly employed in submarines, may make it possible to promptly rectify the disadvantages whenever circumstances so demand. As early as 1915 the British used this general method of increas- ing the range of battleship guns while in action against German ports on the coast of Belgium. In addition to the eight British ships named as being already able to shoot about 5,000 yards farther than shown in the table, we must count a similar increase for four more in the near future, since according to British handbooks the Admiralty in- tends to fit all ships of the Queen Elizabeth class with “bulges.” This will make a total of twelve ships of 5,000 yards greater maximum range than stated. But even this is not the whole story of British gun range in relation to the need of our moderniza- tion to prevent falling farther behind in the theoret- ical 5-5-3 ratio. The British are now building two battleships stronger than anything afloat. Each will carry nine 16-inch guns, which in all probability will outrange anything that we have. These new ships begun in 1922 should be completed next year and will replace the four old British battleships standing at the bottom of the list. Oil-burning Ships Almost a Necessity The average maximum range of their fleet after the above mentioned changes will be about 28,600 yards, as compared with 24,600 yards for our fleet at present. The addition of “blisters” to six of our ships should enable the American fleet to average about 26,000 yards, leaving the British an advantage of about 2,500 yards in fleet range. This gunnery aspect of the comparison is also greatly affected by the aggregate weight of the projectiles fired in each broadside, which gives an index of the damage to be expected from hits. 315,000 pounds, and American 262,000 pounds. Let us now pass to a consideration of speed, an These figures are British SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN element of great importance in getting guns to a position from which they can reach an enemy. From this viewpoint oil-burning ships have become almost a necessity. Large fleet battles last a long time and require much high-speed steaming. In coal-burning ships boiler grates, furnaces, and uptakes, become foul and firemen become tired, sometimes cutting down the maximum speed several knots. On the other hand, oil-burning ships can maintain their maximum paper speed without difficulty. We now have six coal-burning battleships and the British four. All of these carry a small amount of oil for emergency use—the British ships twice as much as ours. But in about a year the British coal burners will be scrapped and replaced by the Rodney and Nelson, when their entire fleet will be on an oil-burning basis. Their slowest battleships already have a battle advantage of about one knot over ours, which will become greater when their new ships come out. Unless we modernize, this disparity will be greater and the difficulty of a large proportion of our ships getting into action will be increased. This matter of speed also enters very vitally into the final question to be discussed—that of tactics. It will be noted that the entire American fleet closely approximates to twenty-one knots maximum speed, whereas nearly half of the British ships are capable of doing twenty-five knots. Four of their ships are rated around thirty knots—a very high speed for capital ships. This gives to the British fleet a great tactical advantage readily convertible into terms of range and gun-power. Mr. Walker’s conception of a fleet battle being fought in two parallel columns is more than 100 years out of date. For centuries such was the prae- tice rigidly required by official fighting instructions. It took a Nelson to explode the old fallacies and to demonstrate the crushing effect of applying afloat the well-known land practice of concentrating su- perior forces against a part of the hostile formation. Since Nelson’s day that has been the great cardinal object in naval tactics. By a successful concentra- tion on the Russian flank at the battle of Tsushima

“ * Pe eee 648 eae “memarrnen moe =... | Guatene”” eo” 7 ote a omuemtater a “ bi tees tS 648 te ed F eee ened mad — : Ks 6tonae Vv “_ CHESTER une oF tomaunin ~~~ aeeoe~——————__ yee aia \ a ow soomtaae €y~%__~ % y mene? Ne Le s aw VARMOUTN, _ —— FaLmouTn = | © mesaacen \ | \ neeee_, oon Se Zw FRILORKH OER GROSy Jue ky Ms “yy @ poseng, P fowvenes: Ly ay «7 / satbemeaeg/ THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND a onnson te. THE MAIN ACTION “y FROM 6.35 10 6.45PM. 645 = -/ SCALE OF VARDS 200 4000 6000 G00 10000 ‘ao 7 2 5 6 8 "scat oF muds

Redrawn from British ‘Official History of the War’’ (Longmans, Green & Company DIAGRAM OF A FAMOUS BATTLE The upper group of ships represents the British Grand Fleet and the lower group, the German High Seas Fleet. The time corresponds to the completion of Admiral Jellicoe’s initial deployment to attain a position on the flank of the slower German fleet rather than fight a “parallel column” battle. Note the position of the British fast capital ships (headed by Inflexible and Lion) which have separated from their main ficet to reach the flanking position more quickly 101

CAPITAL SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES Turret Guns ls j | - 2 Se isee' - © gS2i ws lgsh) &3 | 2) ss Ss mal & 3 | es] 2 ASS |R0 Res) o | ae] AS West Virginia 16 | 45 | 30 | 34,500) 21.2) 32,600 Colorado... . . 16 | 45 | 30 | 34,500] 21.4; 32,600 Maryland.......| 16 | 45 | 30 | 34,500) 21.1) 32,600 California... ... 14 50 } 30 | 35,500) 21.7; 32,300 Tennessee.......| 14 | 50 | 30 | 35,700) 21.4) 32,300 Idaho...........} 14 | 50] 15 | 24,000} 21.3) 32,000 New Mexico....| 14 50 | 15 | 24,000} 21.3} 32,000 Mississippi......] 14 | 50] 15 | 24,000} 21.1) 32,000 Arkansas... .. 12 | 50] 15 | 24,350} 21.1) 26,000 Wyoming. . 12 | 50} 15 | 23,500) 21 2) 26,000 Arizona....... 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000) 21.0) 31,400 Pennsylvania... 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000; 21 i 31.400 Oklahoma... .. . 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000) 20.6} 27,500 Nevada........ 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000) 20.5) 27,500 New York......} 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000) 21 .5| 27,000 Texas..........] 14 | 45] 15 | 21,000) 21.0; 27,000 Florida....... 12 | 45 | 35 | 22,000) 22.1) 21,825 ere 12 | 45 | 15 | 21,600) 21.0) 21,825 ° | | oe Ee eee ee . 525,850

Republished from our May. issue the Japanese fleet quickly annihilated with small losses to themselves the theoretically stronger Rus- sian fleet. One can search the diagrams of the battle of Jutland in vain for any reasonable approximation to a parallel column position as between the two main fleets. From the beginning to the end of this long battle Admiral Jellicoe’s principal tactical object was to get on the German flank, where all of his broadsides could bear on the few German ships which could reply from the end of their line. Jellicoe reached this advantageous position three times but failed to reap the advantage of it prin- cipally on account of the misty weather. It is true that a slow fleet may seek to bring on a parallel fight—but only as a measure of self defense to prevent the fast fleet from reaching the coveted flank position. In the case under discussion the nine fast British ships have such a great superiority of speed that they should normally be able to gain the American flank in spite of anything the latter fleet can do. Naturally they would choose the par- ticular flank nearest to the remaining eleven slower British ships. Thus, one American flank would be subjected to the concentrated fire of the entire British fleet, while the other flank would be out of range. Such a tactical concentration would inevi- tably mean an early sweeping and British victory. Logic of Modernizing Apparent To sum up. The approved modernization of the American fleet can serve only to reduce the existing superiority of the British fleet—a superiority which otherwise would be even greater when British modernization now in hand bas been finished. With the modernization now in progress for both fleets completed the British will then have a superiority of about 2,500 yards in average range, twenty per- cent in weight of broadside fire, and a very marked tactical advantage incident to speed. The logic of modernizing our ships is apparent. The writer is not one of those who believes that war is probable between this country and Great Britain. He does believe, however, in the principle of equality of naval power with our cousins, which principle was formally subseribed to at the Wash- ington Conference. Such equality seems more likely to preserve peace between the two great leaders of the world than any substantial difference in sea strength, since equality means a greater mutual re- spect for each other’s interests in the trade rivalries which seem certain to continue.

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L102 r? See abe, id eel b Edad cnt NMEA. DA at aoe SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AucustT, 1925 Fe pRRer noe me The Delaware River Bridge Connecting Philadelphia and Camden by the World’s Longest Suspension Bridge By J. Bernard Walker mame HE century-old idea of building a bridge | across the Delaware River between Philadelphia and Camden is at last be- ing realized, for in 1919 this greatly needed construction was initiated by the appointment of the Delaware River Bridge Joint Commission, which selected Ralph Modjeski as the Chairman of a Board of Engineers and Chief Engineer. Not only will the new bridge, whose opening is set for July 4, 1926, include the longest span of any of the great suspension bridges, but it will possess novel features which will make it distinctive among them. The main towers, whose topmost point will be 385 feet above the water, are built entirely of massive, plate-steel box sections. They are of great simplicity in outline; taper very gradually down to the level of the floor of the bridge; and then sweep out in easy curves to meet the steel foundation plates upon which they rest. They are stiffened in the transverse direction also by box-section reinforce- ments on both sides of the legs, which taper in a similar manner and spread out to provide the neces- sary width of base for stability; also they assist in giving a pleasing architectural effect to the tower. The two legs are tied together with four heavy trussed transverse members, one above and one below the roadway, and one at the base and another at the summit of the tower. There are also three panels of heavy box-section trussing in the upper half of the tower and a single panel below the floor level. [he foundation of each tower consists of a large rectangular steel and weod caisson sunk to rock and CLAMPING THE BANDS ON THE CABLE diter the mass of wire has been squeezed into a circular form, massive cast-steel bands are fitted around the cable. The loups of the vertical suspender cables which carry the floor rest in the two grooves shown in the photograph filled in with concrete. Above the caissons, the foundations are carried up in concrete, with granite facing. The steel towers are built of a special silicon steel, having an ultimate strength of 80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch, and a minimum yield point of 45,000 pounds per square inch. For the machin- ing of the sections of the towers, it was necessary to build two large rotary planers—the largest ever each of which has a head 108 inches The erection constructed in diameter, with 108 cutting teeth. of each tower was done by means of a special creeper- traveler, consisting of an A-frame, with braced stiff legs and a single 60-foot steel derrick boom. The traveler was supported on I-beams bolted to the bracing of the tower and was raised to six different positions in carrying the tower to its full height of 347 feet above the masonry. Design Marked by Great Simplicity The total length of the bridge, from anchorage to anchorage, is 2,253 feet 4 inches, consisting of 1,750 feet in the main span and 751 feet 8 inches in each of the shore spans. Including the approaches, the total length of the bridge from Franklin Square, Philadelphia, to Penn and Sixth Streets, Camden, New Jersey, is 9,500 feet, or but little short of two miles. The whole design is marked by great simplicity and concentration, and special attention has been paid to the architectural features, particularly in the two anchorages and the approaches. The anchorages themselves are of concrete, with granite facing, and circular cross-section. This is upon them are carved the coats-of-arms of the two cities and the two States that are jointly building the bridge. The anchorage foundations were constructed as open-dredged, reinforced concrete caissons sunk to rock. For each anchorage two rectangular caissons and twelve circular caissons were used. The rectan- gular caissons for the Camden anchorage were 40 feet by 140 feet in plan and 102 feet deep; those for the Philadelphia anchorage were 40 feet by 125 feet in plan and 55 feet deep. These caissons are believed to be the largest ones of their type ever constructed. They perform the heavy duty of transmitting to the bed rock the thrust from the two main. cables. The twelve circular caissons are divided into two groups at each anchorage. Eight caissons, each 20 feet in diameter, support the mass of masonry which by its weight serves to anchor the cables. The remaining four caissons are 16 feet in diameter and are em- ployed, two on each side of the anchorage, to support masonry towers that form part of the anchorage and in which are located stairways, elevators and utility spaces. The most distinctive feature of the bridge is the cables, for, instead of using four cables, as in the great suspension bridges over the East River, New York, Mr. Modjeski has used only two cables, which necessarily are of great size. Each cable is 30 inches in diameter, as compared with 1514 inches in the Brooklyn Bridge, 18°4 inches in the Williamsburg Bridge and 20%, inches in the Manhattan Bridge. In the Delaware River Bridge, the cables are composed of 18,666 strands of galvanized wire as against 5,296 SQUEEZING THE 18,666 STRANDS OF THE CABLE INTO CIRCULAR FORM Here we see the very interesting work of squeezing the mas: of wires of the cable into the done by a jointed frame which is placed next the ropes and an outer rigid frame with hydraulic jacks which squeeze the cable to shape a _

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——w AUGUST, 1925 ‘acific and Atlantic UNDERSIDE OF BRIDGE LOOKING TOWARDS: PHILADELPHIA This shows the deep transverse floor beams, which are attached to and supported by the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN GENERAL VIEW OF THE SPAN LOOKING NORTHWEST Total length anchorage to anchorage 2.253 feet 4 inches of which 1,750 feet are in the main 103 stiffening truss. The diagonal members form the wind bracing and prevent lateral distortion + span. The floor is being attached to the suspenders. The unbalanced loading causes cables to rise at center. When floor was completed it came to a parabolic curve of the floor due to side winds in the Brooklyn Bridge, 7,696 in the Williamsburg Bridge and 9,472 strands in the Manhattan Bridge. These suspension cables have an ultimate strength of 215,000 pounds to the square inch, the respective ultimate strength for the other bridges being 177,000 for the Brooklyn Bridge, and 210,000 pounds each for the Williamsburg and Manhattan Bridges. The weight of the Delaware River Bridge cables is 6,770 tons; for the Brooklyn Bridge, 3,272 tons, for the Williamsburg Bridge, 4,344 tons and 6,108 tons for the Manhattan Bridge. The strength of each of these cables is such that it could easily lift the Leviathan, weighing 54,000 tons, clear of the water. In laying the cables, the wire was carried across the river on traveling sheaves or trolleys fastened to an endless cable. One end of the wire from a reel was fastened to a shoe at the anchorage and a loop passed over the trolley wheel. As the endless cable was set in motion, the loop was carried to the opposite shore, where it passed over an anchor shoe This process was repeated until the whole mass of wires had been laid parallel with each other. They were then formed up into a cable of true circular cross section by means of a squeezing frame which encircled the cable and, by means of hydraulic jacks, forced it into shape. It was then in the anchorage. encircled by steel bands or straps to hold it to the circular form. Then upon the cable were placed, at intervals corresponding to the panel points in the stiffening truss of the roadway below, a series of heavy cast-steel saddles, each formed with a pair of grooves in which the suspender cables were seated. The cables are fastened to the anchorages by two sets of 122 steel eye-bars in each anchorage. These eye-bars spread out fanwise and are carried down into the concrete of the anchorage, where they are fastened to double-web steel plate girders, 4014 feet long and 41% feet deep, there being nine girders to each of the four groups of eye-bar chains. Cost Will Run to High Figures The floor or roadway of the bridge is 125 feet, 6 inches in over-all width. Fifty-seven feet of the width of the floor is given over to vehicular traffic, and outside the roadway, adjoining the trusses, are tracks for two trolley lines. The floor beams are extended on each side beyond the trusses as canti- levers, and these cantilevers carry the tracks for two rapid transit lines. The vertical posts of the trusses are given lateral stiffening by two steel gussets, one on each side of each post and formed integrally with it, and those on the outside of the trusses are extended out to give a cantilever support for the two ten-foot wide foot-walks, one on each side of the bridge. Our view showing the erection of the floor of the bridge illustrates the need of a stiffening truss te prevent deformation of the cables by the concentrated loads of the trains as they pass over the bridge. It will be noticed that the cables are depressed by the load of the floor extending out from the towers, but that they have been raised and flattened out in the Later, on the completion of the floor, the cables resumed their true catenary curve. The completed truss, by its rigidity, will hold them permanertly to this curve. The cost of the whole undertaking will run to very high figures. center, where they are not loaded. By the time the bridge is declared open, it will have cost about $37,000,000. Of course, the bridge itself will not cost any figure such as this. In fact the main bridge will cost about $15,630,000. But to this must be added the Philadelphia plaza, and approach, which will cost over $5,000,000, and the Camden approach, over $3,500,000. ing cost seems moderate in connection with these figures, being $1,500,000; and the administrative cost will be $350,000. The total construction cost of the bridge will amount to $25,924,003. Then $11,287,- 166 has been required for real estate. The engineer be ta ne — 80 C oC Chorde— - a a a a 123 -6-—— — —-—-— Width of floor, 125 feet 6 inches out to out. Width of central runway 57 feet. CROSSECTION OF FLOOR Provision also for two lines of trolley cars between the trusses and two lines of rapid transit trains carried on cantilever extensions of the floor beams. Cantilever extensions at the top of the posts of the trusses provide for two ten-foot foot-walks

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104 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 Ceoutieny Of D.sence Museum, London George Stephenson's locomotive which hauled the first pas- senger train in the history of the world, September 27, 1825 EARLY AND LATE TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVES Top view shows modern Canadian express passenger loco- motive which drew the Prince of Wales’ train across Canada mers “Puffing Billy,” the first locomotive to run with smooth wheels on smooth rails. It is now a national relic The Centenary of the Railroad Railroads in 1925 Will Celebrate Their One Hundredth Birthday HE year 1925 marks one hundred years As the perfec- tion of steam traction was perhaps the of railroad operation. greatest factor in bringing about our modern civilization, this one-hundredth anniversary will be duly celebrated. The anniver- sary is particularly significant to the people of the North American continent; for in this vast Jand progress and settlement only began to make rapid Through steam transportation more than any other thing it headway after the advent of railways. was that tue United States and Canada in some seventy-five years conquered the vastness of a wilder- ness continent, created homes for 120 million people, and became possessed of a general condition of com- fort and luxury equalled by no other nation on earth. Eighi Miles an Hour in 1825 In England, on September 27, 1825, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world, was opened for trafhc, and its centenary is to be celebrated by a special Congress in London, of the International Railway Association, and by appropriate proceedings in Steckton and other places This road was the first built under parliamentary powers, conveying passengers as well as coal and goods. Upon its line George Stephen- son’s “Locomotive Number 1” was the first steam- driven engine definitely introduced to work “Public trafhe.” It was a great day when on September 27, 1825, this historic engine, preceded by a rider on horse- back carrying a flag, hauled at a speed of eight miles an hour a train containing six wagons of coal, one passenger coach (the world’s first, a mere box on wheels) and twenty-one coal trucks fitted with seats for the occasion. It is said that 450 passengers rode upon the train. “Locomotive Number 1” did good work. It did not break down—a rather frequent happening to engines those days. While 1925 will be publicly accepted as marking on the line. By Francis Dickie The First Practical Railroad If one were asked to name the agents which above all others have contributed to the development of civilization during the past hundred years, he would be fairly safe in naming those two great means of transportation, the locomotive and the steamship. It is now some eighteen years since New York City celebrated the centenary of Fulton’s Clermont, the first steamship to be put into regular commercial service; and in the present year, in England, will be celebrated the centenary of the opening, on September 27, 1825, of the Stockton- Darlington Railway, the first to be placed in public service for the carriage of passengers and freight. Earlier steam- boats than that of Fulton had been built, both in Europe and America; but to him will ever be the credit for having placed the first successful passenger-carrying steamboat in service, running to schedule over a definite route. So, also, in the matter of the railroad, there were earlier locomotives than those of Stephenson. Each contributed something to the art; but it was George Stephenson who had the genius to select the best elements from previous locomotives, apply others which were the offspring of his own mechanical genius, and bring the locomo- tive to the point at which it was a com- mercial success. one hundred years of railway operation, there will be a number of celebrations in the immediately following years throughout North America. Con- flicting claims have appeared as to what constitutes the first railway. The oldest road in Massachusetts operated by steam is the Boston and Lowell, which was chartered in 1830. In 1926 Boston will cele- brate the centennial of the “Granite Railway,” built to transport granite by gravity and horse haulage a distance of four miles. The company which operated the first steam locomotive in America, the Delaware and Hudson, held its centennial in 1923. In point of time the Pennsylvania Railroad is the oldest chartered railroad in North America by vir- tue of its charter being granted on March 21, 1823. It did not, however, start to operate until September 20, 1832. Colonel John Stevens is the father of the Pennsylvania, as he is the father of the Ameri- can railroad in general. He was born in New York City in 1749. In 1787, having seen the imperfect steamboat of John Fitch plying on the Delaware, he became interested in steam propulsion, and experi- mented on this for the next 30 years. Opposition and Doubt Met With In 1825, Stevens constructed a locomotive with multi-tubular boiler which he operated for several years on a circular track upon his estate. It carried half a dozen passengers at the rate of twelve miles an hour. This is believed to have been the first locomotive in America driven by steam upon a track. Stevens died in 1838 at the age of 89 years. Stevens’ fight to get the Pennsylvania road started is a long and interesting story, too long, unfortu- nately, for relation here. It is almost the same as that of the starting of every railroad upon the North American continent. He was faced with doubting people. Funds were hard to get. The operating canal companies fought such threatening opposition. Yet Stevens succeeded, and by 1832, forty miles of line were in operation between Columbia and Mine Ridge. An illuminating example of the disbelief in the new steam traction is illustrated in a very old and scarce print showing the test of speed between a horsedrawn vehicle on an operating line of iron : oo

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a ee AvuGusT, 1925 track and the first steam-drawn car. A mechanical genius named Peter Cooper had completed an engine known as “Tom Thumb.” After months of endeavor he finally, on August 28, 1830, got a trial of it on the Baltimore and Ohio road against the regular horse-drawn vehicle. The engine quickly demon- strated its superior speed and power, and the new mode of transportation was accepted. In years of operation the Baltimore and Ohio is the oldest on this continent, and will celebrate its centennial in 1927. The progress made in improving railroad equip- ment kept pace with the rapid expansion of the lines of track, which, after 1830, began radiating farther in every direction across North America. Marvelous advances were made in ever better pas- senger, sleeping and freight cars, and in locomotives. To illustrate all the phases of increasing comfort and utility which have come about in connection with passenger and sleeping coaches would alone require a thick book. But, as every traveled man and woman of today, who has reached the age of forty, has personally had the opportunity of making this comparison, this phase need not be further dwelt upon. Bitterly Attacked by Politicians In this article special attention has been given to the most important side of railroading: the improv- ing of the steam locomotive. And as the technical details of construction cannot be incorporated in this limited space, and are, moreover, not particu- larly interesting to the average reader, it has been attempted here to more clearly convey the progress that has been made by carefully chosen illustrations of engines, ranging from 1813 to 1923. While a steam railroad was first operated in 1825, engines driven by this power date back as far as 1804. Between 1804 and 1825, the following in- ventors had been experimenting in England, France, and Germany: Watt, Cugnot, Trevithick (the actual inventor of the locomotive) Hedley, Blackett, Blen- kinsop, Hackworth, and Stephenson. The last-named built a satisfactory working engine in 1812, named “Blucher.” Trevithick’s engine traveled on rails at Merthyr Tydvil in 1804. But it was only after 1830 that the steam-driven engine can be said to have been an important factor in passenger and freight traffic. FIRST C ANADIAN THROUGH TRAIN TO PACIFIC SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ) wee Bags Sere iy 105 OS oe ta erie THE DAY OF WOOD-BURNERS AND BEARDS One of the first passenger locomotives in Canada, starting on its maiden trip on May 16, 1853, on the Ontario, Simcoe and Huron Railroad In the United States, railroads made great headway between 1830 and 1853. It was not until 1845 that the sparsely populated, and therefore poorer region of Eastern Canada, began developing railways. Herewith is shown the first passenger engine and the second locomotive in Ontario, belonging to the On- tario, Simcoe and Huron Railroad Union Company. li first ran out of Toronto on May 16, 1853, as far as Aurora, Ontario. The building of Canada’s first transcontinental. which was completed in 1885, was perhaps the most important factor in developing ever better rolling stock to meet the demands of 3,000 miles of travel. The story of the building of this transcontinental, the Canadian Pacific Railway, is—like the story of Colonel John Stevens starting the Pennsylvania—one of tremendous difficulties overcome; those placed by nature and by man. Never was a project more bit- terly attacked by politicians. The builders of the This most interesting photograph shows the arrival at Port Arthur of the first through train from the Atlantic to the Pacific on June 30, 1886 Canadian Pacific risked a hundred million dollars to throw a line of steel across 3,000 miles of almost unpopulated territory. This was the first trans- continental in the world, and, for a quarter of a cen- tury, until the completion of the trans-Siberian, the longest line of track operated by one company. To the building of the Canadian Pacific’s 3,000 miles of line, linking the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and the following branches throughout the country, is largely due Canada’s great expansion in forty years from a sparsely populated wilderness to a prosperous nation, one of the greatest producers of wheat, lum- ber and minerals in the world. Civilization and prosperity follow the locomotive as well as the flag! Railways Promote Prosperity The demands of so huge a transportation system naturally brought the mechanical staff continually new problems. Some of the finest mechanical genius in the world was gathered together to meet these problems. And as a result of their labors, the Canadian Pacific eventually began building their own locomotives. From the many types evolved, two striking examples are herewith shown by photo- graphs; the second and the last locomotives of the company, representing 35 years of evolution. The engine shown at the top of the page represents the second locomotive in Ontario, and engine number 2300 (top of page 104), represents the last word in passenger locomotive construction up to 1923. This is known as “The Prince of Wales” Engine. In 1919 it drew the Prince’s special train across Canada. This, in brief, is the history of railroad progress, one particularly timely.in the year which marks the hundredth anniversary of steam railroad traction. By the aid of locomotives and trains of cars mankind in that century of time has built up a civilization, which, in comfort, and in rapidity of transportation over long distances, so far outstrips all previous civilizations as to permit of no basis of comparison. In particular, the railway has been the chief factor in making North America what it is today: the rich- est country on earth. Through the expansion brought about by the iron trail, the United States and Canada in a century of time have become nations equal in civilization to the hundred-times more ancient nations of Europe.

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106 LONG-TAILED SHREW DIGGING IN In seeking shelter from an enemy the shrew can dig almost as rapidly as a mole SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SHORT-TAILED SHREW CAPTURING A GRASSHOPPER Grasshoppers, other insects and young mice are delicate bits of food for the shrew AvuGusST, 1925 ae s - a ’ : 1 Mammals Almost as Small as Insects Habits and Characteristics of the Tiny Shrew, a Creature Which Is Little Known Because of Its Semi-subterranean Habits 4 fT WAS a surprise to the observers who first penetrated the American tropics to find a spider large enough to capture some birds and these birds smaller than In the temperate the eastern and western continents many giant insects. both there are representatives of a peculiar group or family numbering among its species perhaps the tiniest of all the creatures that suckle their young. These little mammals are almost as small as some zones ol of our common insects. The great sand-hill hornet measures in length of body fully two inches: the giant Aeschna dragon-fly has more than four inches of head, a stout thorax and slender abdomen and the larger sphinx moths with their wide, strong wings present an even greater bulk. But the common long-tailed shrew, Sorex personatus, rarely reaches a total of over three inches with a tail an inch and a half in length. The girth of the little creature, with its soft, dense, seal-like fur removed, is less than that of the thorax of the dragon-fly No Visible Creatures so Seldom Seen Astonishment at iis is the first impression felt by the novice who takes a dead long- tailed shrew in hand. The delicate-appearing little thing seems altogether too insignificant to be of the same general physiological make-up as the lion, the Kodiak bear, the walrus or the elephant. No visible creatures, except the moles, are so little known, so seldom seen as the shrews. The moles can be traced in part by their subterranean pathways, but the shrews, though tunnelers also, hardly have a definite objective. It is not size alone that makes the shrews strangers to most people, even to the woodsman and the farmer. Hidden ways, a re- semblance to surroundings and its general mouse- like aspect account for the shrew being so seldom specifically noted. Now and then the casual observer living in the rural districts will take a shrew from the mouse diminutive size By S. F. Aaron Drawings by the Author Ten Million Years Ago Just as man is believed by science to have evolved from a m-nkey that lived several millions of years ago, so it is believed that man, together with the anthropoid apes, the living monkeys, and the lemurs, have in turn as their com- mon ancestors one of the little shrews, resembling, perhaps, a species of tree shrew that is found in Africa. The tiny shrew, then, is a cousin to man. There was a time near the middle of the Age of Reptiles, ten or more millions of years ago, when the tiny insect-eating ancestor of all the mammals of our day, a creature not greatly different from the shrew, was forced to win its precarious way in a world dominated by the giant dinosaurs. “This,” says W. D. Matthew, “brings before the mind’s eye broad vistas of low-lying, well-watered woodland with ever alert, furry forms taking such refuge as the trees or shrubbery or occasional hiding holes could offer, in the midst of stalking terrors such as the world never saw before nor since.” trap and thoughtlessly identify it as a young mouse. He fails to observe the absence of the bright, round, prominent rodent eyes, the lobed ears or to note the long, tapering snout, the far underhung mouth and the soft coat of fur. When these characteristics come to his attention he sees at once the difference and, having consulted the books, recognizes the unfa- miliar shrew. I have shown dead shrews to more than a dozen woodsmen and farmers and not one of them could say that he had seen the creature before, though no doubt some of them had; in traps, or in the jaws of cats who will not eat it because of the rank, musky odor. This strong odor of the shrew, together with its semi-subterranean habits, protects it and accounts for its numbers in every locality. It is a lover of “the dark, making long tunnels beneath fallen tree trunks, about the roots of old stumps, often around the bases of living trees growing in loose soil, be- neath flat surface stones and bits of fallen, heavy bark, seeking also the burrows of wood mice and venturing to forage more broadly under the carpet of woodland leaves. Even the larger, short-tailed shrew, known also to naturalists as the mole shrew, is protected from its natural enemies by its odor and its habit of keeping warily out of sight. Tiny But Fearless The mole shrew, Blarina brevicauda, is four and a half and five inches in length with a tail only an inch long. In bulk, the animal is nearly double the size of its long-tailed relative. There are several forms of this creature so closely allied as to con- stitute geographic varieties. The color and size are not: specific and the number of teeth also vary in individuals, though formerly this was believed to be a specific character more constant, and therefore. important. Southern varieties of the mole shrew are smaller in size—a climatic rule that holds good not only with the shrew but with other varieties of four-footed animals. Most of the interest concerning the shrews is centered in their savagery and indomitable bravery : in the latter respect they compare with the fearless little humming-bird among the avian fauna, except that the shrews are not so well endowed for eluding the attacks of enemies. Nevertheless, they seem even more recklessly fearless. The humming-bird pos- sesses more native wit; it is cognizant of actual dangers, while the shrews, relying far too much upon their deterrent odors, have very little fear and thus they become the prey of shrikes, hawks and espe- cially the nocturnal owls, these undiscriminating

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AuGuUST, 1925 killers possessing no epicurean tendencies. No doubt, weasels, minks, skunks and opossums kill and devour shrews, though no visual evidence of their doing so has been found. It is not uncommon, in the wilder sections, to see weasels with captured moles and mice. I doubt if the more fastidious bear, bobcat and raccoon ever touch the ill-smelling shrews, although they may destroy them as mice, discover the difference later, and leave them to be devoured by birds of prey. Shrews are largely carnivorous, feeding on the developmental stages of terrestrial insects and on those that hibernate near the ground, including to a great extent the grubs of beetles, crickets, cut-worms, crane-flies and cicadas. Shrews follow the runways and burrows of mice and with a savagery exceeding the weasels they attack and kill the rightful inmates, feeding also upon their young. The small rodents seem to regard these marauders much as the rabbit and squirrel do the weasel and mink, though occa- sionally in defense of the young the larger mice will oppose the shrew, but with what success can only be conjectured. When roomily caged together a white- footed mouse easily avoided a long-tailed shrew for a time and then as easily shook it off when the latter managed to corner the mouse and seize it. Doctor Edward W. Nelson tells of both species of shrews killing mice and similar incidents are mentioned by other reliable observers. Attracted to Anything Edible Vegetable food, such as small seeds and larger grains of various kinds are also eaten by shrews; they seem to be attracted to anything edible. Mouse traps baited with cheese are sure to get them in their runways or about buildings, especially cellars, which they often enter in winter. They do not seem to possess the vitality of mice, for a spring trap kills them instantly, always without a prolonged struggle. They are attracted to granaries and in such situa- tions especially, they confer a distinct benefit because of their destruction of insects and young mice, the grain they eat being negligible. The boldness of shrews, even when they are not cornered and they have a chance to escape, is phe- nomenal; their poor sight may in part account for this. Sound seems to alarm them most; a jar or footfall sends them to cover, no doubt an hereditary READY FOR BATTLE A long-tailed shrew about to attack a white-footed mouse. The shrew follows the burrows of mice and kills them with savagery experience from fear of being stepped on by a larger animal. But when there is food near by, or their anger has been aroused by capture, even though they may be somewhat injured but not disabled, they will refuse to retreat and seem almost to court attack, Our well-fed old cat, a great mouser and an eager killer of cornered and savage rats, occasionally brings in a shrew, which he merely catches as a sort of duty, though he rarely injures the little creatures. By this means I have been able to examine shrews in a manner otherwise hardly possible. It has been SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SHORT-TAILED SHREW Upper: What the field or pine mouse may see coming along the burrow. Lower: Under side of head, showing position of mouth and incisor teeth no trouble to take them from the cat after he got past his kittenhood; they are so distasteful to him that he will drop them and walk off. One short- tailed fellow the cat left by our porch steps; he had played with it, picked it up in his mouth now and then, but had instantly shaken it loose when it bit him. In this case ,too, the shrew was doubtless protected by his odor. This captive may have come to the conclusion that it had defeated the cat finally; it was so chesty that it actually came out from under the lower step and when I poked my foot at it, gently, it very promptly showed fight, leaving its tiny teeth marks on the edge of the sole, nor would it retreat farther. An- other, discarded on the cement walk, ran about rapidly, seeking some shelter; it stopped every little while to try to dig itself in and finally did so in the sod under the edge of the walk, almost as rapidly as a mole would have done. This also was a short- tailed shrew; its forefeet are broader than those of the long-tailed and a little better adapted for digging. The smaller animal digs rapidly, but only in the soft mold of woodland soil. It would have little opportunity for escape from pursuers if chased into the open. Food Keeps Up Body Temperature Active throughout the year the shrews hunt under the snow and generally remain in deeper burrows, or under thick piles of wind-driven leaves when the ground freezes. Sometimes, in the eager search for food, they find openings through the snow to the surface and they venture forth, their dark fur against the white offering an easy mark for birds of prey. Then they may lose their way and fail to find an- other means of going below. At such times becom- ing quite frantic with hunger the diminutive explorer ‘ gets utterly bold, dashing here and there with a speed that seems incredible considering its size. It leaps at the observer’s feet and at other black objects, as though these are holes that lead to safety. Find- 107 ing no food it grows gradually slower in its move- ments and within a short time, possibly an hour, it stops, stiffens and as suddenly dies, the body heat when denied frequent sustenance rapidly diminish- ing, and ihe wintry cold putting in its work. This fact, which has been observed more than once, has led to the notion that shrews must have food very frequently or starve, but this is proved a fallacy by the fact that in warmer weather, when a fatal lowering of the body temperature does not take place, they can abstain from food for many hours and remain active. They cannot, however. go without food for any extended length of time. By caging a gravid female shrew I was once able to study the nesting habits of the short-tailed species The food supplied—bits of cheese, cake, bread, smal! pieces of raw beef, some freshly killed and live in- sects, a little cooked oatmeal—was al! sampled, the little creature evidently preferring flesh, although no doubt this kind was an entirely new and un familiar item of food. The Shrew’s Underground Home Burrows were made through and throvgh the leaf mold in the cage. Only once did I witness. the digging and then the bits of bark, .pebbies, sticks and dirt flew into the air with a force that carried them beyond further bother. Deeper in the hole, | think, the surplus earth was packed on every side, as is practiced by chip-munks, gophers, spermophiles and even the woodchuck. In about the center of the cage, near the surface of the leaf mold and beneath a piece of bark the shallow nest was made—a rounded depression about two inches wide and as deep. It was made smooth inside by the compression of the material, but was not lined nor bedded, though soft grasses and moss had been placed near. Before the young appeared the expectant little mother was injured by preventing her escape when food was being put into the cage and she had to be killed, so that I have not seen tiny new-born shrews. The nests of shrews may often be found in such sheltered places as will insure their safety from natural enemies. They are commonly made of grass leaves, dried but somewhat flexible and they are matted together in a more or less compact mass not unlike the small nests of the meadow and jumping LONG-TAILED SHREW Upper: Back of déad specimen resembles a grotesquely stuffed animal. Lower: Side view. Note insectivere snout and underhung jau mice. Shrews are said to have several litters of young during the season of mild temperature. Their habits may best be studied in large cages with natural conditions. They must be supplied with abundant and varied food, for they have enormous appetites in proportion to their diminutive bodies. They will be found to be more active at night than during daylight and it will be observed that they depend far more upon their keen noses in going about and detecting food than upon their evidently inferior and perhaps nearly sightless eyes. One may well marvel at his resourcefulness and courage.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AvucusT, 1925 From the Scrap-book of Science—Came ~ A SUBSTITUTE FOR OLI Injants suffering from rickets being treated with ultra The rays are equivalent to artificial sunlight and their P & A Photos THE WORLD’S LARGEST AIRPLANE CARRIER The launching of the U. S. S. Saratoga at Camden, New Jersey, was a notable occasion. Com- menced as a battle cruiser, she was completed as an airplane carrier. The vessel, is 874 feet in length over-all, has a beam of 104 feet, and will be driven by the most powerful propelling ma- chinery ever placed in a warship HEATING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS The copper wire leads heat from the lamp to the stage of the microscope, se that objects which require to be heated while being observed can be examined at leisure. The mi- crophotograph at the left shows © Henry Mitte- crystals of ferric chloride (chlo- OTING Tr : > | : vide of tron) formed end photo . TESTING MATERIALS FOR HEAT INSULATORS graphed on a heated microscope Dr. F. L. Fink, of the Bureau of Standards, conducting an investigation on the transfer of heas through insulating mate- stage like that shown above. Many rial. An extremely complicated electrical apparatus is set up at the bureau in its efforts to determine this. The apparatus salts and other chemical com- at the right is used to conduct tests on material such as celotex, shown in the photograph. It consists of a hot plate in the pounds can be examined in this center in which heat is generated. On both sides of this hot plate samples are inserted to be tested. The two external manner while they are _ being plates are hot water plates, so constructed that water at constant temperatures can flow through them. In the operation melted or crystallized several plates are compressed and the reading can be made from the potentiometer

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TUT! AvcusT, 1925 amera Shots of Scientific Happenings FOR OLD SOL reated with ultra-violet rays in a London hospital. nlight and their use has been amazingly successful HUGE SUBMARINE This beautifully stream-lined craft is the Navy Submarine, V-2. photographed just before her launching at the Portsmouth. Vew Hampshire, Navy Yard. Vote the flattened stern and the horizontal rudder which serves to direct the ship upward or downward. The conning tower, bridge and superstructure is seen at the center of the ship ‘ Wide World A FLIVVER AIRPLANE Germany is making great strides in the manufacture of these aerial flivvers. The above photograph shows Prince Heinrich of Prussia, brother of the former Kaiser, inspecting the miniature motor in one of the small planes that recently took part in a competition in Germany. Prince Heinrich was one of the judges of the competition SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ‘)' Vie oy ~ te ~ “= NEW CAMERA TAKES 3200 PICTURES A SECOND The camera shown above, invented by Mr. C. Francis Jenkins of Washington, is reported to have this tremendous speed. At the right is a series of photographs of a djving girl made so rapidly that scarcely any motion is shown. Below is Mr. Jen- kins’ original motion picture machine, the prototype of the machines now used

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110 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 q f\ | 1 W Fish from dents in Algeria thought it worth while to pay cable tolls on reports that “small crabs, fish shellfish” had found in water from artesian wells in the Northern Sahara. Some skeptical readers may have passed this by as of a piece with sea serpent fiction. and been Soeeeeesnettes Yet the facts were not only as the despatches stated, but they have been well known to scientific men for more than sixty years—in short, ever since the French bored their first wells in the desert country south of the Atlas Mountains. They tell the story, not of Algeria alone but of half a continent and of hundreds of thousands of years of geologic change. For those who can understand his language the little Haplochromis desfontainesii (this happens to be the pet name of one of the best known of the fish species found) who pops out of an Algerian well when he is not expected is more eloquent than any political spellbinder. This phenomenon is not confined to Algeria. At Point Hueneme, near San Buenaventura, California, an artesian well was drilled on the beach about five feet above high tide mark to a depth of 143 feet, whereupon young trout about two inches long began In eyes, coloring with to be thrown up by the thousand. and they those found in the nearest stream, several miles dis- tant. Santa Clara valley, other characteristics were identical Similar instances have been reported from the near San Jose, California, and in d’Arveyres in Southwestern France. Underground Fishes Most of resembling the blind or even eyeless species found in such places as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, but the these fish from artesian wells, whether in the Sahara or elsewhere, is that they are almost always exactly the same as surface fish of the corresponding species. The only reported exception to this rule occurred near San Antonio, Texas, where, according to Professor J. T. Patterson of the University of Texas, a blind catfish But as some us doubtless think of underground fish as remarkable fact about was thrown up by an artesian well. surface catfish, like their namesakes, “are nocturnal in habit,” living “in crevices, under rocks, stumps and such,” this discovery did not prove that Pro- fessor Patterson had found a distinct underground species. The testimony of French who have studied the Sahara fish is overwhelming on this the eyes are well formed and scientists point. In every case rf Artesian Wells in the Sahara By Robert L. Duffus the colors are as bright as those of the fish in surface waters. Since every living organism tends to adapt itself to its environment, this can mean but one thing—that the subterranean life in the waters which feed the artesian wells has not been long out of touch with the surface. So, the question arises as to how the fish penetrate to these depths and how they manage to live there. To find an answer it is necessary to have in mind the nature and geological history of the Sahara. The hinterland of Algeria extends from the Atlas Mountains (which are geologically a European range cut off by the Mediterranean) over a region larger than France and nearly all desert. According to Dr. Jacques Pellegrin, the leading authority on the fishes of Northern Africa, the Sahara was once much wetter than it is now, and several water courses, now dried up, emptied into the Niger and Lake Tchad. The Arabs have a tradition that the desert, as it now is, was well wooded and watered when they first entered it in the Seventh Century and that it did not dry up until the Thirteenth Century. A number of fantastic theories have received credence. A Scotchman, Donald McKenzie, pro- posed in 1875 to cut a twelve-mile channel from the Atlantic Ocean to the coast southeast of the Canary Islands, and so allow the sea, as he believed, to form a vast inland lake which would completely Courtesy of Dr. E. W. Gudger of the American Museum of Natura! History FISH FOUND IN THE SAHARA Barbus figuensis, hemichromis bimaculatus, zilapia zilli revolutionize the climate of Northern Africa. An- other project has been to cut a channel from the Gulf of Gabes, in Eastern Tunis, which would also, it was believed, restore an ancient Saharan sea. Scientists are almost as cautious about these possi- bilities as they are about the canals on Mars, but they admit that the salt marshes at the base of the Atlas Mountains are survivors of much larger bodies of water. In certain parts of the desert there are dried-up water courses to which the Arabs give the name of “oued,” which means either “river” or “a_ place where water has been.” Two of these, the Oued Mia and the Oued Irgharghar, come together near Tugurt to form the Oued Rir, and it is precisely at this point that the Arab well diggers, and later the French, have been most successful in finding water. The natural conclusion is that the waters of the Sahara, sinking beneath the sand as the climate grew increasingly arid, still follow the old courses. The fish life, once very numerous, must have found its quarters more and more constricted and been compelled to exist, not only in surface pools and the few remaining streams, but in many cases in the underground waters. An Honorable and Dangerous Profession It is unlikely that these waters, in the Sahara, are real underground rivers. They probably seep through the loose sand for the most part, forming pools and channels only when they encounter rocky caves and basins. The fish are, therefore, unable to move about freely over great distances. The fact that this must be the case, and the additional fact that they have still remained identical with species as remote as the Nile and the River Jordan is an- other indication that the drying up of the Sahara and the destruction of the old river systems occurred in comparatively recent times. Although there are traces of ancient Roman wells in the Sahara, the greater part of the well digging has been done by the Arabs and the French. The French, with their modern machinery, are responsi- ble for such blossoming as the desert has done in the past sixty years. The romance of these wells. both ancient and modern, is a story by itself. One of the most honorable as well as the most dangerous of Arab professions in days gone by was that of well digger. Some of the wells went down as far as 160 feet, piercing a layer of hard pan, under which water was generally found. The first French observers were inclined to think

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\AUGUST, 1925 that the fish, crabs and mollusks brought up from these wells spent their whole lives underground. More recently they have been of the opinion that in some way this subterranean life maintained com- munication with the surface. Dr. Edouard Blanc noticed that fish from the wells were generally reduced to skin and bone when found, and believed that the minute algae, small crustaceans and other organic debris found in the water was not enough to keep them alive indefinitely. He, therefore, reached the conclusion that the wells were breeding places, where the young fish grew up, safe from the dangers of the open pools. In the older wells pools and channels of con- siderable size are probably formed, so that there is plenty of room for fish of small size to develop un- molested. This would account for the fact that most of the fish taken from the wells are very small. As they grew larger, according to Dr. Blanc’s hypothesis, they probably found their way to the surface pools by way of connecting channels. This theory is satisfactory in most instances, although it leaves some puzzling facts unexplained. For example, it does not clear up the presence of fish in wells which have no surface pools, nor does it account for their existence in water too warm for long survival. Hueneme, California, came from water at a tem- perature of sixty degrees, in which they could not possibly have lived for-any length of time. But the greater mystery is the identity of the species found in the Sahara wells with those not only in Central African rivers and lakes, but even in Palestine. A certain fish belonging to the Chromids—so called because of their vivid coloring The small trout thrown up at Point SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN —is found in the Sea of Galilee as well as in Al- geria. Its distinguishing trait, in environments now completely dissimilar, is its habit of carrying its eggs in its mouth while they are hatching out. Other species found in the Algerian wells are ex- actly the same, not only as the fish of Palestine, but as those found in the waters of the Congo, the Niger, the Senegal, the Nile, Lake Tchad and Lake Tanganyika. The Saharan Fish a Traveler This brings us to some peculiar facts about the distribution of Northern and Central African fish, and perhaps to a solution of the problem. Out of 101 known species in the Nile forty-six are found in the Niger, the Senegal and the Gambia, and most of these latter are also found in Lake Tchad. One- fourth of the species found in Lake Victoria are also found in the Nile, and four-fifths of those found in Lake Rudolph are found in the Nile. Putting it another way, of sixty-six species of fish found in Lake Tchad or its tributaries forty-five are found in the Nile, thirty-eight in the Senegal, twenty-four in the Congo and seven in the Zambezi. There is only one explanation of such facts as these. They indi- cate that within a comparatively recent time fish were able to pass from Lake Tchad to and from the rivers named. Where the Saharan fish are also found in the waters of the Lake Tchad basin, of the Nile and of Palestine a similar conclusion naturally follows. Not long ago, as geologists measure time, the Chromids of the Sahara were able to make their way by an all-fresh-water route to Palestine. The reason for his present isolation is to be found 111 in gigantic changes in the earth’s structure occurring along a line running, roughly, from Lake Nyasa, through Lakes Albert and Rudolph to the Red Sea. the Dead Sea, and the Sea of Galilee. This is what is known as “The Great Rift Valley.” The Rift valley was formed by a double line of faults, or cracks in the earth’s crust, which allowed a block in the middle to drop. This great change probably began in the Eocene period and continued during the ages that followed. Its effect, as in the plateau region which once occupied the present sit« of Lake Victoria Nyanza, was to “behead” a number of rivers which had once flowed out. There is good geological and zoological authority for the opinion that before this catastrophe there was a connection between the rivers of Palestine and those of Central Africa. At that time, very likely, terranean did not come as far east as they do at present, and a Palestinian river may easily have flowed into the Nile. Another theory is that a river flowed from Palestine, along the trough of what is now the Red Sea, and formed part of the Central African river system. This supposition is supported by the fact that some species are found both in the River Jordan and in the Central African rivers, but not in the lower Nile, below the cataracts. Lake Tchad, Dr. Pellegrin thinks, was a sort of clearing house for the fish of the Nile, the Niger. the Senegal, and probably also of the region which is now the Sahara. It is a little difficult to form an accurate picture of Northern Africa in this period. Yet we can certainly think of it as much wetter than the present-day Africa, and with a much more com- plicated and profuse array of rivers and lakes, the waters of the Medi-

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Arthur T. Merrick WAS THIS VAST DESERT ONCE A WELL-WATERED PLAIN? The little fish (haplochromis desfontainesii) was recently discovered in the artesian wells located at Tuggurt

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AuGusT, 1925 The Mountains Light a City Seattle’s Ambitious River Power Development geammeg | meet the pressing demand of its grow- | ing population and industries for more electrical power, the city of Seattle has recently completed and is now using ~ the first unit of the Skagit River proj- This is the beginning of what eventually will be one of the largest power developments in the ect. world, producing 690,000 horsepower at an estimated cost of $57,000,000.. It will produce twenty-five percent more power than Muscle Shoals. AT THE POWER HOUSE 4 65,000 volt single-phase transformer By Thomas R. Horner, F.R.G.S. The Skagit River is about 125 miles long with a drainage basin of 3,500 square miles. It rises in the Canadian Cascades, flows south into Washington, and turning westerly enters Puget Sound near Mount Vernon. The entire valley tributary to the power plant is very rugged and mountainous. The watershed above the plant covers 1,200 square miles with an annual precipitation of 70 inches in the valley and 150 inches in the mountains. Owing to the mountain climate and to the dense forests, this is but little affected by evaporation; hence the Skagit, considering the size of its catchment basin, is one of the largest rivers in America. The average yearly stream flow of 4,547 cubic feet a second at the plant has been known to decrease to 800 cubic feet per second when checked by freezing in winter, and to swell to over 50,000 feet per second by the melting of glaciers and snowdrifts in summer. To Produce 600,000 Horsepower The unit now in operation is located 105 miles north of Seattle, and is reached by a railroad 26 miles long, built by the city to connect with the Great Northern at Rockpoxt. Two parallel concrete- lined tunnels, 11,000 feet 'ong and 2014 feet in diameter, will carry the water from the diversion dam at Gorge Creek, four miles w the north, to the penstocks. One of these tunnels is completed and in use and has a capacity of 3,000 feet per second at a velocity of nine feet a second. At their southern end they are tapped by six steel-lined penstocks which carry the water to the turbines. The surge tanks are 1,100 feet from the plant. The turbines are vertical and have the large capacity of 37,500 horsepower each under a normal head of no less than 375 feet with ninety-three percent efficiency. The Gorge Creek unit, however, is but one of the three contemplated in the entire plan. As the Skagit is a torrential stream, it is obvious that its flow will have to be regulated to insure against low water in winter. This will be accomplished by constructing a storage dam in the river at the mouth of Ruby Creek, ten miles north of Gorge Creek. This dam will be 480 feet high with a 1,100-foot crest at 1,600 feet above sea. It will impound a lake 23 GORGE PLANT Division point of tunnel to penstocks

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AUGUST, 1925 SITE OF RUBY DAM Where the Skagit River will be dammed miles long, extending a mile beyond the Canadian border, with a capacity of 1,300,000 acre feet. The dam will require 860,000 cubic yards of con- crete; but as it will be built in solid rock at the beginning of the deep and narrow Skagit Gorge, its construction cost is expected to be comparatively low. Above the dam the valley widens out thus making an ideal storage basin. Mr. J. W. Ross, Seattle’s superintendent of lighting, estimates that the water stored will be sufficient to insure the mini- mum flow of 4,547 feet per second for 150 days during the driest seagons. The work above described will be completed in the near future. But the entire project to develop 600,000 horsepower will require still further con- From the Ruby Creek storage dam a tunnel three and one-quarter miles long will run to the Ruby Creek power plant just above the mouth of Stetattle Creek. This tunnel will be 28 feet in diameter, carrying 6,000 cubic feet of water at ten feet a second velocity. It will have steel track racks and headgates, six generators, nineteen transformers and switching equipment. The vertical turbines will each generate 55,000 horsepower under a maximum head of 720 feet. The normal head will be 650 feet. As the storage basin is drained off this head may decrease to a minimum of 470 feet. Twelve years of accurate measurements by the United States Geodetic Survey show the average flow of the Skagit at this point to be 4,557 second feet, struction. A STRETCH OF THE SKAGIT Rocky sides favorable to dam building SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN while the tunnels are built to carry 6,000 second feet. The reason for this extra capacity is that dur- ing the peak hours of morning and evening when the street cars are carrying maximum loads, and the consumption of power for heating and cooking is heavy, the tunnels will run at capacity. But when the demand is less the flow will be diminished com- mensurately. It is estimated that at 2:00 a.m., 1,500 feet per second will suffice. The third and last unit is the Gorge Creek dam to be built at the mouth of Gorge Creek. It will be 240 feet high and will back the water four miles to the base of the Ruby Creek plant, and increase the unit’s production to 112,000 horsepower. Owing to the great depth of glacial drift at this point, 112 feet to bedrock, its construction is expected to be relatively more expensive than the one at Ruby Creek where bedrock is found at 20 feet. A Dream Come True Power is now being transmitted to Seattle over the 100-mile transmission line at 165,000 volts. The right-of-way condemned by the city is 300 feet wide over which four lines will carry the full production to the distributing stations in the city. A question that has given rise to much discussion is how to remove the vast stands of heavy timber which cover the entire valley and extend far up the mountain sides. It is all government land, and as the city operates under a government permit, the Federal authorities as well as the city officials have been studying this problem. As a matter of economy the timber must be saved; moreover, the basin must be thoroughly cleared of all floatable debris. It is thought that the plan most feasible is to cut the logs, then build the dam to a certain height and use the lake for transportation to rail. As the timber cutting extends further back the dam will be built higher. In connection with this development, Superinten- dent Ross has what he calls his “dream”—a vast plan of color-lighting along Ruby Lake and the Skagit Gorge, having in view making a summer resort of the district. The upper Skagit region is one of the wildest and most magnificent in America. In fact, until the building of the railway to the SEATTLE MUNICIPAL PLANT Birds’-eye view of power development 113. RIVER, FOREST AND MOUNTAIN Bend of the Skagit River one mile from dam Gorge plant it was accessible only on foot. But once there one can never forget what he sees. The scenery is of unsurpassed beauty and magnificence. The summer climate is sunshiny and ideal. The grizzly, elk, mountain sheep and goats, and other game are to be found. It is the angler’s paradise. It is free of venomous snakes and annoying insects. Superintendent Ross reasons that when these mag- nificent solitudes are accessible, and provision made to care for tourists, the natural attractions wil! make it a much sought summer resort. Hence lighting “dream.” Seattle pioneered the development of water power. Its Cedar River plant was one of the first hydro- electric developments in the world; also one of the finest. The city also owns one of the best emergency his color- steam plants in the country, with a capacity of 50,000 horsepower. The City Lighting Department is a big institution, serving 80,000 customers with power and light as well as the streets, public buildings and the street railway. Its yearly revenues exceed $3,000,000, though its rates are extremely low and steadily de- creasing. The highest rate in Seattle for any pur- pose is 5.5 cents a kilowatt hour and.the lowest one mill a kilowatt hour. Residence rates run from 5.5 cents down to one cent a kilowatt hour. In spite of these low rates, the municipally owned plant since its beginning has turned back to its treasury over $6,000,000 in profit and $4,000,000 in depreciation. AN ANGLER’S PARADISE A spot well adapted to power development

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Inventions New and Interesting A Department Devoted to Pioneer Work in the Various Arts and to Patent News

An everlasting label for flowers Perpetual Label for Flowers Kk br~ old-fashioned method for labeling plants or flowers in large gardens em-

ployed a wooden stick with the name written on. In time this becomes blotted out by rains. The new label holder illustrated here seals the name on a piece of paper within a glass tube. Weather conditions never affect it and it can always be seen. Eliminating the Glare \\ interesting and recent innovation in £”\X automobile headlight lenses is shown in the illustration on this page The lens consists of a plain sheet of glass having about three-quarters of its surface, either inner or outer, provided with trans- ”, lucent lines crossing each other at right angles [These translucent lines are pro- duced upon the glass by etching or sand- blasting, or in any other suitable manner. The remainder of the lens is clear and transparent This clear pert, which is in the shape of a sector, is disposed at the upper part of the lens; and, contrary to ex- pectation, does not permit an upward diffu- sion of the urdimmed light The effect of the construction as described is to cause the headlight to throw a sub- stantially horizontal beam, with very little jiminution of the strength of the light. Old Mill Furnishes Electric Power Cr the Little Chickies Creek, between is columbia and Mount Joy, Pennsyl- vania, there has stood for years an old-time mill. For many years, farmers for miles

prs: —_ Bz . x ke < A one-man portable pumper, weigh- ing thirty-seven: pounds

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Conducted by Albert A. Hopkins

Me’ ing the highway safe

An old mill lights the community and pumps water

we . 33 The pumper in action in a shallow stream

AUGUST, 1925

A shell box converted into a seat around have been accustomed to bring their grain to this flour mill. Today progress has invaded this “ommunity and instead of flour being turned out by this old landmark, the waters of the little creek furnish power to run a small hydro-electric plant. Current is furnished to light the homes of about twenty-eight inhabitants. A low concrete dam was built across this creek which served mostly as a diverting wall to turn the water into the headrace. Very little storage of water is used, but the flow of the stream is sufficient to provide a | twenty-four-hour service. Fire-fighting Machine oo motor of the fire-fighting machine illustrated here is of a four-cylinder, two- cycle, high-speed type, quick starting and positive in action. The entire weight of motor, pump and base is 70 pounds, making it easy to handle. Connected to the drive shaft of the motor is the geared pump which will pump thirty gallons of water per minute at a pressure of 110 pounds. A Shell Box for the Hunter A. MINNESOTA manufacturer has devel- oped a metal shell box which may be used by the hunter for a revolving seat while waiting for ducks or geese to fly or while shooting. The cover of the shell box is used as the seat and rises automatically with a spring to the desired height.

A modern water wheel that can he erected in an old time mill

A wheel for use on very low falls—say one or two feet

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AvuGusT, 1925 No more falls in the tub A Smooth Surface for the Slippery Bathtubs NEW rubber bathtub mat that prevents accidents by supplying a surface to step upon rather than the slippery surface of the wet porcelain, is illustrated here. It is made of a soft white rubber with a pebbled surface. Sterilizes Three Different Ways NSTRUMENTS may be sterilized by dry heat, boiled, just as in the ordinary water boilers now on the market, and should the water boil dry, a thermostat keeps the heat in check. In addition to sterilizing instruments by dry heat or boiling, this same sterilizer em- bodies special facilities for the sterilization of surgical dressings. This is by live steam. After the steaming process they are thor- oughly dried out by the circulation of hot air. Dry heat for sterilizing as is used in this electric sterilizer eliminates rust and corrosion, Blowing Incandescent Lamp Globes Automatically tips machine is thoroughly automatic and gathers its glass by the vacuum process. After the blank has been gathered it is transferred to a spindle in which is a small plunger which makes the first indenta- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ens: tion in the blank. Puffs of air are then blown into. the hole formed by the plunger which expands the molten glass until it is nearly the shape of the mold from which the article is to be blown. These puffs are regulated by cams on a central standard. The ieadilies for blowing incand cs escent lamp bulbs traveling around the central standard until it comes to the right place, when the mold is opened and the completed article drops on to conveyers which carry it to annealers. The machine is also adaptable for making light blown tumblers, lamp chimneys, or any A powerful combination wrench and plier When the glass is thus prepared the paste or turn mold closes around it and puffs of air are then sent through the spindle at the proper time and the right quantity to expand the blank to the full size of the mold. Dur- ing this time the spindle is rotating and article in the paste mold line where quan- tities are used. Each machine will blow from 50 to 60 thousand incandescent bulbs per 24 hours with the employment of 12 unskilled per- sons. In the old way of making bulbs by A safe repository for cigar and cigarette butts hand 100 skilled persons were required to produce the same amount of bulbs, Safety Ash Tray HE bowl of the safety ash tray trated confines the ashes and the re mains of the smoke. The ‘ the top is hollow and permits the debris to fall to the bottom. It can not tip or be knocked over, spilling its contents, as its bottom is so designed that it will spring back into its original .position illus- tube supporting “Grip-N-Stick” is Right NE of the features of the appliance illustrated is that the parallel, and they can be adjusted into four other jaws are always positions to suit the size of: nut or part that is to be gripped. To change the width of the the levers are opened to the limit, which leaves the movable jaw free to be opened further or closed by The jaw is then re-engaged by merely closing the levers. jaw opening, means of the thumb. et ene oes le task ‘ Mz. ‘ . © neds 3 ‘ He BE a ‘a . Me . sr A window where the sashes swing inwardly making cleaning them a simp Portable vise post and pipe bender A sterilizer that works three ways

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Automatic stand for electric flai-irons Automatic Stand for Electric Flat-irons ._——_ for use in connection with the electric flat-iron, automatically cuts off the current when the iron is placed on it. This stand is connected to the wall-socket, and the iron, in turn, is connected to the stand. A button in the stand is depressed by the weight of the iron placed on the stand, and this automatically breaks the current. Heavy Winds in San Francisco Make It Necessary: to Pro- tect Young Trees in the Civie Center _ heavy ocean winds in San Francisco in certain seasons have made it necessary to protect the young trees recently set out in the civic center. This protection is pro- vided by means of burlap attached to cleats, the burlap being supported by uprights in such a manner that the wind is deflected from the trees. Otherwise the wind would strike the limbs and foliage and incline the trees to the east. Mammoth Electric Incubator \ NEW electric incubator holds 2,400 L eggs and the incubator itself can be turned in a single moment. There are no doors to open, special trays keep the eggs in position, and no cooling of eggs can take place. The incubator has also a_ special nursery door for the removal of baby chicks. No special wiring is required, as connection is made to an ordinary lamp socket. The yeh * SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Se Electri c in AvuGusT, 1925 Self-adjusting wrench dangerous oil lamp has been eliminated as the heat required is furnished by electricity. A motor can be supplied for turning the incubator at certain intervals. The machine is equipped with a thermostat, which reg- ulates the heat automatically. All Grip—No Slip Wrench HE wrench illustrated is a self-adjusting, all steel, one-hand pipe wrench in which vou will find enormous strength combined with utmost simplicity. The movable jaw is pulled back by hand; a light spring in the handle slides this jaw forward. The jaws, fixed and movable, make a three-point contact with the pipe and pressure on the handle causes a grip which increases with the amount of pressure. To release, simply push the handle forward and the wrench rolls off. A Huge Cement Kiln iy the new plant of the Trinity Portland Cement Company at Fort Worth, Texas, a huge kiln 200 feet long has just been con- structed. Its immense size is shown by relation to the box car. It is, of course, being mounted so it can be rotated. A Fourteenth Century Kitchen Compared with One of Today FEW miles from Florence is Castello di Vincigliata which dates back to the Fourteenth Century. It came into the hands of an Englishman who restored it in the most elaborate manner and we present a view of the kitchen which is large enough to prepare food for the many inhabitants of the media- val castle. The great fireplace, which cor- responded to the stove is seen on the right. In our other illustration we show a model kitchen of the Twentieth Century. The old and the new—how a sixteenth century kitchen looked at Vincigliata near Florence, and a modern kitchen where everything is done by electricity

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<auperrore

AUGUST, 1925

a pe deg A double-deck cake pan

An Ingenious Cake Pan HEN a small muffin is wanted, the top section of the combination cake pan illustrated, is used. When a larger one is wanted, the lower section is used. If the two sections are clamped together and a little dough put in the larger of the two cake pans a variety of cake-cups or molds can be made for holding ice cream, fruit, and so on. Reflecting Mirror for Railroad Crossing Latest Safety Device SAFETY device for railroad crossings 4 Ato protect the lives of motorists has been placed on a railroad crossing near South San Francisco by the Southern Pacific

, SS ty Skating on stilts on the Kulm Rink at St. Moritz Company. The latest device is a series of four mirrors placed on a blind curve and gives the motorist a clear view of the rail- road track. Our illustration shows the safety mirrors at a railroad crossing. An approaching train can be seen reflected on the right-hand side of the mirror. Polish Your Own Shoes HE shoe polishing device illustrated on this page is a great improvement on the old-fashioned carpet-covered blacking stand for it folds up and is much more efficient. It may be attached anywhere.

Keeping the tooth brush clean SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN An improvement on the o , Id-

rad Ceramic horns for the loudspeaker

Push the button and out comes the cigarette The foot rest is covered with rubber. When in use, the foot rest swings out and is adjustable to two heights. Directly beneath the foot rest are two double-tapered rollers on which the polishing rag (which is unique in itself, being hemmed on all four edges and reinforced by cross strips) runs freely. Baked Potatoes Without Heating Up the Oven \ JE have had two of these excellent de vices illustrated here from our local gas company. It takes little gas and less watching. Takes about three quarters to an hour for a small potato.

‘ A fuel saving potato baker

New Process for Making Loudspeaker Horns NEW method of making loudspeaker horns, reproducing music without the usual distortion and at a very low price, has been introduced by William W. Wilkins, teacher of Ceramics at Lewis Institute, Chi- cago, Ill. Mr. Wilkins models the speaker out of ordinary pottery clay, and places it in an oven heated to 2,100 degrees, Fahrenheit. It is allowed to remain in this oven for from forty to sixty hours, then taken out and cooled for two days. When cooled, a glazed coating of metallic oxide is sprayed over it, and it is again placed in the even. Spraying the glaze

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118

A machine which cuts while you wait. Cutting Difficult Materials — machine illustrated is for the cutting of ornament: dis] lays out of wallboard fabrics and many other The moving chisel readily follows horizontal materials. cutting is done by a rapidly and the cutting mechanism the motion of the hand in any dir: tion in fact intricate designs, are merely Curves, lines, cut with a perfec smooth edge by ' following the outline.

A duck foot universal wheel puller mov ed The while the machine is material lies flat and is not cutting, therefore, a while a circular with one panel may be of any lengt! design is taken out of its center stroke. continuous Wheel Puller for Automobiles A NEW type of wheel puller, adapted for A has been de- signed and manufactured by a Detroit con- use on nearly every car, ~ “ig e& . ” i i * } f ‘ 4 : \ | ~ ./ . oo

Machine for testing twelve wiring devices SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ye The middle illustration shows how the cutting chisel is placed on the starting point. The right-hand illustration shows a

es ‘ = number of letters cut at one time and with a smooth edge. cern. It consists of two parts, a_ utility three-fingered puller, and a set of plates or nuts to fit different sizes of wheels. The main advantages of this puller are (1) that it is not breakable on account of having no bell-shaped housing, (2) that the plates are reversible and, therefore, have

Preserving Trees with Cork HIS new tree filler bends with the tree. It is a natural, durable filling made from cork baked under heavy pressure. It forms a permanent filling said not to injure any tree. Saving the tree with elastic composition twice the life, and can be trimmed if threads strip, and (3) the one puller can be used on any wheel for which a plate is furnished, reducing the cost of wheel-puller equipment needed in a garage to a fraction of what it would be if a separate complete puller were required for every size. < oy eT Close up of one of the lamp sockets under test The new filler is lighter than wood itself, thoroughly flexible and antiseptic. All parts being repaired are firmly cemented to the walls of the filler. It has the very unusual feature of coming in a number of shades harmonizing with the bark itself. Its cost as compared with cement is less.

Two units with switchboard for testing AUGUST, 1925

Laboratory Socket and Switch Testing Machine [* the left-hand illustration A is a comptometer for recording number of movements. B, a horizontal arm for operat- ing device under test. C, one of the twelve key lamp sockets being tested. The center cut shows the method of ap- plying the attachment for holding and oper- ating key sockets for testing. In this illustration A is the socket. lower B is

A duck foot universal wheel puller the attachment for operating key sockets. C is the attachment fitting, to which the slotted arm is clamped. D is the slotted operating arm. A, B, and C, D, in the right-hand illustra- tion are indicator lamps for respective’ ma- chines. When defects or trouble develop with any device under test, two of a lower group of white lights go out and the other two become brighter.

Se

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AUGUST, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Recently Patented Inventions Classified Advertising Advertisements in this section listed under proper classifications, rate 25¢ per word each insertion; minimum number of words per insertion 24, Payments must accompany each insertion. y maximum 60. Official copies of any patents listed in this section at 15¢ each; state patent number to insure receipt of desired patent copy.

Pertaining to Apparel

SWEATBAND FoR Hats.—Which affords a yieldable and close fitting head receiving opening especially designed for use with straw hats. Patent 1536998. H. E. Aldrich, 69 Wisner Ave., Middletown, N. Y.

Electrical Devices

Com, Support FoR HIGH-TENSION DE- vices.—Such as are used for the application of electrical rays for body surfaces in the treatment of the skin. Patent 1537012. B. F. Jancke, c/o Halliwell Electrie Co., 115 4th Ave., New York, N. Y. | Loop-ANTENNA-FRAME CONSTRUCTION.— | Readily collapsed, easily portable, capable of | being packed in a small space, yet durable. | Patent 1536997. A. E. Wyatt, 125 Cam- bridge Ave., Jersey City, N. J. CONTROLLING SwircH.—Particularly de-| signed for use in connection with moving electric display or advertising signs. Patent 1536999. F. Z. Barrundia, c/o H. Triest & Co., 35 So. William St., New York, N. Y. Arc-Licgut-CoNTROL DEvIcE.—So _ regu- lated as to produce at all times an even, steady illumination. Patent 1537854. 8S. M. Meyer and W. James, c/o William James, 47 Dinsmore Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Swircu-PoInt AssSEMBLY.—Which ean be | very quickly mounted on a panelboard, and easily removed for replacement or repair. | Patent 1537836. S. M. Lauter, 203 Tomp- kins Ave., Brooklyn, NM. 2 BATTERY TERMINAL.—Which is easily ap- plied and results in a very firm and secure contact between the terminal and post. Pat- ent 1538129. T. C. Masters, 90 Bleecker St., Newark, N. J. ELectric- Moror- DRIVEN Designed more especially pressors for storing air Patent 1558754. G. J. St., E. Orange, N. J. ELECTRICAL CONNECTION AND METHOD OF MAKING THE SAME.—Whereby a firm, strong

COMPRESSOR.— for garage com- for tire inflation. | Spohrer, 46 Eppert | }

and efficient connection can be made in a short time and with a minimum of labor. | Patent 1539723. C. A. Deuscher, 223 St.| Anns Ave., Bronx, N. Y. Sarety Fuse Grir.—For removing and| replacing cartridge fuses from fuse blocks, or handling other live electrical appliances. Patent 1539302. R. E. L. Curtis, 4212 Eastern Ave., Seattle, Wash. ATTACHING BRACKET FOR LIGHTING FIXx- TURES.—Which when attached does not oc- cupy any space in the junction box leaving ample room for connecting wires. Patent 537780. J. L. Oefinger, 426014 So. Figu- eroa, Los Angeles, Calif.

Of Interest to Farmers

Crop Duster. — Pneumatically operated for distributing insecticide in powdered form, and adapted for personal wear by the opera- tor. Patent 1537014. E. Knapp and C. G. Allgrunn, c/o Niagara Sprayer Co., Middle- port, N. Y INSECT EXTERMINATOR.—Especially adapt- ed and designed for use in checking and exterminating boll weevil. Patent 1537570. D. H. Woodward and J. S. Chambers, 1319 Altanta Trust Co. Bldg., Atlanta, Ga. Dusting MACHINE.—Which will effec- tively apply insecticide and fungicides in powdered form by blowing the same down- ward upon growing crops. Patent 1538779. | Cc. G. Allgrunn and E. Knapp, c/o Niagara Sprayer Co., Middleport, N. Y. SURFACING ATTACHMENT FoR CULTI- vATorS.—Substituted for the cultivating shovels, after they have been employed, for| effectively leveling the ground. Patent | 1538724. H. H. Mills, Maynard, Minn. GaTr.—Adapted to be raised’ or lowered bodily to allow of passage therebeneath when desired. Patent 1539708. M. Whiteford, Manito, Ill.

| from

News for Inventors A Department of Facts and Notes of Interest to Patentees and to Owners of Patent and Trademark Rights Conducted by Milton Wright

New Russian Patent Law co RUSSIA has a new patent law. \J With the country in sore need of indus- trial development and with elaborate plans on the part of the authorities for exploiting the natural resources, American inventions are bound to play an important part. Here are some of the features of the new Russian law. Patents run for fifteen years. Patents will be issued on inventions which |may be used industrially; chemical products are excluded, although patents are issued for new methods of making such products; the patenting for the process covers the product contained. An invention is not considered new if at the time of its application, either in Russia or elsewhere, it has been so described in a printed publication or in a specification that the principles of using it are made known to others. Inventions made by a group of persons in any undertaking may be patented as “estab- lishment inventions.” Foreign citizens have the same rights for obtaining patents as citizens of Russia, but a representative in Russia must be ap- pointed. Work must be effected within five years the date of grant, lacking which licenses are granted on application, the amount of rerauneration to be determined by the court. Patents or applications in force on No- vember 7, 1917, which have not yet been acknowledged by the Soviet authorities, may form the basis of the issue of new patents on certain conditions.

Patent Commissioner Thomas E. Robertson with a few of employe may be accorded the same _ pro- tection as a foreigner. Litigation resulted in establishing the rights of Dr. Marius A. Latour, French scientist, to eighty-two radio patents, and American radio manufacturers made gen- erous settlement with him. Major General George O. Squier, on the other hand, lost his action against the American Telephone and Telegraph Company for royalties on his | important “wired wireless” principle upon which modern multiplex telephony is based. The court ruled against him on the sole ground that as an army officer he “dedi- cated his invention to the public.” Slot Machine Profits NVENTORS often find greater profit in marketing the product of their invention rather than in selling the patent or leasing it on a royalty basis. cation for a patent on a machine which would drop out a lead pencil every time one put in a nickel. his patent to issue he began letting out territorial licenses and selling his machines for $25.00 each, the licensee promising to buy from the inventor all pencils used. In eleven months his assets have increased from nothing at all to $65,000. A more spectacular case is that of Elmer B. Jeffries. His invention was a machine for vending sandwiches, pie and pastry. His circumstances were so straitened that he had the greatest difficulty in trying to raise the small fee necessary patent application. Fortunately, however. Jeffries met some men in Los Angeles whom

ey. sa we the 155,000 patent models disposed of by the government Inventors and the Courts WO radio patent lawsuits occurring about the same time last spring have left patent authorities still wondering if some changes in the law should not be made in order that an American government he interested in the invention and who helped him form a company to exploit it. This corporation is now said to have nearly a half million dollars to its credit, and automatic service stations are springing up like an epidemic all over the Pacific Coast. About a year ago. | for example, Claude Parker filed an appli-| Without waiting for | to file his) Of General REFRIGERATING ARRANGEMENT FOR DRINKS AND Foop.—And more particularly adapted for use in connection with cooling liquid in bottles. Patent 1532982. A. Blom, Stock holm, Skeppargatan 14, Sweden. Interest WINDOW CONSTRUCTION.—-In which see- tions of the sashes may be removed to per mit cleaning the window from within. Pat ent 1532916. A. L. Mason, 34214 Water St., Meadville, Pa. LIFTING DEVICE.- and adjustable chains engaging on boxes, crates, barrels, blocks of ice, ete. Patent 1533001. C. EF. D. Box 57, Kent, Wash. Guy COUPLER FoR MAsts.——Wherein bolt receiving flanges are provided around the coupler, for permitting different joeations for the guy members. Patent 1533018. <A. Link and L. W. Link, c/o Albert Link, 483 8th St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Toy CoNSTRUCTION.—Inclading a set of selectively engageable units for the purpose of building up structural combinations. Pat ent 1533011. R. S. Knaggs, 406 W. 31st St., New York, N. Y. PRICE-TICKET HOLDER Comprising lifting bars

and grab-hooks, for Haarberg, R. Of light material,

but of rigid construction, with seeuring |}means for keeping the holder in place. Pat }ent 1553005. H. and L. Hopp, 132 W. i4eh | St., New York, N. Y. PROcESS FOR THE Direct COooLING OF Goops.—And avoiding the entrance of for eign substances, especially salt, into the goods. Patent 1532931. A. J. A. Ottesen, c/o J. Preisz, Copenhagen, B., Axelborg, Denmark. GAS PRODUCER.—F or gasifying shale, em- ploying a novel means for effectively apply ing combustion—supporting gaseous fiuids and steam to fuel on a grate. Patent 1532, 179. J. B. Goodwin, Harbor Hotel, San Francisco, Calif. BASKET.—Fer containing artichokes or fruits with delicate providing free circulation of air and preventing damage to the fruit. Patent 15382298. D. Bloom, 85 2nd St., San Francisco, Calif. Snort Lace.—Which after being applied will permit the shoe to be removed from the 7 SKIDS,

foot without untying the lace. Patent 1533, 964. M. Berman, 551 W. 186th St., New | York, N. Y. CuILbD’s Hanp Bac.—Serving the double purpose of a doll and hand Patent 1533428. Caroline T. Fullerton Ave., Chicago, Ill. CLOTHESRACK.—Comprising collapsible bars, with means securing them together, and Patent 1533470. O. G. Schmitt, Th: Stratford Hotel, 2300 Lincoln Park Chicago, Ill. QUILTED WATERPROOF PAD.—Which is very flexible, and may be used as a cover for mattresses, beds or tables. Patent 1533.- 973. S. Cohen and 8S. Kilberg, ¢/o Samuel Cohen, 543 Crown St., Brooklyn, N. Y. SHRINKPROOF Stup Suprort.—For allow ing the upper series of studdings to remain bag combined. Kittleson, 420 a plurality of for pivotally locking them. Belden- W.,

unaffected by shrinking and preventing the building settling. Patent 1532729. G. E. Carlson, 268 Vine St., San Jose, Calif. METHOD oF PRODUCING ForMSs.—-W hereby

articles or ornaments of thin wall or shell structure may be readily formed of any de- sired shape. Patent 15323825. G. Y. Lee, 656 Grant Ave., San Francisco, Calif. FLusn VALVveE.—Adapted for toilet flush | tanks, easily adjusted for centralizing over | the flush pipe, and readily renewable. Pat- }ent 1582324. H. G. Lawrence, 1150 East 13rd South St., Salt Lake City, Utah. MaIL-Box Supporr.—Particularly intend- |ed for supporting mail boxes along rural routes of strong and durable construction. Patent 1533887. C. M. Mugler, Clay Center, Kansas,

Page 44

120 Fitusa TANK.—Which includes automatic | means for controlling the flow of water, and insuring. a predetermined quantity within the tank. Patent 1533884. C. M. Minton, Philo- math, Oregon. ADJUSTABLE WeLtt CASING AND SAND) Screen.—That will function well in sand and gravel strata providing a larger seepage area and water supply. Patent W. D. Leugh, Scott City, Kans. Snap.—For the material of may be quickly F. G. Haage, 1533747. | bands, wherein | pierced, and Patent 1534944. flilton Clifton, N. J. Srat.—-Which can be window sill in posi- wrist watch band the adjusted. is not 37 St., WINDOW-CLEANER’S securely to a tion to permit a person safely sitting there- en. Patent 1534895. J. A. 120 Bostwick Ave., Jersey City, Piece.—To take anchored Blackwood, N. J. BRIDGE the place of the ordinary wooden bridging, in connection with floor joists, studding and other building structures. Patent 1535042, S. Scanlon, 428 ©. 153rd St., New York, N. Y. MASSAGE Device.—Having means for lowering the internal temperature of such device, without the use of iee. Patent 1534, 974. J. O. Linden, Loderup, Kristianstade, Sweden. MILK-BotTLeE SvUPporr Which will present a desirable support, and | automatically lock the bottle against un- authorized removal. Patent 1534912. C. Bruderlein, 307 E. 77th St., New York, ra ie AND LocK.— | PITCOAL.— ovens, BE. Due BRIQUETTE OF CHARCOAL For’ the rapid lighting stoves, ete AND of furnac: Patent 1534962 Zanardo, 9 Via S. fireboxes o Barzano & Italy. SHOE For — Sucii Josue, ec Marcelli, Rome, | IN COUNTER | the base of | usually pro- 1534925. N. Xe Particularly adapted for ball is presented containing | an artificial mouse, which may be seen but not removed. Patent 1534964. S. Kahn- weiler, 3529 Pacific Ave., Atlantic City, N. J. VALVE.—For steam so constructed FoR USE supporting are Patent roadway, Astoria WATERPROOF CONSTRUCTION marble vided Ye 2 ANIMAL Toy. eats, wherein a counters at Demeter, as fountains. 98 BR soda PRESSURE REDUCING or water pressure regulation, as to permit of ready access to the interior and adjustment. Patent 1534899. J. E. Boggiano, 36 W. Tist St., New York, N. Y. Cueck Prorecror.—Relating to an at- | tachment for inking the finger before making | a finger print on a check, and cleaning the | finger after operation. Patent 1536991. A.| Varetoni, 48 Van Ripen Ave., Clifton, N. J. Water Merer Box.—Having a removable} cover with tool receiving opening, whereby the cap may be easily removed. Patent 1537008. N. Forni, 1877 62nd St., Oakland, Calif. COLLAPSIBLE TUBE.—Adapted for dispens- ing icing for cakes in any desired form or shape. Patent 1537010. F. Hersemann, 128 Sherman Ave., Inwood Station, New York, N. ¥ Pre Fasric.—For rugs and other arti- cles, using comparatively short piling firmly | held in the desired position. Patent 1536,- 975. H. Ruegg, Jr., Kingswood, Weehaw- ken, N. J. SuGaAR CoNTAINER.—I which sugar @¢an be stored so that the tendency to lump in Patent New- moist atmosphere will be eliminated. 1528927. J. Kaplan, 380 Thames St., port, R. I. RETAINING Device FoR FILING CABINETS. —Which facilitates the operation of locking or releasing the files, of cards or other con- tents. Patent 1537894. F. C. Smith, Florida Citrus Exchange, Tampa, Fla. Rurerer Heers.—-In the form of and detachable auxiliary | Patent 1537,- New York, c/o CAP FOR a quickly attachable leather heel, for rubber heels. 701. d. Spruce St., N. Y. BLANKET HoLper Geisman, 27 = AND FIRe EXTINGUISH- rr.—In the form of a tube for holding fire extinguishing material, or a rail for support- ing articles in an automobile. Patent 1537,- 887. G. C. Glastonbury, Conn. FLASHING PLtve.—Capable of being easily secured position to retain a flashing in | place. Patent 1537826. C. O. Johanson, c/o Harry F. Bryant, Knox-Carbett Lumber & Hardware Co., Tucson, Arizona. CamprErR’s Tasrie.—Which can be com- pletely taken apart and stored in a small space. Patent 1538393. M. M. Fowler, 84 Gibbs St., Portland, Ore. Sav: ize, m

| tilizers, | West Kildonan, SCIENTIFIC Speciric GRAvITy TESTER.—Having means for guiding the hydrometer in such a manner as to reduce friction to a minimum. Patent 1537888. O. O. R. Schwidetzky, c/o Becton- Dickinson & Co., Rutherford, N. J. Motp FoR ForMING Steps.—Which may be readily placed in operative position for forming concrete steps of any length. Patent 1538604. CC. A. Thrasher and C. R. Owen, Roxbury St., Worcester, Mass. PAD FOR CHILDREN’s CHAIRS.—Serving both as a cushion, and a securing means to} prevent the child from falling. Patent 1538,- 538. M. E. Wood, 2600 Washington Ave., Ogden, Utah. FisHiIne Reet.—Movable longitudinally of

the rod, and permitting a line to be quickly wound, by the pressure of a lever. Patent | 1538377. J.D. Blagden, 2146 ¢ Sowden, Ave., Memphis, Tenn.

Hardware and Tools for sta- leaving the user’s hands Patent | Conn. the tilled receive fer-| Patent | No. 3, | CurrInc IMPLEMENT.—Adapted tionary attachment, free to handle the article to be cut. 1531160. J. Toomey, Riverside, PLANTING TOOL. soil to receive bulbs, ete., or to water, or plant nutriment. J. M. Howard, R. F. D. For molding 1531100. Media, Pa. Sarety Razor. — In holder can be rotated, and the blade reversed | to present a fresh cutting edge. Patent| 1531071. V. Cabella, Guatemala, Central | | America. which the blade Saw HANpie.—Ineluding means for se-| eurely attaching the same to a saw blade, without ie new openings therein. Pat- }ent 1531131. W. G. Price, Box 16, R. F. D. No. 1, Ashland, Pa. MEADOW-DITCHING TooL.—Which is oper- | able by one man in forming ditches or trenches in meadow land, in the work of exterminating mosquitoes. Patent 1531161. J. Toomey, Riverside, Conn. |

REAMER.—Especially designed for se-| eurely holding the blade cutting tools against | longitudinal movement. Patent 1530846. | Fr. P. Miller, e/o MeCrosky Tool Corp.; Meadville, Pa. | Wrencu.—Designed for use in the ad-| justment of the bands in a transmission ar- rangement of a Ford car. Patent 1529075. M. MelIntyre, 139 Center St., Healdsburg, | Calif. Lock FoR WINpow SaAsuH.—Adapted to | lock a sash in such position as to permit the ventilation of a room, without permitting | unauthorized entry. Patent 1531901. F. D. | Clark, 617 Shelby St., Frankfort, Ky. | Bomer Pivuc.—For boiler heads, which may be readily attached or removed, but is locked against rotary movement during tight- ening or loosening. Patent 1531072. J. Car- dinal, 13 Huntington St., Brooklyn, N. Y. CLOTHESLINE SUpport.—Constructed of wire, for supporting the lower lead to prevent

undue sagging from the weight of clothes. Patent 1531977. W. S. Ritch and S. W.| Pidge, ve/o Ritch & Pidge Mfg. Co., Fulton- i Me DEVICE FoR ATTACHING WINDOW SCREENS. ville, —In the form of a strip of metal, bent at | right angles to secure the screen against | the stop bead. Patent 1531947. D. C. Jamieson and F. Rowett, 294 Belmont Ave., Manitoba, Canada. AWNING CONSTRUCTION.—Which will con- trol the operation of an awning 7 the inside of a window. Patent 153206 W. F. O'Donnell and C. Seybold, 7647 Cael Ave.,

Chicago, Ill. Dowet PIN AND Mortise Locx.—Com- prising a U-shaped anchor with prongs adapted to frictionally engage the pin and | then bend outwardly. Patent 1531916. D. J. | Flintjer, 3829 Lake Park Ave., Chicago, ni PrreE Cutrtrer.—lIn which a multiplicity of | — cutting wheels may be drawn into exceedingly — engagement with the pipe. Patent} 532315. V. Karbowski, 1402 N. Park Ave., ( hiewen Til. GARDEN Toort.—Which facilitates the re- moval of weeds, without the necessity of | stooping over to grasp the weeds during the ir}; removal. Patent 1533132. W. J. Neidhart, 116 W. La Salle St., South Bend, Ind. | RaKeE.—Having wire tines arranged in | fan formation, and the ends downwardly | turned. Patent 1532764. H. G. Kimber, | 1633 25th Ave., Oakland, Calif. CaNn-OPENING Device.— Adapted to rapidly | and completely sever a can top, exceedingly |} which the water may | water of a lower temperature. AMERICAN close to the side walls of the can. Patent 1534982. H. J. Edlund, 49 Bay View St., Burlington, Vt. RAKE ATTACHMENT.—Which will readily convert a rake into a hoe, by a simple turn- ing movement. Patent 1587005. H. C. Carson, 3831 Olivette Ave., Sta. L, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. SoLpERING Pot.—Minimizing the danger of accidentally burning parts adjacent a joint, or dropping solder on a floor. Patent 1537002. G. W. St. Louis, Mo. CAN OpeNER.—Adapted to cut and remove the cover of any sized can adjacent to the edge in a single operation. Patent 1536053. V. E. Baker, c/o J. H. Lickert, New Haven, Ind. Winpow-SasH Lock.—Which constitutés a means for moving the sash and for retain- Bradley, 6515 Bradley Ave., ing it in open or closed position. Patent 1537779. P. J. O’Brien, Bay Bulls, New- foundland. lifting heavy paper rolls to Patent 1538397. B. Lewis, JAcK.—For or from a printing press. F. H. Goodrich, c/o J. Block, Greenville, Mich. SwiveL CONNECTION.—For connecting a cable, or choker line, element may rotate about the axis. 1537785. L. E. Parker, Pe Ell, Wash. PLtuMB Bos.—So constructed that the spool carrying the line may be enclosed within the plumb bob when not in use. Patent 1538746. C. Reneau, Mississippi. P.

__Heating and Lighting FURNACE ATTACHMENT.—Providing means | for collecting and quenching unburned fuel, |so that it may be used in the furnace again. Patent 1531126. J. D. O’Brien, kirk Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. SEDIMENT SCRAPER FOR WATER HEATERS. —By means of which the discharge of 248 New-

Lewis | AvucustT, 1925 MACHINE FOR THE PURPOSE OF CHANGING THE Freer ON Watcu DiALts.—By the use of which a watch dial can be transferred from one watch to another and accurately positioned. Patent 1531092. O. Handler, 1699 Washington Ave., New York, N. Y. SEPARATOR. — Which will automatically separate water from oil, and is also adapted for separating other fluids. Patent 1530836. A, W. Kuzilik, Box 494, Barnsdale, Okla. Weep DriFrer.—Adapted to be positioned in a ditch, or other water way, to collect weeds at desirable points and prevent clog- ging. Patent 1530551. E. W. Fry, c/o Theo. Torbenson, Bank of Commerce, Kalis- pell, Mont. MECHANISM FOR RAISING AND LOWERING AWNINGS OR FLAPs.—For windows, doors, sides of buildings, ete., by means of a spiral screw and operating lever. Patent 1531051. W. A. Tomlinson, 1217 W. Jefferson St., Phoenix, Ariz. CANDY SPINNING AND WEAVING MACHINE. —For quickly producing candy of a fine |quality from a prepared batch of syrup. Patent 1532031. T. Bosshard, St. Albans, Queens Co., L. IL, N. Y¥

so that the fastening | Patent |

NozZZLE FOR WASHING MACHINES.—Which is very efficient in breaking up or spraying water in connection with a dish washing machine. Patent 1531958. L. T. Lathrop, 13th Inft., Fort Revere, TRANSMISSION Hull, Mass. MECHANISM. — Having | means for positively locking the keys against Tunice, | | sediment and settlings may be readily effect- | ed. Patent 1531348. A. Myers St., Nelsonville, Ohio. Liguip Fuent HEATEeR.—Thoroughly gas- ifying the fuel oil used in connection with steam, hot water, or hot air furnaces. Patent tichardson, 1532042. R. L. Condra, 128 Lariami St., | San Antonio, Texas. PRESSURE-COOKER ATTACHMENT.—Con- | stituting also a water heater which has the | further feature that the water in the heater may be used as a shower bath. Patent 1532,- 30ILER AND WATER HEATER.—In be rapidly heated, the water heating chamber being insulated from Patent 1536,- 989. A. H. Trageser and L. Hassinger, 447 W. 26th St., New York, N. Y. Sarety VALVE ror GAs JETS AND THE LIKE.—Which serves to automatically shut off the supply of gas, upon a hose severed from a jet. Patent 1537001. Benvie, 999 Broad St., Meriden, Conn. WATER-HEATING SYSTEM.—Having partic- STAND H. being | 49 | movement when they operatively engage with 3 respective gears. Patent 1532102. G. . File, South Oak St., Buchanan, Mich. SnHear Guimpe.—A device which insures straight cutting of a piece of cloth or the like by a pair of shears. Patent 1532019. H. Zimmerman, 876 Huntspoint Ave., Bronx, m Be MACHINE FOR MAKING BUSHEL-BASKET Marts.—And accurately forming or braiding the mats of which the baskets are subse- quently made. Patent 1531355. O. E. St. John, Box 305, Gloversville, N. Y. Rotary DriLit.—Adapted for general bor- ing purposes, and designed particularly for | reducing labor in drilling oil wells. -atent 1530803. W. Anderson, c/o Red | | 945. H. Quigle, Whittier, Calif. Water HEATER.—Wherein an _ electric} heating element is arranged interiorly of the tank, so that the heating element is sub- stantially surrounded by water. Patent 1534898. L. L. Bluemlein, Box 51, Station | | ¥, New York, N. Y. | |

ular reference to a heating system for use in | eonnection with washing machines. 1537842. C. A. McCarty and W. A. H. Jones, c/o Charles A. McCarty, 6 Allerton | St., Plymouth, Mass. Atm PREHEATER.—Which functions Patent | to | utilize the smoke and gases from a furnace | or stove, to preheat air entering the

same. | Mountain Ranch, Fallbrook, Calif. CUTTING MEANS FoR MOWING MACHINES. —Which will equalize the cutting resistance throughout the cutting stroke, give a lighter draft and longer life to the machine. Patent 1533035. J. W. Shanbeck, 1330 Jackson St., r t. Wayne, Ind. Toot TRIMMING MACHINE.—Especially adapted for use in the truing of toric tools on which torie spectacle lenses are ground. Patent 1532959. J. W. Taylor, 530 Broad St., Gadsden, Ala. Ice-ScoRING MACHINE.—Producing a hori- zontal cut and vertical cuts upon opposite faces of a block of iee. -atent 1533056. J. S. Yager and L. Starling, c/o Consumers Ice Co., Greenville, Miss. VENTILATING DeEvice.—For use primari'y in conneetion with theatre ventilation, the device being positioned under the seats. Pat- ent 1532505. De W. T. Lyon, Buena Plaza Aptmts., 4353 Kenmore Ave., Chicago, Ill. TuREADED Biock.—Automatically guiding the thread into correct threaded position, and automatically varying the tension. Patent 1533036. J. M. and P. J. Shannon, 182 Broad St., Norwich, Conn. Rotrina Miryi.—In which bar, rod, or | partly finished blank, may be converted into a plurality of united rails ready for cutting. Patent 1533026. G. J. Murphy, Baradero, F. C. C. A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, S. A. MACHINE FoR MAKING Dovetain SLorts. —In laths, which are formed by a matching Patent 1538866. W. T. Chamberlain, 56) or molding machine. Patent 1532467. J. W. 91st St., New York, N. Y. R. Barnett, Illinois Lumber Yards, Cairo, = | T)]. | __ Machines and | Mechanical Devices | ENptess Sickre BLADE.— Composed of a " Appanarvs FoR AMALGAMATING, — Gold and other precious metals in passing over a} sluice box, in placer mining. Patent 1529,- 038. <A. Root, 869 Fulton St., San Fran-| cisco, Calif. TANK CLEANING Device.—Capable of be-| ing operated by any ordinary workman from | any residual J. W. outside a tank, for removing material therein. Patent 1530659. Force, Box 51, South Bend, Texas. Hoisting APpPpARATUS.—Which is_port- able, and particularly adapted for handling sacks of flour or grain in a warehouse. Pat- ent 1529939. A. C. Whittemore and B. B. Burnett, Lompoc, Calif. series of linked blades connected in an end- |}less belt, and supported to move in one direction. Patent 1532279. H. Ullom, | Lamar, Colo. TENSION Device ror SHuTTLES.—Which is so eonstructed as to facilitate the thread- ing thereof. Patent 153303 P. Shannon, 182 Broad St., Norwich, Conn. Pire BENDING MACHINE.—Which will uniformly and evenly bend cold pipe of var- ious sizes. Patent 1533443. A. Miller, 4849 Washington Ave., Newport News, Va. Rock CrusHEer.—Of centrifugal construc- tion, having a rotor adapted to receive the rock centrally and discharge it peripherally.

Page 45

AUGUST, 1925 Patent 1532742. A. D. Hadsel, 500 Call Building, San Francisco, Calif. CoTToN-CLEANING MACHINE. Whereby “cotton locks” and “cotton linters” may be reclaimed from cotton seed, and entirely free from all foreign matter. Patent 1533593. V. D. Harlan, Humphrey, Arkansas. CasInc-HEApD LatoH.—Which will in-| stantly cut off the flow of oi! in a well, there- by reducing fire hazard, and oil loss to a minimum. Patent 1533875. C. McCleary, Box 264, Webb City, Oklahama. FLEXIBLE CoupLING.—That allows of longitudinal and tilting motion of one shaft relative to the other, so that the shafts may be axially disalined. Patent 1532743. A. D. Hadsel, 500 Call Building, San Francisco, Calif. Evaporator.—For drying fruit, in which the air current can be regulated to pass over the fruit in different directions. -atent 1532303. W. W. Cozzens, Box 529, San Jose, Calif. ADJUSTABLE AUTOMATIC VALVE REGULA- ToR.—Providing mechanism in a pipe line | for manually opening and mechanically re- seating a valve. Patent 1533407. L. H./| Hanson, c/o L. L. Hoge, Austin, Texas. | MIXING PROCESS AND APPARATUS THERE- | For.—By means of which a cementitious mixture will be of even quality and uniform strength throughout. Patent 1533950. V. H. Schlich, 136 Liberty St., New York, N. Y. Be_t LENGTH CALCULATOR.—That may be easily operated to discover the length of belt required to give the desired tension. Pat- ent 1533981. G. R. Fickert, 611 Bloom- field St., Hoboken, N. J. DEVICE FOR DEMONSTRATING MomMENTUM. — For demonstrating laws, more particularly for exhibiting the} conservation of the energy of rotation. Pat- ent 1533500. O. Hovda, Evansville College, Evansville, Ind. ScrapPer.—Primarily designed to be drawn by a tractor and used on road construction or the like. Patent 1533720. P. C. Ander- son, 519 So. 27th St., Lincoln, Neb. | PIsTON.—F'or use in connection with a force pump, to prevent a pressure medium actuating the piston from leaking past the piston. Patent 1532293. A. L. Armentrout, | Whittier, Calif. ASSEMBLING AND COUNTING MECHANISM. —For automatically counting, reversing and packing in alternate position, match books, which are thinner at one end than the other. Patent 1535031. T. A. Nevins, 120 Liberty St., New York, N. Y. ELevator Sarety APPLIANCE.—Providinig a manually controlled means operable from an elevator car, for bringing the safety con- trol means into action. Patent 1534291. | D. A. MacAskill, Box 18, Station V, Brook- lyn, N. Y. DITCHING AND GRADING MACHINE.—With various simple operative elements, which by rearrangement, will dig and clean ditches, fill ditches, or level rough ground. Patent 534900. C. F. Bolin, Box 61, Parkman, Wyo. NEEDLE-OPERATING MECHANISM FOR KNITTING MACHINES.—Having an arrange- ment of locks suitable for use in producing both plain and fancy work, without an extra needle. Patent 1534972. , : r20nee on EHICLE Y.— Cc wil batted ball. Patent 1532066. J. O'Connor, | b+ yp se r201¢ . r 4 . ie peat tne ~ | way. Patent 1539197. F. J. Long and W. casting station. Patent 1539776. R. C. 30x 163, Carbondale, Colo. H. Emery, AUTOMOBILE ATTACHMENT.—In the form of an auxiliary braking means either supple- 0 > 1.1: °®”»FT—S”—"_-:~ | Mentting the usual brake or for acting inde- | € a © Pertaining to Vehicles = | pendently. Patent 1539476. C. P. Gormly, 754 Orange Ave., Long Beach, Calif. AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION FOR MOTOR VEHICLES.—Obviating the necessity of man- ually engaging the first speed gears, us in the case of ordinary automatic transmission. Patent 1539188. H. R. Hoffman, 2069 Hum- boldt Blvd., Chicago, Tl. and F. Hoboken, Freenberg, 508 Summit Mm. dé, Scheurer Ave., W.

SPRING CONNECTION.—In the form of a universal connection that will minimize the strains due to rise and fall of an axle. Pat- ent 1536981. FE. W. Stossel, Box 331, As- bury Park, N. J. LICENSE-NUMBER-PLATE HOoLDER.—F'orm- ing an attractive article which is durable, in which the plate can be quickly and firmly secured. Patent 1536414. R. W. Watts, Box 176, Tacoma, Wash. DIRicIsLtE HEADLIGHTS.—Operated from the steering wheel, freely revoluble about a vertical axis and tiltable about its transverse axis. Patent 1536158. C. E. Sparhawk, ¢/o Mae Intyre & Sandercock, Attys., Drum- beller, Alberta, Canada, Froor Boarv.—For automobiles having a molding which not only binds the edges, but

Designs 7

DESIGN FOR AN. ASH TRAyY.—Patent 66,- 962. E. Wismer, 1489 48rd Ave., San Fran- cisco, Calif. DESIGN FoR A LAMP SHADE.—Patent 66,- 762. J. Bennici, Los Angeles, Calif. DESIGN FOR A TABLE COVER OR THE LIKE. —Patents 67252 and 67253. J. H. Young, c/o Thomas Young, Inc., 42 White St., New York, N. Y. | lubricates the same, to prevent noises and DE ’ no , ; dain ; YESIGN FOR A SHOE.—Patent 67240. H roe > aa a . « rattling. Patent 1536182. ‘s J. M. Jackson, Smolen, 24 Boerum St., Brooklyn, N. Y. c/o Rope and Cordage Co., Parkersburg, hts W. Va. DESIGN FOR A RING.—Patent 672300. I. Trre.—Havi ll allan alities Ornstein and J. Mevorah, «/o I. Ornstein, e.—Having shock absorbing qualities! 569 w. o3rd St., New York, N. Y. supplied by an annular series of springs, eee & c ; : saa which may be conveniently applied to a maa 6G 6 Cae See wheel. Patent 1536225. P. A. Lea, Box I. Ornstein and J. Mevorah, c/o I. Ornstein, 260 W. 23rd St., New York, N. Y. DESIGN FOR A PLATE OR SIMILAR ARTICLE. —Patent 67381. S. Haslam, c/o Evans Case Co., North Attleboro, Mass. DESIGN FOR A TABLE COVER OR THE LIKE. 7252 and 67253. J. 125, Littleton, Colo. ATTACHING PLATE FoR SPRINGS.—Adapted | to be positioned below the semi-elliptical spring on the front of a Ford automobile, to brace the intermediate portion. -atent 1536418. C. C. Breakfield, c/o J. B. Boyd,|—Patents 67252 H. Young, Allensville, Ky. | c/o Thomas Young, Inc., 42 White St. Ventciz Dumrina Bovy.—Having means! New York, N. ¥. DesIcN FoR A SHor.—Patent 67240, H. for securely holding the body of the wagon ’ ‘ against dumping movement, the dumping Smolen, 24 Boerum St., Brooklyn, N. Y. body locking in either its retaining or re-| DESIGN ror A Dress.—Patent 67354. Mil- leasing position. Patent 1537765. IF. M.| dred C. Schmolze, c/o Franklin Simon & Co., | Goossen, R. F. D. Box 50, Hillsboro, Kans.| 38th St. and 5th Ave., New York, N. Y. MINIATURE AUTOMOBILE FOR EXntsirion | DESIGN FOR A RING.—Patent 67343. S&S. Purposes.—For use at public exhibitions, Hyman, 16 Park Hili Ave., Boston, Mass.

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122 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AvuGustT, 1925 A Review The Scientific American Digest of the Technical and Trade Press, Consisting of Abstracts from Leading Articles Announcing the Newest Developments in Industry and Engineering ferences to the Exact re number, Other digests appear elsewhere in this issue Conducted by Albert G. Ingalls sources from which these abstracts and quotations are made follow each abstract, the numerals referring respectively to the volume, and pages occupied by the original article in order that those who wish for further data may refer to the originals. -4--4 . > . oes —} - + y ap oene 7 oe eS tt - I serlicte & | *{- ~$¢ o> -t-— 3 = = Pa ee ¥ 7 — — : 7 t! ———_ .F] : Qi af Writ T. L ef \ ene ie Engine Room sss sh, PT fii Water Ballast if . 0 J 10 15 2 25 30 3S MERREEE 4s 50 Courtesy of ‘‘Marine Engineering and Shipping Age’’ The rotors which keep the Flettner rotor ship in motion have no connection with the Diesel engine and screw propeller, which is installed merely as a convenience. Note the detail of the rotors, their thin sheet-metal shells, their internal pivots reaching about two-thirds the total height of the rotors, and the gears which drive them through the long, vertical shafts of two small electric motors mounted near the deck level Taking the Sensational Out of the Rotor Ship Story Tuose who disappointed _ several months ago when the first announcement of the development of the Flettner Rotor Ship was followed by a number of newspaper and magazine articles giving rather meager de- rotors, will technical were mechanism of the detailed tails of the take interest in a description of the e by the thin sheil of the rotors and by the been well- more parts that are concealed hull of the ship These details have from Dr. Foerster, a known German navai architect and engineer by Marine Engineering and Shipping Age (New York. May, 1925). The aerodynamic principle on which the was considered in the February, 1925, issue of the well as in several special technological journals. How- ever, we believe that the internal mechanical have not Ernst secured rotor ship operates Scientific American, as details of thé rotor mechanism before been illustrated. The rotors are simply hollow shells made of steel plates 0.06 and 0.04 inches in thick- ness, bars of 0.06 inch material, with one-half inch by one-half inch The rotors are installed on bearings which are placed on the tops of the central stiflened by angle sides. pivots, concealed by the shell of the rotors. This pivoting is the vital point in insuring working of the rotors when the vessel is in Adjacent to the pivots the huil is specially strengthened by the safe a heavy sea. web frames. The upper covers or caps of the rotors are not put there either for ornament or to keep the rain out. They almost double the effect of the rotors in propelling the ship, for they prevent the whirling air from escap- ing in an upward direction. The whole construction of the rotors has been calculated to withstand heavy rolling of the vessel. This is of interest when viewed in the light of the statement fre- quently made when the rotor ship first made its appearance, that in a heavy sea the rotors would be liable to go overboard or would be wrenched to pieces by the rolling of the These cylindrical objects have a bulky appearance; but they are com- paratively light in weight—lighter, in fact, than the sailing rig which they replace. It is also of interest to note that in sev- erai cases where adverse criticisms were at vessel . Wide World first levelled against the rotor ship, they were based largely on statements made, not by its inventor, but by writers who had jumped to the conclusion that the inventor expected the rotor ship entirely to displace the steam vessel. Herr Anton Flettner, how- ever, regards his invention chiefly in the light of an auxiliary to steam or other power; and as a self-propelled vessel only for certain routes where trade winds and other established winds blow in the most advantageous direction. America’s first rotor ship, a crude but serious beginning, was constructed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (“Boston Tech”) by Lieutenants W. W. Hastings and J. M. Kiernan of the United States Navy Another detail which has caused wide- spread misconception is the fact that the rotor ship carries a propeller and engine. The purpose of this equipment is for ma- neuvering in port and for other convenience. It is not connected in any way whatever to the rotors. In fact, the rotors do not actuate any mechanical device; simply, when the wind blows they “suck” the ship forward, and this sucking force, which is actually a negative pressure, acts directly on the rotors. As these are attached to the ship, the latter is necessarily drawn along also. Thus the rotors move the ship just as if a giant had tied a line to the mast and towed it along. It is, however, necessary to keep the rotors revolving, and for this purpose a forty-five horsepower Diesel-driven dynamo of the Krupp type is installed. This fur- nishes the power to keep the rotors spinning at the rate of about 110 revolutions per minute. On the main deck, inside of each rotor, is placed a direct current motor of fifteen horsepower. These motors are in- stalled with their axes vertical and these axes are extended as hollow shafts to reach the gears at the top of the pivots on which the rotors rest and spin. These gears have a reduction of one in six. The weight of everything pertaining to the above deck mechanism is twenty-one tons. The rotor ship has a lower center of gravity than the same ship had when it was a sailing vessel, the center of gravity now being only twelve feet above the keel instead of 14% feet, as formerly. The experience with the rotor ship, Buckau, and with numerous designs which have been calculated since the Buckau has been in service, shows, according to Dr. Foerster, that a certain limit for the dimen- sions of the rotors is set by nautical and technical considerations; and this has led

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AUGUST, 1925 to the recommendation not to plan rotors of larger dimensions than necessary to give about fifty percent of the whole thrust re- quired to maintain the speed of the vessel. * * * W hat Shall Be Done with Niagara? Reconstructinc Niagara Falls on a hori- zontal scale of one hundred to one was the interesting task performed under the direc- tion of John L. Harper, president and chief engineer of a large power company at Niag- ara Falls, N. Y. The model was not con- structed to amuse visitors and tourists, but to permit a careful, scientific study of a number of problems concerning the disposi- tion of the waters of the Falls. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN is so valuable a source of power. If all the normal flow of the Falls were to be used it would be possible to produce 6,750,000 horsepower. If all the water were used, as much power as that generated by all the electric central stations in the country, or that which could be generated by 33,000,000 tons of coal yearly would be available. Ninety-five per- cent of the water now falls over the Cana- dian Falls, leaving to the American side but five percent. “What would be the effect of placing sub- merged weirs above Goat Island?” asked Col. W. D. Warren, U. S. Army Engineer. The model has provided the means for a test of this point. The effect of model weirs The lake reached its 1924 peak about May 1. The gage at the Saltair pavilion registered a height of 8.2 feet above the empirical zero point. The lowest point ever reached since Brigham Young led the orig- inal settlers into the Salt Lake valley, was in 1905 when the surface was 4.9 feet below zero on the gage. Therefore, on May 1 of this year the water was 13.1 feet higher than the lowest known point; higher than at any time since 1887. The highest water ever known was in 1868. Had the Saltair gage then been in existence, it would have shown 13.4 feet. The lowest level recorded being 4.9 below the Saltair zero, the total known variation in the surface is 18.3 feet. Years in which 123 the rate at which irrigation water seeps through the ground, this depending on the character of the season. FEven the rate at which snow melts, which vaiies from year to year, is a facior. The evaporation rate is not definitely known. Great Salt Lake is unlike every inland body of water, being merely a skim of intensely salt prehistoric body of water of far greater area, other watcr; a remnant of a called by geologists, Lake Bonneville, from its discoverer. The average area of thirty by eighty miles varies greatly with the height of the water. The average from twenty to thirty-five feet. To the west and south are extensions of land—the bottom of the Left: The model measures about 100 by 125 feet. The vertical scale is somewhat less than the horizontal, permitting a better per- spective view by a spectator standing nearby. In most of the essential details the model is remarkably exact, the rapids above the Falls being reproduced with remarkable fidelity. Although Goat Island is the same in outline and shore line, there is no need to make its surface identical with that of the real Goat Island, since the model is made to simulate only the water conditions. Note that the little islands are accurately placed. The total flow of the Niagara River is 210,000 cubic feet per second, and that flow is remarkably uniform, considering that most streams fluctuate considerably. This uniform flow is one of the reasons why Niagara Falls J. Cecil Alter This photograph was taken when the gage registered 3.9 feet above zero. In May, 1924, it showed 8.2 feet above zero falls. of this sort was to divert the water which seems to fall over the sharp angle of the Canadian Falls and to spread it out over the whole front. This would cut down the unequal erosion which is now taking place at the lip of the Canadian Falls. The several water power houses now exist- ing on either side of the Falls are repro- duced in the model and are carefully de- signed to divert just the same proportion of water as the real power houses do in fact divert. The whole model is kept filled with water by means of a pump. A dial at the side of the model shows the amount of water flowing at any moment over the two sides of the Falls. * * The Level of Great Salt Lake is Rising. Why? UNDERNEATH the Pavilion at the Saltair bathing resort on the Great Salt Lake, Utah, there is a gage which records the height of the water level of the lake. The readings of this gage are watched each spring with almost feverish intensity by the engineers of two of the great transcontinental rail- roads. Weather bureau experts at Salt Lake City keep the records and give them close scrutiny. Men connected with the United States Geological Survey mark the readings with a high degree of interest. Since 1920 the average level of the lake, year by year, has been rising. The lake is considerably higher than it was at the be- ginning of the century. The increases in level do not come steadily. There is a rise in the spring of the year, with high water in May or June, due to the melting of snow in the mountains and the consequent swell- ing of the rivers and the smaller streams that empty into the lake. Then, beginning usually some time in June, the surface of the lake gradually recedes. The irrigation of farms diminishes the stream flow. Hot weather increases the evaporation. The low level comes about the close of the year, when the flow of the streams is reduced to a minimum by cold weather. Compare it with the picture of the real Niagara Falls at the right the lake has been higher than it was on May 1, 1924, are those from 1867 to 1879 inclusive, and in 1885 to 1887. At first thought it would appear easy to make an intelligent prediction as to whether the surface of the lake will rise, or fall. It is easy to say that the variations are de- pendent on the rainfall and the evaporation. Inflow would appear to depend on _ the measurements of the Bear and the Weber rivers and smaller streams that enter the lake, to which should be added the precipi- tation directly into the water. Evaporation would appear to depend on temperature, humidity of the air, and on the wind. Yet the lake, in a measure, has defied those who would probe its secrets. If there is anything that seems certain, it is that a period of four years of precipitation above the normal, will cause a rise in the surface. Records of rainfall at Salt Lake City are the basis of this statement. Such records go back to 1874. The rapid rise of the lake level in 1875 and 1876 was probably due to the two years of rainfall heavier than nor- mal and the absence then of irrigation projects. The next rise in 1884 to 1836 is marked by three years of heavy precipitation. The six years from 1900 to 1905, inclusive, show an average rainfall of 14.03 inches in Salt Lake City, which is nearly two inches below the average normal rainfall. The lake dropped very rapidly in those years. The average precipitation for 1906 to 1909 was 20.26 inches. The lake level jumped about three feet in 1906, held steady in 1907 and 1908 and then rose rapidly in 1909, the rise from the first part of 1909 to the middle of 1910 being over seven feet. Again, the average precipitation in 1920 to 1923 has been 19.16 inches—with a cor- responding steady rise in the water. To arrive at any definite conclusion, con- ditions other than rainfall must be con- sidered. The question involves not only the rate of evaporation, which is dependent on sun, humidity and wind, but there enters, also, the quantity of water used for irriga- tion in the drainage basin of the lake, and Bonneville. Therefore every foot of rise vastly increases the area. To the railroad company which has a trestle twelve miles long with long rock fills at each end, directly across the lake, it is a matter of dollars and cents to keep their lines open. Every student of meteor- ology is familiar with what Of theories about the present rise, there are no end. Yet over it all there is an air of mystery, of acknowledged waiting to see what 1925 will develop. is going on. uncertainty, of o * 2 Talking with Artificial Vocal Cords TuHose whose larynx has removed may speak again by means of the rubber, artificial larynx recently de veloped by Dr. Harvey Fletcher and Messrs. Wegel and Lane, engineers of the Western Electric Company, along the lines of a plan sug- been Courtesy of ‘*The India Rubber World”” The rubber larynx which takes the place of the natural larynx when the latter has been removed by surgery

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124 gested by Dr. John E. Mackenty, of New York. By holding in jheir mouths a hard rubber mouthpiece and modulating the vi- brations which are produced in an attached cylinder containing a vibrating membrane of pure rubber, these people may produce speech which can easily be understood. This kind of speech differs from natural speech, it is true, being a low-pitched monotone; but it is perfectly intelligible. The artificial larynx is connected to the user's throat at the point where his wind- pipe, owing to the surgical operation of removing the larynx, communicates directly with the open air. The patient may wear the talking apparatus all day without trouble, with a layer of gauze underneath to keep dust out of his lungs, the apparatus being held fast by means of tapes around the neck and chest. must continue to breathe, even while wearing an artificial talking device, Since one there is a side opening in the rubber larynx through which one’s breath is regu- larly drawn in and expelled, just as this was formerly done through the nostrils. While the wearer is actually talking, this opening can be temporarily closed by the thumb. Air forced from the lungs is set into vibration by the vibrating membrane and these vibrations are carried into the speaker’s through a like a pipe- The rest of the operation remains to the and manner that the vibrations vocal mouth short tube stem. be performed by mouth, tongue, teeth in the same arising from an uninjured person's cords are modulated by these parts of the anatomy. So clear is the enunciation that conversations may be had over the telephone by the user of this device-—The India Rub- ber World (New York), vol. 72, pages 340- 341 (Mar. 1, 1925). * oa ” Radio-acoustic Range Finding Imacine a blind man trying to make a on land. Then think of a surveying survey vessel trying to get an accurate position ina dense fog when 40 or 50 miles offshore. These two things seem equally impossible, yet the second one of them is being done daily by the new radio-acoustic method off the coast of Oregon by the officers of the Steamer Guide and by members of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. In this newly mining the position of a ship the difference in the speed of sound waves and electro- taken advantage of. The the rate of 186,300 miles a second, may be said to reach a nearby destination instantaneously. The velocity of sound in sea water is 1,600 yards per second. Radio sound ranging involves the transmis- evolved method of deter- magnetic waves is latter, traveling at sion of a sound from ship to shore, and the return of a radio signal at the instant that the sound wave reaches its destination. The the source of the sound is the time elapsed be- distance from measured by noting Planting the sinker, with its hydro- phone and cable attached, in sixty feet of water SCIENTIFIC tween the transmission of the sound wave and the arrival of the radio return signal. Three observing points on land use hydro- phones, sensitive instruments for detecting through water. These underwater microphones are submerged 60 feet, just off with a cable leading to the land A bomb is fired from a which desires to determine its position in fog or low visibility weather. This bomb- created sound, upon reaching each hydro- phone, automatically releases a radio signal which is recorded on board the vessel at the time of arrival of the sound at the shore station. With three shore stations thus heard from, the distance of the vessel from each observing point and its position from shore are then a matter of simple calcula- tion. sound shore, Stations. vessel + : atna Bae cee neasanee satl 8S. R. Wincers The shore outfit. The bomb is fired by means of a snap switch, which not alone explodes the TNT, but also records the moment of the closing of the firing circuit. The sound, upon reaching the hydrophones, is translated by it into an electrical impulse, and by means of radio-amplifying equipment, it is ampli- fied to such an extent that it will actuate a relay. The latter causes a clockwork to function, and this rotates a code wheel. This, in turn, operates a second relay at specified intervals from the start. The sec- ond relay operates the radio transmitting equipment by means of which signals are sent at intervals determined by the code wheel. The first signal on any of these wheels occurs not than five seconds after the clockwork has been put in motion. This affords opportunity for switching on the transmitter after the clockwork of the auto- matic key has started to function. less A duplicate of this equipment is AMERICAN The data sought with respect to the loca- tion of a ship from known shore stations may be completed by finding out the lag. This is done without altering the operation of the ship. But here no bomb is discharged and the switching from sending to reception of radio signals must be effected in less than five In the determination of the lag, the radio signal at the shore station is caused to actuate the relay which pre- viously was operated by the sound signal. The automatic keys at the three shore sta- tions are started at the same time. The records on the chronograph of the vessel, therefore, give the elapsed time from the sending of the wireless signal to the recep- tion of each signal from the station located on land. These intervals, once measured, afford information relative to lags. In de- seconds. used on board ship termining a lag, the operator at a shore station is bound to switch from “receive” to “transmit” positions after the automatic key has started, and before the initial signal of the code is transmitted thereby. This mini- mum time element is of about five seconds’ duration. The equipment necessary for charting the ocean by means of a combination of radio and sound is shown in one of the photo- graphs illustrating this article. The units are seven in number. There is a radio receiver, amplifier and relay, designed and built at the Bureau of Standards; a chro- nometer and relay; a chronograph, the in- vention of Dr. E. A. Eckhardt of the Bureau of Standards; and pen magnet; radio trans- mitter; triple-pole firing and marking switch and safety switches. The radio receiving unit employs a detector and two stages of amplification. WD-12 vacuum tubes are ~ - Courtesy of ‘‘Science’’. The undertow is intermittent, not steady The performance at the three shore sta- tions is a duplicate of that on shipboard, with the exception that the code wheels are adjusted to send radio signals at different intervals between each other and with varia- tions at the start. The radio signals origi- nating from the three shore stations are intercepted by the antenna on the ship and by means of radio instruments they are recorded on the same chronograph drum which records the signal which indicates the moment of the explosion of the charge of TNT. These signals are identified with respect to the stations from which they emanated by their difference in spacings, and the time intervals between the dis- charge of the bomb and the arrival of each signal from a specified station. used, their filaments being lighted by dry- cell batteries. The equipment used at the shore stations includes hydrophones, a power amplifier and relays, radio receivers, automatic keys and relays, transmitters, and power supply. * ¥ * Is the Steady Undertow a Myth? Tuat the dread undertow of the ocean bathing beach is largely a matter of the bather’s own psychology is the claim of Pro- fessor William M. Davis, noted Harvard Uni- versity physical geographer. Most people think of the undertow as a strong, treacherous, steady current that is always trying to draw them out to sea. But Professor Davis asks where, if the undertow AUGUST, 1925 is the steady current it is reputed to be, does the water come from? It cannot run away from the land steadily unless it first comes in, and the evidence is that it does not come in with sufficient volume to main- tain a steady eoutward flow around the bather’s feet. “Is it not therefore probable,” argues Pro- fessor Davis, “that the idea of a persistent and dangerous seaward undertow comes more from the excited imagination of unpracticed bathers than from the deliberate observation of good surf swimmers?” When carefully observed, the undertow is found to be intermittent, but there are other factors which tend to obscure this fact. If one who is a fearless swimmer will dive under the oncoming waves and keep his presence of mind he will note by looking at the sandy bottom that the water is actually undertowing shoreward instead of seaward for a few seconds of each wave cycle. Professor Davis asks us to follow through the sequence of events as a short series of waves beats upon a beach. First a wave surges up the beach and the same volume of water slides back seaward (R, in sketch). This current may be felt at the bottom, but its flow is interrupted by the arrival of the next wave, S. Here the inexperienced bather becomes flustered, for the top of the next wave, F’, smothers him and blanks out the sensations coming from his feet and legs, which would otherwise advise him that the undertow has now stopped. By the time he has again collected his senses the undertow has begun again, but he thinks it has been moving seaward all the time, for the strong ebb of E’ now strikes him from behind and the next wave (through which if he were experienced he would dive, but being inexperienced does not) topples him over. He is now in no fit mental condition to note that the next ebb is only a second ebb, E”, eight or ten seconds after the first. Its drag helps to impel him toward the next wave, F”, where he is again ducked, and is further discomfited. Thus his most conscious, normal moments have coincided with the intervals during which the intermittent undertow has been moving seaward. He thinks, therefore, that there is a powerful and ever steady seaward undertow which is bent on carrying him out into the ocean where he will drown. Whenever the actual flow of seaward mov- ing undertow struck him he had his feet on the bottom and thus became acutely con- scious of it. Whenever the high wave that stopped the undertow came along he was trying to keep his head above water, and thus his feet did not touch bottom. Hence he did not realize that he had been moved ? Courtesy of Cornell Electric Co. The electrically heated and electri- eally driven device which makes new oil out of old

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AUGUST, 1925 bodily shorewards, times. It stands to reason, moreover, that no more water can flow out to sea from a beach than comes in; and since it comes in inter- mittently, it must go out in the same man- ner. That even the shoreward flow is of much smaller volume than one would at first blush think may be proved by watching any floating object. The waves rise and fall under it, but they move it ashore compara- not seawards, at such tively slowly.—Science (New York), vol. 61, pages 206-208 (Feb. 20, 1925). Ba co * Reclaimed Motor Oil Better Than New A NEw method of economical operation of fleets of motor trucks and automobiles has been opened by the invention of equip- ment for reclaiming crank-case oil. The apparatus, developed in the research labora- tory of the General Electric Company by Charles Van Brunt and P. Schuyler Miller, removes the products of combustion, debris of wear, road dust and fuel dilutants from the oil, and returns to the oil all of its original lubricating properties. During the World War it was observed by American aviators that oil which had been used for the regular number of hours and discarded could be put into better condition than it ever was before by a reclaiming process. The reason that oil has to be drained from the crankcase periodically and replaced by new oil is not that the oil is out, but that it accumulates several kinds of impurities due to motor wear and from the air taken in through the carburetor. When the oil was properly reclaimed it seemed to the army aviators that it was better than ever, and they frequently ex- pressed a preference for reclaimed oil. The reason why the reclamation of used drained from the crankcase has not sooner become general is owing mainly to the practical difficulties of devising a re- claiming apparatus that would handle oil on a sufficiently small scale to warrant its purchase by others than those who have used oil in immense quantities to reclaim. What was wanted was a reasonably small outfit that would make oil reclamation a pay- ing proposition for the owner of only a few cars or trucks. The two major steps in the reclamation of the oil include clarification by agitation with a small amount of silicate of soda, or water glass, and other chemicals, followed by rec- tification in which the oil is run in a thin film over a heated surface in a current of air. The oil is first heated by contact with the outlet pipe, and is then delivered to the mixing tank where the chemicals are added. From there it goes to the settling tank or clarifier, and then to the heated rectifier where it is refined and purified. The com- pletely reclaimed oil is then led to storage tanks. The new device is a continuous reclaimer, with a capacity of nine gallons of oil in twenty-four hours. It is automatic in opera- tion and can keep the oil for thirty engines, of five quarts capacity each, in good condi- tion indefinitely. The complete machine is so designed that, by removing the side panels, any number of units can be as- sembled side by side and driven by the same source of power, thus enabling the capacity to be increased as desired. A 100-gallon installation of twelve units would thus occupy a floor space about fifteen by fifty inches, exclusive of feed and receiving tanks and motor. The apparatus can be operated without technical control. One of the surprising characteristics of the reclaimed oil is that its stability may be even greater than that of the original oil. This is because the less stable constituents of the lubricant are broken down when the oil is first used, and are removed during the reclaiming process. The reclaimed oil is of darker color than the original, but can be readily bleached by Fuller’s earth. This bleaching process is not recommended, how- ever, since it is believed that the portion thereby removed has the best lubricating properties. worn oils Double-acting thrust bearing, flat seats (grooved races) 2100-F Series Single-acting thrust bearing, flat seats (grooved races) 1100-F Series Single-acting, self- aligning thrust bearing, leveling washer, 1100-U Series Double-acting, self- aligning thrust bearing, leveling washers 2100-U Series SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Super-Strom Ball Bearings cut down overhead — Increase reliability and efficiency of machine tool equipment | reapers your machine tool equipment! Replace out-of-date machines with new and better-designed machines, incorporating Super-Strom Ball Bearings—and notable savings will result. Production records prove this beyond question. Strom Ball Bearings are made with scientific precision, and are accurate to microscopic thousandths of an inch. Only the finest chrome ball- bearing steel, a special alloy, BALL BEARINGs STROM BALL BEARING MFG. CO., 4583 Palmer Street, Chicago, Ill. 25-Spindle Drill equipped with Strom Ball Bearings deep groove, radial bearing is used in their manufacture. It is heat-treated throughout, not merely case-hardened. This insures uniform hardness, greater elasticity and much longer life. Double-row, deep- bronze retainer Put your bearing problems up to our Engineering Depart- ment. We have data that ap- plies to every type of machine in which ball bearings can be used to advantage. We will wel- come an opportunity to serve you. Write for the facts. Angular contact radial and thrust Adapter type bearing, with sleeve $7.50 for Comptote Outfit Tepai Magnified 225 Diameters | This is what the tip of a fly's leg is like when seen through the a MICROSCOPE Any amateur can immediately start using his Ultralens to examine the edge | of a razor, the mesh of a cotton shirt, the bacteria in dirty water. nical training required, yet hundreds | eee + | hee APP amen CORP. Dept. 102 No tech- of scientists and teachers are using this instrument. Gives enor- mous magnifi- cation and per- fect definition. Send $7.50 for complete out- fit. Send for descriptive lit- erature. poisoning. For sunburn. W. F. YOUNG Inc., Abso} Milton, Pa. | — to limber up stiff leg muscles. For the lame shoulder. For insect bites. To guard against infection from cats and bruises. For after- shaving comfort(dilute).For plant $1.25 at your druggist’s Springfie! ‘bine groove, radial bearing, bearing, combination Announcement Fully appreciating the vexatious prob- lems that confront book-lovers in securing mo. | books from an endless list of publishers, | the Book Department of the Sctentiric | AMERICAN has arranged to supply the } books of all publishers directly to ¢ | reader, relieving him of the necessity of | prowling all over the world to get the books wanted, o you it is a one-source system at no additional cost for the service, the prices | being those of the publisher plus a nom- inal sum for postage. It will not be necessary to ask us can supply any svecial book, for we if it is still in print. | SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUB. CO. | Woolworth Building New York if we can

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Within the means of all Visitors from foreign countries invariably wonder at the number of telephones in America. “Why is it,” they ask, “that nearly everybody in America has a telephone, while in Europe telephone service is found only in a limited number of offices and homes?” First of all, telephone rates in the United States are the lowest in the wor’' for the service given. Here, since the beginning, the best service for the greatest number of people has been the ideal. By constant improvement in efficiency and economy the Bell System has brought telephone service within the means of all. From the start, its rate policy has been to ask only enough to pay fair wages and a fair return on investment. The American people are eager to adopt whatever is use- ful. They have found that Bell telephone service, compre- hensive, prompt and reliable, connecting them with the people they wish to reach, is worth far more to them than the price charged for it.

SE AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY % AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES BELL SYSTEM ALL METAL ADJUST- ABLE PANTOGRAPH Indispensable wherever a draughting used

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Auto Inventions Wanted Long established manufacturer of auto acces- sories which are daily sold by practically all wholesale and retail accessory houses will con- ; - : wickly enlarges or reduces. sider manufacturing and distributing new auto- suis postpaid on re- $3. 50 mobile products, capable of equally wide sale ceiptof . . . . through same channeis. Patented articles pre- Money cotunded Wt not ferred. Address Auto Accessory Manufacturer, . Room 2104, 310 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill. DRAWING AIDE CO.

224 Caxton Bldg., Cleveland, Obie

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Catalog and information mailed on request METAL CAST PRODUCTS CO., 1696 Boston Road, NewYork *» »

Bee '

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Learning to Use Our Aircraft are being put to use in peace as well as in war. AUGUST, 1925

This depart- ment will keep our readers informed of the latest facts about airships and airplanes Conducted by Alexander Klemin Associate Professor of Aeronautics, New York University

George Jacobs exhibiting a model of a Magnus effect propeller A Magnus Effect Propeller HEN a rotating cylinder is placed in a current of air it experiences an up- ward force, in accordance with the Magnus effect, mentioned so frequently in the col- umns of the Scientific American of late. Suggestions for tne application of the Magnus effect to every possible end are now being made. The probabilities are that the Flettner rotor ship will prove the sole prac- tical application, although an airplane sus-

<< --——o THRUST

sWNoasss 97 SS S

The Magnus effect propelier turns about its main axis, while at the same time each blade revolves about its own axis tained by a rotating cylinder is theoretically conceivable. So is a propeller based on the Magnus effect. Mr. George Jacobs is seen in our photo- graph demonstrating his model of a rotor propeller. Certainly such a propeller will give thrust whether it is revolving at a fixed point or moving through the air. The sec- ond of our diagrams indicates clearly why as the propeller revolves about its main axis with each blade turning about its own axis, the device experiences a forward thrust. But whether a Magnus effect propeller is as eficient as an ordinary propeller is a dif- ferent proposition. We are inclined to doubt it. The ordinary propeller derives its thrust from the summation of the left of its aero- foil elements, working with real efficiency. The rotating cylinder has so far failed to show anything like an equal efficiency in lift over drag ratio. More Power; Less Weight N 1923 Lieutenant Alford J. Williams, U. S. N., established a world’s speed record of 266 miles per hour on a Curtiss- Navy racer. Since no new planes were built in the United States for the Pulitzer races of 1924, the speed record presently passed to the French, with the Ferbois monoplane doing 278 miles an hour. The Army and Navy air services have now placed a joint contract with the Curtiss Company for this year’s Pulitzer trophy, and there is hope of beating the tremendous French record. Engineers are enjoined by the Government to keep their designs strictly secret. This much information, however, is available: in

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The Magnus effect cylinder rotating in a clockwise direction with air coming from the left will experience an upward lift force

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AUGUST, 1925 aD A GOOD IRON FENCE affords permanent protection, im- proves plant appearances, is a perpet- ual guard against prowlers. That’s the reason so many leading industrial plants have erected STANDARD OF THE WORLD DIGNIFIED —-ENDURING — ATTRACTIVE —it instills pride among workmen. We offer you a wide choice in designs and a product recognized as “stand- ard.” Send for catalog. Chainlink Factory Fence with fabric galvanized after weaving and as long lived as our heavy fence framework. Let us quote on your requirements. THE STEWART IRON WORKS COMPANY (Incorporated 241 Stewart Block, Cincinnati, 0. “The World's Greatest Iron Fence Builders” Jas KEYSTONE Rust-Resisting Copper Steel a) - a Ne | Nh 1A wih le KEYSTONE foPpeR ott, Quality! Service! Black and Galvanized SHEETS Formed Roofing Products Roofing Terne Plates Tin Plate, Etc. Secure maximum rust-resistance from all sheet metal products by insisting upon copper-steel. Its excellence is a well established metallurgical fact. The proof is conclusive. Keystone Copper Srek1 is an alloy made by the addi- tion of a certain percentage of Copper to well made Steel, thereby increasing its lasting and rust-resisting qualities under actual service condition. Unexcelled for culverts, tanks, flumes, roofing, siding, gutters, spouting, and all exposed sheet metal work. Send for booklet diving results of positive time and service tests. We manufacture Sheet and Tin Mill products for all pur- poses; Amperions Bessemer Steel Sheets, American Open earth Steel Sheets, Keystone Copper Steel Sheets, Black Sheets, Special Sheets for stamping, Sheets for Electrical apparatus, Automobile Sheets, Deep Drawing Sheets; Apollo and Apollo-Keystone Galvanized Sheets, Corrugated Sheets, Formed Roofing and Siding Products, Culvert and Flume Stock; Long Terne Sheets, Roof- ing Terne Plates, Bright Tin Plate, Black Plate, Etc. AMERICAN SHEET AND TIN PLATE COMPANY, Pittsburgh, Pa. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN the designs of the new planes themselves but little improvement is being made. It is in the motor that startling development is taking place. The 1923 Curtiss D-12 motor developed 400 horsepower and weighed 671 pounds. This year’s Curtiss motor, termed the V-1400, turns up 512 horsepower and weighs only 655 pounds. In spite of the exceedingly low weight per horsepower the motor has passed all its reliability tests. Sky-printing A NEW method of sky-writing, more ap- propriately termed sky-printing, has been invented by an Englishman named Bailey. From an airplane, flying one to two miles high, groups of fireworks are fired (colored stars at night or smoke-puffs dur- ing the day) to produce letters or numerals. & & oe... "S #25 @-4—--> & ee ® Ps “Sky-printing” by means of firing letters into the air from pistols is cheaper than previous forms of “sky-writing” The apparatus is simple. It consists of small firing machines, each comprising a number of inter-connected Very’s pistol barrels pointing in different directions. When the pilot pulls a lever each one of these machines fires a group of fireworks into the air, where they burst simultaneously forming a letter about 80 yards square. An average advertisement fired letter by letter is complete in ten seconds. The fire- works being projected 300 feet or more from the airplane before bursting are free from the wash of the plane and are said to pro- duce a lasting advertisement. An Air-cooled Triumph HE air-cooled engine is less vulnerable to bullets than a water-cooled engine, | lighter in itself and free from the weight and complication of the radiator and water system. The difficulty is in adequate cooling with the high compressions and temperatures that spell efficiency. This is particularly the case for large air-cooled cylinders where the cooling surface is proportionately smaller than the combustion chamber. Also the air-cooled motor has a larger area projected perpendicularly to the Jine of the wind, and therefore, more parasite resistance. The engineers of the Wright Aeronautical Corporation, working in close touch with the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, seem to have solved most of these difficulties. In a new Wide World The nine-cylinder radial air-cooled engine developed by the Wright Aeronautical Corporation. The para- site resistance of the air-cooled motor has been largely eliminated by streamlining To Executives Who Must Conserve Time— Precious hours have a habit of slipping by almost unnoticed. Too much business detail is often the cause, consuming time that should be devoted to bigger things. How to conserve time — that is every busy exec- utive’s problem. Cyclone Fence, enclosing industrial property, is a step in this direction. Cyclone Fence promotes order, helps to establish system, prevents outside interference, trespass, theft, vandalism. Thus, it eliminates many annoy- ing, time-consuming problems in administration. Cyclone Nation-Wide Service — Complete Responsibility From the time your order is placed until fence is erected, the Cyclone Fence Company assumes complete responsibil- ity for every detail of the manufacture and installation of Cyclone Fence. Phone, wire or write for complete information. CYCLONnNs FENCE COMPAN Y Factories and Offices: Waukegan, Ill., Cleveland, Ohio, Newark, N.J., Fort Worth, Tex. Pacific Coast Distributors: Standard Fence Co., Oakland, Calif. Northwest Fence & Wire Works, Portland, Ore. yclone “Galv-After” Chain Link ence We also Branch offices manufacture in principal cities. Wrought Look in your Iron Fence telephone book for industrial for our local uses. The Mark of Quality Fence and Service yclone bb Taq”

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GPUS OREDEROEETORERNDOROERSORNES*E NRE TESNCCORReHeNSeEERetE? SUTURES HARASS AUT Will You Build This Summer? ysis ThAPEMURNNAANNY TAIT THAT LH HMUIIL HUVUUUVAVUUUGUUAUALU HiUAMUUNUUALN 1 ut Il HOMLUMHLLLAAIL The Home Owners’ Hand-Book contains information on practically every point.that will come up from improvement assessments to decora- tion. It tells you what to watch in construction so that you will get full value for your investment. LT HULL The Scientific American always has main- tained and will maintain a journal worthy of its readers’ expectations. If you are now sub- scribing, this coupon can readily be used for a friend or associate interested in joining the Scientific American family. SEND IN THE COUPON NOW! THIS OFFER IS ONLY TEMPORARY ! SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING CO. Woolworth Building, New York City Send me the HOME OWNERS’ HAND-BOOK and the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, as indicated by my check mark in the box at the right of this coupon, for which I enclose check HOME OWNERS’ HAND-BOOK. } SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN FOR § ONE YEAR. $5 $8 HOME OWNERS’ HAND-BOOK. } Two subscriztions to the " SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. NAaMe 2... .ccccccovcecerereccoccessssceeeceseesseccessesesecsossees AGGLESS 2... cccccccccesercresestoeeseseeeeeeeetesseeesereeesoroes Two copies of HOME OWNERS’ } C] HAND-BOOK. Two subscriptions § 9 Additional Name ..........ccccscssececceseeccsevecseceveseoes to the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN model, termed the cyclone, a nine-cylinder radial air-cooled motor, 450 horsepower is developed in a power plant which weighs only 840 pounds ‘complete with all ac- cessories, piping, controls, and so on. The power plant of the 400-horsepower Liberty motor weighs 1,300 pounds with its 200- pound radiator and water system. By installing the Cyclone motor in lieu of the Liberty motor in a Douglas World cruiser type of plane, a remarkable improvement in performance has been secured. This is due not only to the lighter weight, but also to the skillful manner in which everything but the cylinders and exhaust pipes of the en- gine are streamlined into the cowling, as shown in our photograph. Incidentally the Cyclone has one of the largest air-cooled cylinders ever built in the world, with a six-inch bore and a six and one-half-inch stroke. Skillful and generous disposition of the highly conductive alumi- num fins has given the necessary cooling and made these large dimensions possible. ae Ee > ™, Yn eis }} % awe % Wide Worid AuGuUSsST, 1925 distance along the hull and hung in great folds as far aft as the beginning of the letters painted on the hull. Yet two minutes after she tore away the engines were work- ing and the wireless was in operation. Very shortly after, to prevent the envelope from ripping further, men went aloft, lowered a rope ladder over the bow, gathered up the loose ends of the flapping silk and tied them together. They made untidy balls but still prevented the silk from ripping further. Quite evidently the design of the bow of a rigid needs change, so that tearing away will not involve such great damage, but nevertheless this accident just as that of the Shenandoah is reassuring as regards the robust qualities of these air giants when once in flight. A Commercial Boom Sper ear anit like a boom in commercial \ aviation is in process. Edsel Ford, writ- ing in the Nation’s Business, predicts that aircraft will soon play as important a part te =e ™ An? West Point Cadets receive aviation instruction at Mitchel Field, Long Island. Divided into two groups, the graduating class will receive a five-day course Airworthiness N the same week accidents were reported to the non-rigid American airship the TC-3 and the English rigid R-33. The TC-3 with its rudder out of commission landed at Black Walnut, Missouri, without difficulty, although losing $14,000 worth of helium in the process. The R-33 provided in its mishap a striking example of air- worthiness. Torn away from the mooring mast at Pulham airdrome in Norfolk, Eng- land, in a gale of 50 miles an hour, the R-33 successfully emulated the Shenandoah and, although blown as far as the Dutch coast, across the North Sea, painfully but surely found her way back home. The airship in breaking away, tore the arm of the mooring mast, broke completely the first transverse framework and damaged severely the second of the eighteen sections into which she is divided. The outer en- velope was rent badly for one-sixth of the some in the life of the United States as the use of radio, and that we shall soon see “truly the age of the air.” The Fords, father and son, hardheaded business men as they are, are “sold” on aviation. They have donated an airport to the City of Detroit, are building an airship mooring mast there, and have inaugurated an air line which will be operated with Stout all-metal monoplanes between their factory in Detroit and the one in Chicago. They witnessed the maiden flight of the Stout plane on this route recently; our pho- tograph commemorates this interesting event. At the same time, Henry Ford, Charles M. Schwab, C. M. Keys, Clarence Dillon and others have formed an air line of $3,000,000 capital to operate between New York and Chicago. Just as significant and helpful as these events is the passing of the so-called Kelly Bill by the last Congress, reinforced by Wide World The photograph shows the battered nose of the air- The R-33 safe at Pulham. ‘ ship whieh was torn away when the airship broke from her moorings | Address

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rete oan Ste AvucustT, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN \ PARABOLIC MIRROR appropriations of half a million dollars. This bill authorizes the conclusion of con- tracts with private individuals with the pro- viso that the total compensation will not exceed four-fifths of the postage on the air mail carriage. It thus appears that the appropriation is merely a working capital which will return to the Government through postage. Therefore, the amount of business that may be done is large in proportion to the working capital. The Postmaster General is energetically following up the opening that the Kelly Bill gives him. Postmasters all over the country are asked to investigate the possibility ‘of obtaining air mail in their cities, and the justification for extending air mail to certain routes, The granting of contracts to private com- panies for carrying air mail is already being seriously considered for such routes as New York and Boston; Chicago and St. Louis; Los Angeles and Salt Lake City, Elko, Ne- vada and Pasco, Washington; Minneapolis- St. Paul and New Orleans; and Chicago and New Orleans by another route. Aerial Depth Gages O predict weather the barometer still remains the best guide. On board an airship, however, the problem is compli- cated by the fact that the barometric pres- sure is affected by altitude above sea level. To interpret his barometer correctly, there- fore, the airship navigator must be able to gage his height above the sea independently of pressure observations. In a series of articles on the dirigible published in the Scientific American, the importance of a device to measure the height independently of the altimeter was empha- sized by the writer of these notes, and several interesting suggestions have since been received. It appears that the German navigators of the LZ-126 or the Los Angeles had available on crossing the Atlantic at least two practicable methods of getting the true height. The first method depends on an applica- tion of trigonometry, and the use of very simple apparatus. At the focus of a para- bolic mirror a 100-candlepower lamp is placed, having but a single filament. The filament is reflected on the water as a narrow streak transverse to the keel of the ship. The reflecting apparatus is placed in the passageway along the keel; some 250 feet away from it is an observer's station. The observer armed with a sextant measures the angle between the line of the passageway and the line drawn from his eye to the re- flection of the lamp in the water. With the aid of a simple table he can then imme- diately obtain the elevation above sea level. The second method depends on the re- flection of sound from ground or water as an echo. The speed of sound is a constant quantity. If the time it takes to travel from the airship to the ground and back is measured, the elevation is immediately cal- culable. The apparatus that has utilized this principle successfully is the Behm aerial depth gage and it is said to give re- sults accurate within a few feet. Cartridges are detonated at some distance below the airship. When the sound of the detonation strikes a “sound receiver,” breaking an electrical circuit of which the sound re- ceiver is a part, a magnet is deprived of its magnetizing current and a tensed, flat spring is released. The spring imparts an impulse to a time registering wheel which revolves with great accuracy on a spindle mounted in sapphire bearings. When the echo of the detonation returns from the ground or the sea and strikes the sound receiver, an electro-magnetic brake comes into action and the time-registering wheels stop immedi- ately. The degrees through which this wheel has turned indicate the time taken by the sound to travel downward and back. Sirice the sound receiver is not screened and may be affected by other sounds, an auxiliary mechanism puts the sound receiver out of commission until approximately such time as the echo may be expected to return. With a little adjustment and trial the oper- ator can get the height in a few minutes. Wide World The Maiden Dearborn, the first airplane built at the new Ford airport 129 FACTS ABOUT A FAMOUS FAMILY One of the U.S. air mail bea- aa cons which are lighted from parte generated by Delco- ight electric plants. Lighting the way of the mail planes General Motors has contributed to the safety and surety of the air mail. Delco-Light electric plants, a General Motors product, furnish the current for 50 of the 54 beacons which light the night route of the mail planes from Cleveland, Ohio, to Rock Springs, Wyoming—a dis- tance of nearly 1,500 miles. All along the route the windows of thou- sands of Delco-Lighted farm homes send up a cheerful greeting. Thus General Motors is more than a builder , of motor cars and trucks. In scores of uses outside the automotive industry, its prod- ucts contribute to the progress of the nation. GENERAL MOTORS Buick + Capiitac + CHevroLtet + OAKLAND OupsmosiLteE + GMC Trucks General Motors cars, trucks, and Delco-Light products may be purchased on the GMAG Payment Plan. Insurance service is furnished by General Exchange Corporation.

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130 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN TUL u Pa) = i ULM AHA - Plan your pleas- ure with the | weather.Owna_ Tycos - Stormoguide | = ‘THE weather probabilities on a cloudy August morning are z = hard to guess. A glance at the 7'ycos Stormoguide will tell you = = the weather for the next 12 to 24 hours. = a A postal brings you full details and prices. a | S Ask for free Stormoguide Booklet. = 2 Taylor Instrument Companies ™ = ROCHESTER, WN. Y., U.S. A. = | CANADIAN PLANT, TYCOS BLDG., TORONTO = | = THERE IS A TYCOS OR TAYLOR TEMPERATURE = = INSTRUMENT FOR EVERY PURPOSE =| A Tireless Servant That Saves Countless ’ Toilsome Hours LEDGED by its makers to do speedily, more easily and better those strength-sapping tasks of sweeping and beating, the i. vacuum cleaner has brought countless play hours to women Nl who knew only work-hours before. And the basis of development of this untiring, capable servant was the fractional horsepower motor. Perhaps you-—an inventor or manufacturer—are developing a new electrically driven household appliance, or a tool or some other useful device. If you are not versed in things electrical, perhaps you are confronted with a knotty power problem which you find mighty difficult to solve. If such is your predicament, let our Engineering Department work out your puzzle for you. The personnel of this department, skilled in adapting fractional horsepower motors to new applications, can doubtless iron out your difficulties for you as they have for thou- sands of others. Just a word to these men and all their experience and facilities will be focused on the solution of your problem— without charge or obligation. Write them today! Learn whether any member of our line of fractional h.p. units—ranging from 1/40 to }4 h.p.—-will answer your particular need. WISCONSIN ELECTRIC COMPANY 48 Sixteenth Street Racine, Wisconsin Dumore Fractional !PMotors O& > o 5 b i g = STU LL LL LLL LULL LAL a AuGusT, 1925 \NTAE EDITORS MAIL We Blush INCIDENTAL to asking for more specific in- formation concerning an item in the Scien- tific American, this reader compliments us profusely. Perhaps sufficient modesty should deter us from publishing his letter, but we are rather proud to be the recipient of such flattering remarks. We try to merit the approval of our readers, and it helps us along to know that we succeed in this effort. White Plains, N. Y. Dear Editor: If you can—and will—give me the name and address of the manufacturer of the plastic wood described in your issue for February, 1925, I shall be very much obliged to you. Perhaps, to insure a proper interest in this request, I ought to add that I have read every issue of the Scientific American from the days of my early boyhood to the present ripe middle-age, that I would sooner part with all my other magazines than this one, and that, whatever might be said of the old, rather dry and matter-of-fact weekly, the present magazine is to my mind close to an ideal combination of skillful choosing, technical accuracy and inter- esting presentation; but, though all of that were true, I shall say none of it for fear of being accused of attempting to buy a service that you would prefer to render gratis. Walter J. Spiro. A Correction From across the sea comes a letter calling attention to an inaccuracy in an article which appeared in our March issue entitled “What Becomes of the Energy Contained in a Ton of Coal.” Mr. Brownlie goes after us “hammer and tongs,” and this is what he has to say: 46, Grange Road, Ealing, London, W. 5. Dear Editor: I was very interested to note in your March issue a_ full-page illustration entitled “What Becomes of the Energy Contained in a Ton of Coal.” It is stated in this that the best average practice at the present time with regard to the generation of steam is 75 percent efficiency, and that only 0.1 percent is lost in radiation. This is such an extra- ordinarily inaccurate statement that per- haps you would allow me to make a few comments upon it. In the fir lace, of course, the illus- tration feat ‘a locomotive type of ently nothing will ever kill. The aver- age boiler plant efficiency throughout the world, including—in addition to the boilers — feed-water economizers and superheaters, is less than 60 percent. I am stating this from some consider- able experience, as I have made here in Great Britain a very elaborate investiga- tion, spread over 15 years, of over 400 different boiler plants, comprising 1,515 boilers in 41 different industries, with a total coal bill of about 3,250,000 tons per annum, and the exact net average figure of these investigations is 58 per cent, including—as already stated—feed- water economizers and _ superheaters. The ordinary small plant is probably less than 55 percent, and if it has no econo- mizers and superheaters, as shown in your illustration, then it is with any reasonable output of steam something in the nature of 50 percent. The popular conception, therefore, that the average boiler plant is working at 75 percent efficiency is so entirely erroneous that one is puzzled to know how it ever originated, even allowing for the enthusiastic statements of some firms who sell boiler plants. There is being burned in the world today some- thing like 500,000,000 tons of coal per annum on stationary land boilers alone, and I should imagine that not more than about 2 to 3 percent of this huge amount is being used at 75 percent. The average electric power station, where there is every opportunity for the most elaborate care, certainly does not exceed 70 percent efficiency on its boiler plant, and there are very few stations in the world where the figure is 75 per- cent. Naturally I am quite aware that a few plants, especially with the latest type of pulverized coal equipment and in a less number of cases with mechan- ical stokers, are running as high as 85 percent, while one or two plants will eventually be 90 percent, but these are entirely exceptional. Further, I may say that with regard to the illustration there is no mention made whatever of the auxiliary steam used by the boilers. For example, every plant has to have a boiler feed pump, which takes steam, and in averages any- thing from 1 to 10 percent of the steam generation may easily be swallowed up in this way by means of mechanical draught, steam nozzles, feed pumps, economizer scraper engines, mechanical stoker drive, and similar appliances. David Brownlie. Help the Traffic Cop boiler, which presumably, however, is merely intended as generally represent- ing all designs of boiler, and as it is shown entirely unlagged the radiation losses may be anything from 5 to 10 percent, depending on the conditions. With the most efficient lagging possible, however, a cylindrical boiler will lose at least 1.5 to 2 percent of the heat, and a figure of 0.1 percent is ludicrous. The idea that the average boiler plant is running at 75 percent, that is to say for every 100 parts of coal put into the surface 75 parts are actually used in generating useful steam at the stop valve, is a popular fallacy which appar- . RECKLEss motorists beware! Marshal Schwegler of Minden, Iowa, says that he liked Mr. Slauson’s article-on “A New Plan for Traffic Laws.” We have secured a photo- graph of the marshal and his motorcycle for the benefit of our readers who may come within range of his eagle eye! His warning follows: “I read your article in regard to the new traffic laws. I am interested in trafic laws myself as I have been an officer now for twelve years and am drivy- ing a Harley-Davidson motorcycle. . . I would like to see a law passed in every state in the Union to have the governor ee

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AvucustT, 1925 181 sealed on every automobile so that a car could not go over twenty-five miles an hour, except officers’ motorcycles, sheriffs’ cars, state inspectors’ cars or racing cars on tracks. . . Another law I would like to see passed is one com- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN pelling every car owner to pass an ex- amination before he is permitted to drive NICD cence RA Fi & ee | «=—,d Method of Heatin the Weight ho 4 the When you visit Detroit make this hotel your home Here at the Fort Shelby you'll feel at home—for hospitality is a dis- tinguishing feature of this hotel. Excellent equipment, friendly service and congenial environmert make the Fort Shelby prominent in pleas- || PRaNmn ides Trac pees cer RACTORS a Micrwaan Ciry sc Simpson ‘ Ataneon, Miontgan City? “, Contlenss; PERRUARY ¢ lees Marshal Schwegler has some splendid ideas for motor vehicle laws Pe « Known as ere ve. fa the “Vent, much 1, ours Rew Pord waa asst” pay the heating but om", whiog 879% em ant recollections of many thousands “I have been reading the Scientific fron wnton™™y*t a 700 tastalieg a . . . . get who visit Detroit. Yet charges are American for many years and I think it aeceaey’f, those gens Best, "the'giS@® Lomatet in ing 5, Plent, run ert P whi des t Ths td Detroit is the best magazine I have on my desk. ofthe dayne? from tne gant ere ockanaseh tat 12°Z00 | 18 Fos moderate. Is 18 the one 1/etrol I get a real kick out of this paper.” sot SP Sati atone fgeeiven ap cosa ey tiae ax ae Sight, ve Pereen ent hotel with Servidor Service, protect- ing your privacy and purse. Was There a Masonic Order 800 Years Ago? Rates per day, $2.50 and —: 8 | A curious photograph was sent in the ‘2 pain conn vecthes’ 19 100 © 60°¢ pleasant room with private bath, [| other day, bearing the inscription “Masonic- rendre Sted as Snes 97 be >ae $3.50. Fort Shelby Garage, near like Emblem.” The picture interested us praedtabtt, bee taataiioa'®, 192 sti ont Sovents tive the hotel, provides unexcelled ac- and we wrote to Frank Pinkley, Superin- a te fixture ot SLE tst109 commodations tendent of Southwestern Monuments, at isi lsSaMaptted Z7e sash isso with the » " ; | Crown Point, New Mexico, to learn what installation on of i gts sat Tate “sias acoases oh HOTEL | we could about this find. We received the a °F Feeoameng. following answer. Maybe you can tell us - *6y yours, FORT SHELBY whether a ae and anna Nang omen or osm Lafayette Blvd. at First St. rown Point, New Mexico. Y — My Dear Mr. Munn: DETROIT In Mr. Pinkley’s absence I am reply- ing to your letter of April 16th, regard- A quiet location, yet close to ing the so-called Masonic Emblem found the busiest downtown corner | at the Casa Grande Ruins. If you are interested in prehistoric | Seth E. Frymire W.G. McKay || Masonry on the American continent you | Manager Ass't. Sec’y. — will be interested in the age of this | ' Ol lo object which is carved of shell. . . Mr. Pinkley has no doubt but that it is at least 800 years old. This esti- BECOME A FOOT CORRECTIONIST mate is based on the fact that it was $3,000 to $10,000 yearly in a business of your own, f a¢ f | P 1 -many are making it in the New Profession of ound four feet deep in a trash mounc foot correction, not medical ~or chiropody. Open- of the “old red” period. By this is ings everywhere with all trade you can attend meant that it was made, used, broken to; 8: s for licer wd training by mail; ° - wee es ae as ry - Bes rt and thrown into this trash heap before i black and white decoration was used by agency or soliciting. ite today for full details. aeons this culture, and we can trace this black : aig S..1_....4_.. —— — and white ware back at least 800 years, This Venturafin Unit in the which gives the minimum date to this upper right heats a room 50x mp ang | emblem. . . 100 feet — note the compactness of this unit, This Ford Sales and Service building is heated throughout with the Venturafin Method of heating. The Safe Ried to Investments | EFORE investing your surplus funds, take the precaution against loss by seeking the expert and conservative | advice of your local or investment | banker who will gladly serve you. _ Guard Against Loss In | Investments For after all good investment oppor- tunities predominate. Caution, Care, Investigation will reveal safe and profit- able channels for your surplus funds. | | | The Financial Article that ap- | The Venturafin Method of Heating has already been installed in buildings of all sizes and descriptions and the results have been amazing. The above letter from the Prince Motor Co. is but one of the many testimonials proclaiming the remark- able success of this new and greater heating method. Courtesy of the National Park Service of the Dept. of the lnterior ~ . . i i . ation = hs “a a S Masonic-like emblem unearthed in Write for complete inform solve your investment problems. ee ey AMERICAN BLOWER COMPANY, DETROIT i i i ITIES he habit of reading th : Masons find several Masonic points in BRANCH OFFICES IN ALL PRINCIPAL C ae in een hen ail een this article. As to whether or not it CANADIAN SIROCCO COMPANY, LIMITED, WINDSOR, ONTARIO them profitable. All advertisements > ge intended for a square and compass (462) carefully censored. is for each observer to judge as Mr. Pinkley makes no claims as to that merican lower HARPER’S MAGAZINE ||| eK a 49 East 33rd Street, New York, N. Y. sae 4 eri 3 * VENTILATING, HEATING, AIR CONDITIONING, DRYING, MECHANICAL DRAFT . New York, N. Y. Writing for Frank Pinkley, jing Lil” Equipment Since 1661 \— | Superintendent, Southwestern Monuments. Manufacturers of all Types of Air-Handling Equip’

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132 Substantial Manufacturer Wants New Product Hardware Specialty Preferred AVE you a new or improved | tool, a household utility or =~ an automobile necessity that is ripe for quantity production and general sale ? If so, we can put you in touch with a concern in position to make and market the goods. This is a world-known manu- facturer cf a quality product in hardware lines;— A leading national advertiser, with the tremendously valuable asset of brand name and reputa- tion long established with both trade and consumer;— And with a national and inter- national sales organization and distributive system. In short, a concern prepared to manufacture and sell in a big, quick, aggressive, economical way. Also— THIS manufacturer will make something for someone else to SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN sell; forged of steel or any other metal shaped when hot, in pieces weighing from four ounces to eight pounds. Being specialists in the metal- lurgy and heat treatment of steel, our clients know how to select steel for a given purpose and bring out its best qualities. For example: increase of strength with reduction of weight. This plant now machines parts in quantity production so that they are interchangeable within the| limits of five one-thousandths of an inch. WRITE us about specialty you may wish to sell outright; or article in steel | or other metal which you want forged, | ground and either polished or gun metal | finished, or painted. We will arrange meeting with manufacturer. DONOVAN-ARMSTRONG National Advertising 1211 Chestnut Street PATENTS TRADE-MARKS DESIGNS FOREIGN PATENTS MUNN & CO. PATENT ATTORNEYS Associated since 1846 with the Scientific American WOOLWORTH BUILDING 233 Broadway, N. Y. C. TOWER BUILDING Chicago, Ill. Books and Information on Patents and Trade-Marks by Request. Associates in All Foreign Countries. VAN NUYS BUILDING Los Angeles, Cal. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN BLDG. _ | Washington, D. C. HOBART BUILDING San Francisco, Cal. A Graphic Picture of the Universe Here’s something from Mr. Dercum re- Do you agree with him? “The recently developed theory that the Andromeda nebula lies without the milky way, beyond the limits of what was our assumed universe, being itself a milky way on its own account, in- creases the known range of that universe tremendously. That it and the other nebulae under observation may be mere- ly correlated parts of some outer system, staggering in its dimensions, is not a fanciful assumption. “At the other end of scientific re- search chemists and physicists are bat- tering at the elements. The conception of the cell, the molecule and the atom having been extended in turn to include further subdivision until today even the lay mind readily grasps the idea of elec- trons revolving about a center or about each other. That these in turn may be conceived as having their satellites or as being otherwise subject to division or analysis is again not a fanciful assump- tion. “This entire progress to date, in human knowledge, along the lines above indi- cated, can be graphically represented by two conics. As the limits of knowledge are extended beyond the electron and beyond the milky way, as new theories and new facts develop, the figure will include them. The universe itself seems to be completely represented in this figure; complete as far as we know it, complete as far as any possible advance in human knowledge may show it, com- plete as it stretches beyond even the outer edges of limitless space. garding our universe—a subject most of us are a little hazy about. theory. He offers a novel AvuGusT, 1925 enough developed at present to take over the national defense, but it is my opinion that there should be an Air Secretary in the President’s cabinet whose duty it would be to facilitate the development of aviation in all its phases, civil and commercial as well as mili- tary. Let us assume that we have an air force representing an outlay of money equivalent to one first-class battleship with its complement of smaller boats. The number—one thousand planes—that was used in the Congressional discus- sion seems conservative. Is it unreasonable to assume that the proportionate outlay in land bases and repair facilities for Air and Navy would be nearly equal? Let us assume that most of this fleet is engaged in civil and commercial transportation, the pilots receiving mili- tary training for a short period each year, and the fleet subject to call in case of emergency. This earning capacity should bring the cost of maintenance to a very reasonable figure. Now I will purposely make this pic- ture in black as I can conceive it. We assume a fleet of only one thousand serviceable planes, and we will suppose we have no Navy. Even so, if we are attacked by a nation having a navy exactly equal to our present naval de- fense, having the same number of planes as ours now has, could they land troops or even bombard our coast with reason- able safety? The picture is unreasonable. The number of planes is altogether inade- quate to the size of the country, but very effective in an emergency. Few, if any, people of influence enter- tain any idea of abandoning the Navy. The. Milly hay ~ Do you agree with this theory of the universe? “A B and C D being axes extended according to the needs of the figure, draw the hyperbolas E G and F H, which approach but never touch the axes. “Any arbitrary horizontal portion of the figure thus formed, such as the shaded area, may be said to represent the known universe at some particular time. Thus E F may represent our knowledge of the electron and G H our astronomical knowledge today. This shaded area is being constantly extended in both directions. Yet G H, in order to be all-embracing, need never quite touch the axis A B, infinity, and E F may be contracted to represent the last subdivision of the electron’s complicated organism, yet still allow for infinite future contraction. “The figure holds without revision until the crack of doom.” H. Dercum, Cleveland. —_+———— Do You Agree with This Reader? Here’s a kick. This reader does not agree But I believe that some defense money could well be directed to aviation pur- poses, and that with administration as honest and efficient as we now find in the Navy, we would get more defense for our money. I hope there will be lots of discussion of this subject, and that someone more capable will take up my point. I appreciate your aviation department. May it grow to much greater propor- tions! And may the new investment column have a long and useful career. Laurence S. Monson. Congratulations! Born the same year as the Scientific American, and a subscriber nearly all that time—surely that is a record of consistency. Thank you, Mr. Bristol, for your good wishes, and permit us to extend ours. New York City. Dear Mr. Munn: It is with great pleasure that I return memorandum card received with your recent progressive letter pertaining to with us on the relative value of land, water and air defense. We always like to get the other man’s point of view. It produces stimulation of thought. Ideas which differ from ours are especially welcome. 123 Lyons Avenue, Newark, New Jersey. Gentlemen of the Scientific American: I hope you will live to regret the stand you have taken regarding the relative values of land, water, and air defense. It is true that aviation is not well Scientific American Home Service. I congratulate you upon that letter and its enclosures. Kindly find my card herewith. Incidentally, I may state that I be- lieve the Scientific American made its first appearance in 1845, the year of my birth, and it seems to me that I have been a subscriber for pretty nearly all that time. With kind personal regards and all good wishes. John I. D. Bristol. a = && het

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ic at AvucusT, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Engine Balance The Conclusion of Professor Cormac’s Discussion of Counterbalance By P. Cormac, F.R.C.Sc.1. N our July issue, we considered single and multi-cylinder engine balance. The application of the two-circle method to radial and V engines will be shown in the analysis of the balance of the eight cylin- ders set at right angles, the rods of corre- sponding cylinders sharing the same crank- pin. The crankshaft is the usual flat four cylinder type. For the V engine a separate diagram is drawn for the cylinders on the right and on the left side of the engine. These are shown in Figure 1. The crank- shaft is set out so that it is on the dead center for the right bank of cylinders. The equivalent rotating masses are shown on the circles, the Roman numerals indicating re- verse rotating masses. revers? secondary masses for the right bank of cylinders fall at the upper right hand point of the secondary circle and are shown at C on the pilot diagram. The direct and reverse secondary masses for the left bank of cylinders fall at the lower right hand point of the secondary circle and are shown at D on the same diagram. Evidently these secondaries are not in bal- ance, for the center of gravity of the direct rotating masses is at G as is also the center of gravity of the reverse rotating masses. In fact the system is equivalent to direct and reverse rotating masses of the same amount at G rotating in the dotted circle through this point, and these again correspond to the secondary balance masses of a piston oscillat- ing in a horizontal direction. Cc o. “Yy N Figure 1: In the right bank of cylinders the rotating and unbalanced masses are in line, as the crankshaft is set on the dead center. In the left bank—the crank- shaft being at 90 degrees—the are again in a straight line. The compo- nents of the unbalanced masses, however, of the two banks resolved in the pilot diagram, show the ultimate unbalanced mass at G. This is the mass to be counterbalanced It may be noted that if the circles were folded along the dotted cylinder-center line, the corresponding Arabic and Roman numer- als, representing the direct and reverse rotat- ing masses for each piston, would coincide. This is nelpful in marking in the positions of the reverse rotating masses. The secondary circle of each group shows all masses concentrated at a single point. It is clear that all the masses running on the primary circles are in balance. The two secondary circles with the masses running on them are redrawn with a common center in the pilot figure above. The direct and As the radius of the dotted circle is one- half times the radius of the secondary circle, the secondary inertia force of an eight- cylinder V engine with a flat crankshaft is 8/22 times the secondary force of one of its cylinders. This force tends to vibrate the engine in a horizontal direction. For an engine having the cylinder dimensions and speed already given, the horizontal vibrating force reaches 2,085 pounds weight. The superiority of an eight-cylinder V en- gine having a crankshaft with complete primary and secorfdary balance will now be appreciated. Such a crankshaft, shown in Figure 2: In distinction to the other diagram on this page, and those which appeared in the first part of this article in our July issue, it will immediately be noticed how the centers of mass of the various reciprocating parts are distributed J over the diagram, showing at once that less cing will be necessary in the straight-eight engine Smooth and Plaster-saving It costs less to plaster Pyrobar Partition Tile than other fireproof materials, because Pyrobar are cast in metal molds and have no warped surfaces—they are uniformly smooth and true. ... They save mortar, too, because they are larger in size and make fewer joints. And the speed with which these light-weight gypsum tile are erected assures earlier occupancy of the building. ... Write for book describ- ing other important Pyrobar advantages. UNITED STATES GYPSUM COMPANY General Offices: Dept. G, 205 W. Monroe St., Chicago, IIL PYROBAR PARTITION TILE 6 SEND THIS TODAY United States Gypsum Company, Dept.G, 205 W. Monroe St., Chicago, Ill. Please send booklet completely describing tile indicated. 0 Pyrobar Partition Tile O) Pyrobar Roof Tile

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134 SCIENTIFIC Figure 2 has cranks 1 and 4 at right angles to cranks 2 and 3. The diagrams on left and on right in Figure 2 show the equivalent rotating masses for the left and the right bank of cylinders respectively, the Roman numerals indicating reverse rotating masses as before. It will be noted that the sec- ondary circle masses are in balance, it being understood that the Arabic numerals on these circles represent both direct and re- rotating Also on combining the two primary circles we find that the reverse rotating primary masses are in bal- ance. The only unbalanced effect is that due to the masses i, 3, 4, 2, rotating with the crankpins. verse masses. These, however, can be balanced by counterbalance masses placed opposite each crankpin so that the complete primary and secondary design gives us balance. AMERICAN This is the type of shaft used in the Cadillac V-63. For every type of engine the connecting rod can be dealt with by considering it broken into two parts of masses proportional to the distances of its center of gravity from its ends. The heavier portion is assumed to be as it were part of the crankpin, and the lighter portion is assumed to be part of the piston. This replacement is exact as far as balance of inertia forces is concerned, and it is but very slightly in error for other calculations. No particular advantage is obtained by making the rod so that it has the same period when oscillated about either the big or the small end. In this case, however, the replacement into two parts at the crankpin and gudgeon pin is exact for all kinds of balancing calculations. The Heavens in August By Professor Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D. ~ s 5 = N AvuGusT, 1925 Prism Binoculars —for the tourist, yachtsman, hunter, explorer, naturalist. Only in a Zeiss Binocular will you find the power, field of view and sharp definition which have made these glasses famous throughout the world. Twenty models of 3 to 18 power at opticians, camera, and sporting-goods dealers. Write us for binocular catalog. HAROLD M. BENNETT, vu. s. Agt. 153-A West 23rd St., New York EARLZEISD ‘CENA Zeiss Telescopes, Microscopes and Photographic Lenses ice Making and Refrigerating Machinery Corliss & Poppet Valve Engines Bulletins sent upon request THE VILTER ty co. 899 Clinton Street Milwaukee, Wis. HERE S MORE MONEY ror YOU S M l| jrisins. ¥ help booker is m aw j At 11 o'clock: Aug. 7. At 9 o'clock: Sept. 6. com) course of ie They cover At 10% o’clock: Aug. 14. At 8% o'clock: Sept. 14. heme ae Fi ees ow A At 10 o’clock: Aug. 22. a LL At 8 o'clock: Sept. 21. other trades. Full catalogue FRE! A postcard At 9% o’clock: Aug. 29. | rake & Co., Publishers 1083 Michigan Avenue, Chicago When local summer time is in effect, they 12 o'clock on August 7, etc. to Bungalow | The hours given are in Standard Time. must be made one hour later: —WHEREVER MEN DEPEND UPON CUTTING TOOLS MOST The favorite circular saw of the big mills is a Simonds. Skilled carpen- ters and other craftsmen should choose a Simonds Hand Saw when they want the best. For mills and craftsmen know that a Simonds Saw can only be produced by Si- nonds. They know, too, that a characteristic Simonds cutting edge is made possible only by us- ing the pee processed steel, developed through nearly a cen- tury of experience. Ask your hard- ware or mill supply dealer for these saws or wrice us for catalog. SIMONDS SAW & STEEL COMPANY Fitchburg, Mass. “The Saw Makers” Established 1832 Branch Stores and Service Shops in Principal Cities SIMON nced SAWS FILES KNIVES STEEL DS NIGHT SKY: AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER The Heavens UR map this month shows the summer skies as they would appear to one lying on the ground, with his feet to the north, and looking straight up. Right over- head is the great cross of Cygnus in the Milky Way. To the west is Lyra with the bright star Vega, to the south Aquila with Altair. Arcturus is low in the west, and Hercules and Corona are between it and Ophiuchus and Serpens are in the southwest and Scorpio is setting there, while Sagittarius, brightened by the pres- ence of Jupiter,is just west of south. The southwestern sky is dull—the bright star there being Fomalhaut. Pegasus is in the east. Andromeda, Perseus and Cassio- peia in the northeast. Ursa Major low in the northwest and Ursa Minor and Draco above it. Vega. only The Planets Mercury is an evening star at the be- ginning of August and sets at 8 p.m. He is easily visible in the twilight for the first few days of the month, but then draws in toward the sun. On the 2lst he passes through conjunction to appear next month as a morning ‘star. Venus is an evening star, too, and is close to Mercury when the month begins; but she is moving away from’ the sun, while he is speeding toward it, so that they soon draw apart. She is, however, moving ‘south- ward and her time of setting is about 8 p.m. all through the month. Mars is an evening star too but is much nearer the sun than the others and is prac- tically invisible. Jupiter is in Sagittarius just past opposi- tion and well observable till long after mid- | night. ‘ Saturn is farther west, in Virgo, and is an evening star, setting about 10 P.M. Uranus is in Pisces, and comes to the me- ridian about 2 a.m. while Neptune is in conjunction with the sun on the 15th and is invisible. The moon is full at 7 a.m. on the 4th, in her Jast quarter at 4 a.m. on the 11th, new at 8 a.m. on the 19th, and in her first quar- ter at midnight om the 26th. She is nearest the earth on the 4th and farthest away on the 17th. During the month she is in con- junction with Jupiter on the 2nd, Uranus on the 7th, Neptune on the 19th, Mercury and Mars, on the 20th, Venus on the 22nd, Saturn on the 25th, and Jupiter again on the | 29th. wireNats for joining radio antenna and lead-in wires in one minute without solder, ‘~ ¥ or tools, Many other uses. A million been made with these new Wire Listed by Underwriters’ bbenedion. Booklet free. Ask your dealer for Wire-Nuts, We will send 3 Wire-Nuts post paid on receipt of 25c. S. TORK COMPANY, 8 W. 40 St., New York lect ag have already There’s A Reason! The fine, clear tone and volume of the Kellogg Symphony Reproducer is due to the Kellogg unit with the mag- netic diaphragm control. This exclusive Kellogg principle has produced wonders in the accurate repro- duction of voice and music; piano music is unusually fine, the lowest tones of the saxophone to the highest of the violin are as clear as a bell, the soprano voice can really be admired. Observe the rigid construction of this unit, the exactness of every detail, the size of the magnets. The unit is the reason. See one at your dealer's today. KELLOGG SWITCHBOARD & SUPPLY CO. 1066 W. Adams St. - Chicago, Ill. With every Kellogg radio part, Use—Is The Test SNC ls nn ks RE SS ee

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as | | | AvaGusT, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Science and Money Research Decreases Cost of Electricity Technical Development Affects Earnings and Security Values of Electric Light and Power Companies By Chase Donaldson eee power plants of today are economical beyond the most optimistic hopes of the early engineers. Merely the size of the modern machines and the cathe- dral-like spaciousness of the stations them- selves would startle the pioneers in electrical science. Even those to whom the busy hum of turbines is familiar music cannot help but be impressed by the 100,000-kva. turbine that Westinghouse is now building for the Brooklyn Edison Company. Size alone has not effected all of the economies that have been realized thus far in the production of electricity. Of equal importance have been the effective utiliza- tion of the heat units in the coal, high efficiency in the conversion of steam to elec- tricity, thorough protection against electrical breakdowns, and the transmission of elec- tricity with the minimum loss. Coal Power plants are placed as close to the coal mines as the supply of water for cool- ing purposes will permit, and coal-handling apparatus has become almost unbelievably mechanical. The two-armed crane that strad- dles a belt conveyor at the new Philo (Ohio) plant of the American Gas and Electric Company hustles coal around in a most un- canny fashion. Automatic stokers, of course, have been in operation for many years. Now a more refined method of feeding the coal to the boilers has appeared in the pulverized fuel- burning equipment which is being adopted for many of the newer plants. The Mil- waukee Electric Railway “and Light Com- pany, the Duquesne Light Company, the Puget Sound Power and Light Company, the West Penn Power Company, and the Cleveland Electric [Illuminating Company, to mention but a few, all have some pow- dered-fuel installations. It is claimed that these installations realize efficiencies from 83 to 86 percent as against stoker efficiencies of around 76 percent. With this equipment, in spite of variations in the grade of fuel used, a high boiler efficiency can be main- tained and a great flexibility secured. Larger and better designed combustion chambers, refractory linings with a longer life, improved baffling arrangements, inclined and stepped grates, and more effective forced and induced draft apparatus—all have had a hand in increasing combustion efficiency. The index of this increased efficiency is the pounds of coal consumed per kilowatt hour of electrical output. In 1919 it re- quired 3.22 pounds of coal, or its equivalent in. other fuels, to produce a kilowatt hour of electricity. In the year 1924, this figure stood at 2.18 pounds of coal, less than 68 percent of the 1919 rate. Measured in dol- lars, this gain in efficiency means a saving of approximately $113,000,000 in the year 1924 alone, assuming coal at $4. Steam In the turbine room, economies have been effected through the use of higher steam pressures, temperatures, and degrees of superheat, bleeding the turbines for feed water heating, and reheating the exhaust steam to pass it through the lower pressure stages again. Steam pressures ranging from 300 pounds per square inch up to 550 pounds are com- mon practice, and one or two installations are promised at 750 pounds pressure. At the Weymouth plant of the Boston Edison Electric Illuminating Company a_ 1,200- pound turbine exhausting into headers to supply other turbines with steam at lower pressures is now in successful operation. Mercury turbines have been installed so far at but one plant, that of the Hartford Electric Light Company, but it has been rumored in technical circles that one of the largest stations now on paper will make some use of the mercury equipment. The first mercury boiler and turbine installation has been fully described in the February, 1924 issue of the Scientific American. Condensing apparatus has been measur- ably improved within the past few years, and has helped to insure continuous turbine operation. Feed water purifiers now insure a clean supply of water for steam, and longer life for the boiler tubes and turbine blades. Electricity Breakdowns, of course, run up the cost of operation out of all proportion to the costs of normal operating conditions. Effort in central station and electrical design has been directed most strongly towards relia- bility of service. In the more recent plants, each operating unit is segregated from its fellows to pre- vent everything “going out” at once. Con- duits are now run in separate ducts, and conduit rooms are well insulated from the rest of the plant. Entirely distinct switch houses carry the heavy-duty switching equipment, and each switch is usually a unit in itself, well in- sulated from the others. Reactors to limit trouble that may occur on feeder lines and busses have been used more extensively in the later designs. Automatic devices throughout the power plant and in substation operation have done much to eliminate the labor element and to safeguard against breakdowns. Operations Operating ratios have been measurably improved over the past few years as a result of all the technical improvements that have been passed in review in the preceding dis- cussion. And lower operating ratios natu- rally mean larger net profits from operation. Of course, the electric light and power com- panies are under the jurisdiction of the public service commissions, and are regu- lated as to rates, kinds of service, and net return on property value. But these com- missions have shown a greater tendency to allow the more efficient utilities some credit in the rate of return. The better part of the operating economies, however, has been reflected in the rate reductions that have been made, and in the steady rates that have been maintained in the face of rising costs. Securities But the investor is more interested in the actual securities than he is in all the tech- nical features that make for better earnings and service. Nevertheless, it is evident that the relationship to security values is indeed direct. The engineers behind the electrical industry are most progressive and may be depended upon to continue attacking oper- ating costs through research and experiment. Considering that the electric companies are in a period of prosperity, and that the individual use of electricity is increasing year by year, the investor need not hesitate to buy the common stocks, preferred stocks, and bonds of the better managed and estab- lished companies. The bonds are probably as good a buy now as they may be at a later date, but the common stocks ‘have enjoyed such a rise within recent months that it may be wise to wait for a reaction. A shattered wall—but an undented shovel! Wood’s Mo-/yb-den-um Shovels will outlast from two to six ordinary shovels. The step or turned over edge makes them comfortable for the feet. The Moly-D handle, which is non- cracking, makes them easy on workmen’s hands. from six ounces to a pound lighter thanordinary shovels, too. Write for folder. We are also makers of the best carbon steel shovels. THE WOOD SHOVEL & TOOL COMPANY Blow after blow impelled by great, writhing muscles in pow- erful arms. Hunks of concrete flew in all directions. Then he quit. Panting with exhaustion he said, ‘‘ You can’t even dent it.’’ This actual test was under- taken by a company which wanted to prove to themselves the claims of The Wood Shovel &ToolCompany. Whenthetest was over, the blade of the shovel was neither bent nor dented. Piqua, Ohio Wood's Mo-lyb-den-um, Shovels 135 The third great | improvement a “MOLY-D” They are second great improvement The Step > The first great improvement Mo-lyb-den-um Steel Ann No. 7 You ought to have this handy Parks in your shop! A compact, complete machine de- signed just like a big production outfit at one-fifth the cost. Nothing extra to buy. Motor is included, operating from any light socket. Fits in a cor- ner of your basement. Does any kind of cabinet and joinery work. Circular saw, jointer and bandsaw on perma- nent all-steel frame. Add lathe, shaper and other attachments at small cost. You can make money with this Parks! Write for circular The Parks Ball Bearing Machine Co. 1552 Knowlton St., Cincinnati, Ohio Canadian Factory: 200 Notre Dame East, Montreal, Canada | alata. WOODWORKING MACHINES 66 Slide Rule OW would you like to own a slide rule 66” long? Here is its ) equivalent in pocket form. The Otis King Patent Calculator has open spital scales 66” long mounted on two meta! tubes; yet when closed, it only measures 6 inches. 1650 divisions are marked on cach of the scales—roughly five times the number on a 10” slide rule—and results accmate to 5 or 6 sig- nificant figures are easily read with absolute The instrument is practically indestructible, and the scales, being mounted on an all-metal body, cannot warp as so frequently happens with the slide rule. Avnd instead of a delicate glass cursor there is a tubular indicator, which is good for a lifetime. Send for this useful little instrument at once; after you have used it you wouldn't be with- out it for 10 times its cost. Price $5, exclusive of duty, but including carriage direct to your CARBIC LIMITED 51, Holborn Viaduct, London, England USED IN U.S. A. AND CANADA BY Lick Observatory Washington Fisheries Board Columbia University Book Rockefeller institute for Med- Store ica! Resear! U.S. Bureau of Mines, Wash- American Tele & Tele- ington graphy Co., Research Dept University of Mi Harvard University Commit- tee on Economic Research Toronto University Saskatchewan University, ete. Brown University Delaware University U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

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136 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Radio Notes | 4 Review and Commentary on the Progress in This Branch of Rapid Communication Conducted by Orrin E. Dunlap, Jr. Saws are blind as bats! CCASIONALLY they will strike a snag that even you cannot seé, | Courtesy of General Electric New Hornless Loudspeaker Described by Inventors A HorRNLEss loudspeaker of new design has been invented and demonstrated by two research engineers of the General Electric working havoc | Company, C. W. Rice and E. W. Kellogg. ‘4 py The new instrument operates on the prin- with their finely | ciple known as the moving coil type drive. | If a copper wire is placed between the poles tempered teeth. | of a magnet the wire is pushed sidewise when an electric current is sent through the wire. It is this phenomenon which causes the armature of an electric motor to rotate, and in this loudspeaker the same action gives the desired back and forth motion to the diaphragm. The inventors described the instrument as follows: “The wire is wound into a coil, and since it moves parallel to the face of the magnet poles instead of toward and away from them, there is no limit to the distance it can move. The varying currents from the radio sét are passed through an amplifier to the moving coil. The strength of the magnetic force on the coil of copper wire varies with the current, and the coil Most carpenters use | is thus caused to vibrate. The moving coil | is attached to the diaphragm, a paper cone NICHOLSON Files--- | about six inches in diameter. as do woodsmen, me- But a good saw has amazing recu- perative powers--- especially when “treated” promptly with the right NICHOLSON File. chanics and skilled | artisans to whom ac- | with : | economy of time and | effort, is a major con- sideration, wy U.S.A. FYRAGE mann) curate filing, Chester W. Rice (left) and Edward W. Kellogg working on new hornless loudspeaker unit “An important feature of this loudspeaker is the baffle board which surrounds the dia- phragm and which serves as the front of the | cabinet. The baffle does not radiate sound, but it prevents air from circulating between the front and back of the diaphragm. The use of the baffle makes it possible to dis- pense with horns without sacrificing the radiation of the deeper tones. | ei Mm The edge of the paper cone or diaphragm is attached to | the baffle by means of a thin rubber. As a result of this extremely flexible support the ‘L diaphragm resonance corresponds to a tone |; so low that it can hardly be heard. “The cabinet contains, in addition to the | amplifier, | power for the operation of which is taken from the alternating current lighting circuit. || speaker itself, a rectifier and The amplification is sufficient so that in the case of local stations, clear loudspeaker re- | production can be obtained from a crystal, provided the latter gives clear headphone reception. It is important that the amplifier used be designed to have ample capacity, since the extension of the range of response | of the loudspeaker to higher and lower tones makes defects in the remainder of the sys- | tem more noticeable, particularly roughness of tone due to overworked amplifiers.” AvuGustT, 1925 Huther Brothers SMALL SAWS GROOVERS Specialities for small cutting and groov- ing. Write for information and prices. ROCHESTER, Makers of Better Saws for More Than Fifty Years mall # Ideas or Patents! Responsible manufacturing corporation with own sales force is seeking articles to manufacture with basic construction requir- ing leather or imitation leather. Arrticles which may be sold through 5c and 10c stores and large mail order houses par- ticularly adaptable, but any good idea | considered. Might take over business having possibility of development or will purchase ideas and | patents using raw materials mentioned. Preferred consideration given to those | able to furnish general outline of idea or | | proposition in first letter. Reply by letter only. Advertiser, c/o Denison Corp., 800 N. Clark St., Chicago, III. “WONDER” Cold Pipe and Tubing Benders Do Net Crack, Flatten or Crimp the Pipe Standard of the World Hand and Motor Operated 14 Sizes of Machines ‘osts to bend For a Real paint job nothing is equal to a good Brush / ECGARDLESS of the claims made for paint spraying de- vices, Brushes are still the tools of Better Painting. Wherever long life, fine appear- ance and lasting protection are more desirable than a pos- sible small saving in first cost, Brushes must be use And remember this NICHOLSON FILE CO. Whiting’s Celebrated Brushes Providence, R.1., U.S.A, Adams Superior $ Send for have been preferred by Master + * I eae Painters for more one hun- Literature dred years. woek WHITING-ADAMS ; ILES “ite wall BOS TON ~~ File for Every Purpose The joys of radio have penetrated to the storm-beaten country of Russia. Our The ~enorre shows a father and son, radio fans in the village of Vologda. father, by right of seniority, enjoys the concert while the son waits his turn

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AuGuUST, 1925 Fotograms “Sadie,” one of the star performers for a big tent show, stopped long enough from her labors to say something into the microphone. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN It would be interesting to know just how her efforts were received by the listeners! New Class of License for Station Operators A NEw class of operator’s license has been established by the Department of Commerce for operators of radiophone broadcasting stations. In order to pass the code test the applicant must be able to receive the Con- tinental Morse code at the rate of twelve words a minute, counting five characters to a word. This is much slower than the reg- ular commercial operator is required to copy. The theoretical part of the examination con- sists of questions dealing with broadcast transmitters, receiving sets, storage hat- teries, motors, generators, and the laws gov- erning radio communication. The passing mark is 75 percent. If the applicant has had three months’ service at any class of commercial station, including a radiophone station, full credit of 20 percent is given for the experience. Fifteen percent is granted to holders of commercial licenses who have had no actual commercial experience. The same advance credit is given instructors of recognized radio schools and colleges and to operators who have had only experience at Federal Govern- ment stations not handling general public service. Ten percent credit is granted to graduates of radio schools and holders of amateur first-grade licenses. Holders of amateur second-grade and corre- spondence-school graduates get five percent credit. Questions used in the examination can be obtained by radio supervisors at their various offices throughout the country. The regula- tions provide that operators holding special extra first-class, first-class, or second-class licenses can operate broadcasting stations. licenses Engineers Say Super-power Era Has Not Yet Arrived THE era of super-broadcasting has not yet arrived if a super-plant is one capable of radiating 50 kilowatts or higher. The high- est power reported to have been used by a broadcasting station in the United States was 10 KW, and that was on a special occasion. During the past year a number of stations have installed 5,000-watt_ trans- mitters, but engineers do not consider a 5-KW station as a super-power broadcaster. Although these new transmitters are rated at 5 KW most of them are not authorized by the Department of Commerce to use more than 1500 watts. The majority of these high-power stations are located at least twenty-five miles from densely populated cities so that interference will not be too strong. The low power utilized by. broadcasting stations was recently pointed out by an engineer who used interesting comparisons. He explained that 665 kilowatts are used by a ten-car subway train, exclusive of power used for heating. WEAF uses-two kilowatts and WJZ 750 watts for transmission. An electric sign at Broadway and Forty-second Street uses 263 kilowatts and many of the broadcasting stations consume less power than required to light the average home. Amateurs Must Not Talk With Commercial Stations D. B. Carson, Commissioner of Naviga- tion, has directed the following letter to all amateur station operators: “The regulations governing the operation of amateur stations, dated December 24, 1924, paragraph under intercommunication, are amended to read as follows: ‘Amateur stations are not permitted to communicate with commercial or government stations un- less authorized by the Secretary of Com- merce, except in an emergency or for testing purposes which may be construed to cover official Government business. No variation of amateur wavelengths is permitted, and the amateur quiet-hours restriction must be ob- served. This restriction does not apply to communication with small pleasyre craft such as yachts and motor boats, which may have difficulty in establishing communication with commercial or government stations.’ ” Ship’s Radio Apparatus Not Subject to a Lien RENTED radio apparatus on board a ship is not part of the vessel, and, therefore, may not be subject to a lien on the ship, accord- ing to a decision recently handed down by Judge Bledsoe in the District Court for the Southern District of California. Radio in- terests engaged in marine communication have long sought a definite ruling concern- ing the right to subject a ship’s radio in- stallation to claims against vessels so equipped. The action in which the decision was made was filed against the British yacht Frontiers- man, on which the Marconi Company had installed and rented apparatus for radio com- munication purposes. The Marconi Com- pany was the intervenor in this suit. The court held that the apparatus did not be- come a part of the ship, and, therefore, was not subject to libel against the vessel. The case is said to be the first of its kind in American jurisprudence. The decision is considered of considerable importance in radio circles inasmuch as thousands of dol- lars are now invested in radio installations on board ships. Y UBU BUBB EU EEE \ ez v TEX BUR w. UR Would You Like An Oil Painting Ofan S.A.Cover P JECROROR UaURUEU ah OX 70\/05 70-105: /0\ 10\' 70) UsUsURUEU NOL NOLIN Oe, Each month the Scientific Amer- ican receives from numerous art-. loving subscribers letters express- ing appreciation of the cover picture. Some readers express a desire to purchase the original valuable oil painting from which the cover illustration is repro- duced. BUBUSURUSUSUS USES US OBUR UR BURU PS URUBURU) WNC On Ua \ ~ i DOS ~~ NOLS, Ji BO OLAS JE OED OR Obviously, it is not possible to gratify the wishes of all these ad- mirers, much as the Scientific American would like to do so. The editors, however, have de- cided to give to friends of the magazine three oil paintings, the originals of the covers for May, June and July. VEE 7 x ors a) ae i TAA Fa 78, If you are interested mail the {| coupon below to the Editor ofthe § Scientific American. Scientific American 233 Broadway New York, N. Y. Tell me how I may obtain an original painting in oils of one of the Scientific American cover pictures. IVE -2 Om — SORE > e Y ras

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138 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AvucusT, 1925 f ——" TURING CO repel, New York Tur SCHAT? MANUFAC 20 Fairview Ave Poughke Pooruary 6, 1925. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, : BA 5 233 Broadway, SN tt pee ee New York City. - for rae MANET se RING ai i — ee « Gent lemen: ; yeoman ‘hen I nave your letter of recent date in which you ask me as | . ~~ to the results obtained from our campaign on “COMMERCIAL” . ob FAl ampular Ball Bearings. iP cal a lac Of course, the underlying policy back of thie campaign was i i OAH 4 ik Ave not so much the intent to obtain inquiries as it was an et , =3 . effort to give greater publicity to a bearing which is very i . Ex Widely used in hundreds of different industries, I was, therefore, not only gratified, but very mch interested to find that although the copy did not specifically call for inquiries, & great many letters were received asking for : . ; ; samples and quotations, a HEN! There is no doudt in my mind but that SCIEMPIPIC AMERICAN ee. wed ie appeals particularly to manufacturers, engineers, ané Toad a purchasing agents, who are constantly in the market for « product such as we manufacture, - Pa Yours truly, ’ ; : cl f oy He me —_ ‘ THE SCHATZ MANUFACTURING CO e h 7 POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y. ! C . . 3 1924 Campaign in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN F E Cor Ele sub tau wir —

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AucusT, 1925 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 139 Clock-shaped Loudspeaker —- The Victor Talking Machine Company has é6 i ” produced a new loudspeaker shaped like a Th Makin f ¥ M hin mantel clock, in which the dial is replaced e gs 0 our ac es by an amplifying diaphragm, and the works by an electrical speaker unit. The common run of machines make commonplace e diaphragm used for sound amplifica- Geadivtas en Ger teen niet eee records. But see those records on Veeder Counters made under an exclusive license with the and you see the place for improvement! You promptly inventor, L. Lumiere, of France. It is spe- h b ] see the improvement register, by closer wate of the running. You get new “leads’ to improved design, cially treated parchment paper pleated and from the indications of production-gains on your Hotel Marseilles BROADWAY AT 103d STREET (Subway Express Station at Door) NEW YORK CITY Absolutely Fireproot Near Riverside Drive, Central Park, Theatres and Shopping Sections assembled around a central core to form a nine-inch disc of maximum sound radiating surface. Two such diaphragms are used; one at the front actuated by the electrical Single room, running water . $2.50 - d d teed Seok Single room and bath. . . . $3.00 — oe ¢ _— 00 She ir" ttgg IY ype, Sante pate “ee at the rear acting in a loading and resonat- Ol IN ER ounle room, UM «+ « $5. ing capacity. Both diaphragms are spring Handsome suites of 2 and 3 rooms mounted in the cabinet rings, and form with the case a drum-like assembly. This Small Rotary Ratchet Coun- ter (No. 6) counts reciprocating move- ments of the lever, as required for record- ing the output of many small machines. Dinner de Luxe $1.35 Served in Blue Room and Grill Exceptional Orchestra When the lever is moved y M. P. MURTHA, Manager through an ' angle of 40 to This large Re-Set Rotary Ratchet i 60 degrees, the Counter records the output of punch presses, J opRAINEHIOTEL Broad St. st Fairmount Avenue. *PHILADELPHIA: counter regis- ters one. The further the lever is moved, the higher the number registered. A complete revolution of the lever registers is counter can ten. adapted to no end of counting ~~ om metal-stamping machines and others where a reciprocating movement indicates an operation, Registers one for each throw of the lever, and sets back to zero from any figure by turning | knob once round. Provided with from four to ten figure-wheels, as required. Price with four figures, as illustrated, $11.50. (List.} ROOMS $292 UP. EUROPEAN PLAN. | Ti... Victor loudspeake si Rtebabatls teltanhMiiiahe ensue tums : A peaker equipped with by regulating the throw of the uipped with lock and keys to prevent tam ° onan Bo eermscmn amplifying diaphragm and electrical Price, $2.00. (Cut nearly full ase) pering with the record, $2.00 extra. (Cut less Smali Revolution Counter of similar than half size.) Set-Back Revolution Coun- model, also $2.00. ter, $10. (List.) | the | | speaker unit The method used in constructing Lumiere diaphragm is to take a strip of parchment paper of approximately half the diameter of the resulting diaphragm in width, coating it with protective asphalt and running it through a crimping machine. The [F500 The Veeder booklet is an 80-page guide on how to register an in- creased production at ANY machine. Sent free to all who may meet with the problem—in invention, engineering or manufacturing. 18 Sargeant St. strip is then cut to exact length, so that e ef eT g. Ons Hartford. Conn the unfolded length is equal to the circum- , . : ference of the resulting diaphragm. The | ¢—H en — Sa TE ends are cemented together to form a band. The diaphragm is then assembled around a paper core, and cemented to it. Both diaphragms are spring mounted in the wooden dial rings of the speaker, so that any slight change in the diaphragm, or the case, tends to be self-adjusting. The electrical unit is so designed that the impedance increases with the increase in the cycles of the applied current. By the rela- tion thus established, it is‘ claimed that the impedance of over-musical range, balances the impedance of the vacuum tubes common to the American public. The distance between the pole pieces and the armature is adjustable, to meet the re- quirements of heavy imput from local sta- tions; or react to feeble excitation from distant stations. For Sale vr | Patent on Burglar-Proof Lock No. 1,502,318. Valid- ity Report. When door is locked for night, bolt closes key hole and key cannot be inserted from PLAIN CONCRETE canes ano Catalogue Free CONCRETE MACHINERY CO., 5 N. First St., St. Louis, Mo. AGENTS 500% PROFIT GUARANTEED GOLD LEAF LETTERS For store fronts and office windows. An: vege con put them on. Free zamples. Liberal offer to general agen METALLIC LETTER CO. 440 N. Clark, cm BANDIT-PROOF MONEY BELT for Payroll Clerks and Bank Messengers, all essentials above terms imply, metallic mechanism covered with leather, excellent commercial proposition, Canadian and United States patente, J American patent 1,536,966. Benjamin H. Ocker, Marion, Pa. FOR SALE PATENT—American and Canadian—on a simple form of Shoe Fastener, for high or lew shoes, which takes the lace of on. opdinary shoe lace. For particulars address r. Koichi U jee a, 7 Ie Dr. F. H. Knight, 1 New York Ave., W hite } Plains, N. Y. Experimental and Model Work Fine Instruments and Fine a nventions Develo Special Tools, Dies, Gear © Putting, Ete. HENRY ZUHR, Inc. 187 Lafayette St., New York City The R-U-V, ultra violet ray, Sterilizer Type M-A-2 ‘ LOSS ae ——— mode gy ey « FA i own. erms reasonabie nquire 0 c> A , : ‘The Residual Action of Water RUSSIAN SPRINGFIELD SPORTING RIFLE - i Sterilized by Ultra Violet Rays $10.45 affect water, and therefore, can in no way its original refreshing qualities. Residual action is an additional protec- tion to health, for the purification accom- plished when the water is exposed to the 4 | Water sterilized by the R-U-V, ultra i | violet ray, method retains certain germi- | cidal qualities for some period after it has passed through the purifying ultra violet rays. Disease producing bacteria tend to U. 8. Army caliber 90, pos Bownbtias ts Soecal rie: Raversecks, outing Suits, any ~ BH Saddles, qeneies, Saw noe Osi la ates Medals, etc, 15 Acres Army 6, Oth Anniversary issue, 372 oan. ta ; Senenine pictures and his- werleet internation ofall merican Milita az gunnene pistols (incl. Compemestts. witha world Mailed 50c. Est.1865. Spec. New pet me io Francis B 501 Broadway, New York City Course for men of ambi- ae. and limited time. 4000 Electrica men_ trained. Condensed course in Theoretic 41 and Practical Electrical including Engineering | ae subjects of Mathematics and Sechentael te taught by experts. Students construct motors,instal wiring, test electrical machinery. Course complete n One Year ‘our profession in the most ne ome An yf in the world. Estab- lished in 1893. Free catalog. BLISS ELECTRICAL SCHOOL 238 Takoma Ave., Washington, D. C. Wide World The tower of the Shablovka Radio Station at Moscow, Russia, the most powerful broadcasting station in that country. Note the _ construction, varying greatly from the method of building our antenna towers decrease rapidly when introduced into it. What this means in water purification is self-evident. Even though a supply may be subjected to contamination after sterili- zation, the chance for harmful numbers of bacteria to reach the water consumer is small. And it must be remembered that this residual action does not involve the bad tastes and odors that are too often asso- ciated with solid, liquid and gaseous germi- cidals. Ultra violet rays ot nothing to the The R. U. V. Co., Inc. 383 Madison Ave. powerful ultra violet rays is invariably complete. R-U-V, ultra violet ray, Sterilizers are available for municipal drinking water sys- tems, building recirculating drinking water systems, swimming pools, bottling plants— wherever absolutely pure water is desired. The report of the tests on the residual action of water sterilized by ultra violet rays is contained in a pamphlet written by disinterested health officials. Ask for a copy when you send for our Booklet (F-8) on the R-U-V process and its application to various types ef water purification. James B. Clow & Sons 534-546 S. Franklin Se. New York, N. Y. Chicago, ill. Ultra Violet Ray Water Sterilization

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140 Diesel and Oil Engineering Hand Book By JULIUS ROSBLOOM 1925 EDITION Covers over 70 kinds of oil engines, both land and marine. Discussion of types, operation, examinations for licenses, electric auxiliaries, fuels and lubricants, pump auxiliaries, rules and regulations of various examining Also oil field equipment, oil and its origin, drilling, derricks, tanks, An appendix gives the latest boards. and petroleum dehydration are fully treated. applications of Diesel electric locomotives, and a list of the leading manu- facturers of equipment. A most complete and authoritative reference, with tables of useful data for calculations on a multitude of subjects. Postpaid $5.15 Radio for Everybody It is commonly thought that interest in radio is latent during the spring and summer. To some extent this is true. But our book of fundamental information is selling steadily and we are now selling another impression. If you want a thorough, practical and easily understood manual of radio operation GET THIS BOOK Price, $1.65 postpaid DO YOU REALIZE THAT You can be of substantial aid to justice and that you may obtain rewards of from $50 to $150—if you study the factors of identification of auto- mobiles, so that you can give the Police one or two definite points about a car that has escaped from the scene of a crime? AUTOMOBILE IDENTIFICATION By Sergt. JOHN F. BRENNAN You Gives you the system used by the New York Police Department. can easily learn it yourself. Price, $2.65 postpaid The Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas By ALBERT A. HOPKINS A careful compilation of 15,000 selected receipts and processes, many of which have heretofore been secret. Every branch of the useful arts and industries is represented. Never before has such a large collection of valuable formulas, useful to everyone, been offered to the public. This Cyclopedia may be regarded as the product of the studies and practical experience of the ablest chemists and workers in all parts of the The information given is of the highest value, condensed in Almost any inquiry that can be world. concise form, convenient for ready use. thought of, relating to formulas used in the various manufacturing in- dustries, will be found answered in this volume. Price, $5.50 postpaid, domestic. $5.85 postpaid, foreign Scientific American Publishing Company Wooiworth Building New York | | 1 | Time, | minute talks by provincial government mem- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Latest Station in Michi Has an Output of 5,000 Watts Station WJR, the Jewett Radio and Phonograph Company’s new broadcasting station at Pontiac, Michigan, is now on the air. It is a 5,000-watt transmitter designed by the Western Electric Company. The apparatus is connected with studios and re- mote control stations in Detroit by thirty miles of telephone wire. The site of the station has proved excellent for obtaining an ideal ground system. A lake comes up almost to the edge of the 200-foot towers and between the two masts and stretching down into the water is a net work of more than eleven miles of copper wire laid at right angles to the antenna. New Transmitter for WSB Station WSB, Atlanta, has purchased a new 2,500-watt Western Electric transmitter, which will be installed this summer on top of the Atlanta Biltmore Hotel. A sharp wave and the elimination of harmonics will be obtained by the use of a new 4,000-watt water-cooled amplifying tube and capacity coupling. International Radio Bureau Established at Geneva THE many international problems pertain- ing to broadcasting caused European sta- tions to hold a conference at the Palais des Nations, at Geneva. Fourteen nations sent delegates to the conclave and the outcome was the immediate establishment of an in- ternational bureau to deal with all matters that affect the broadcasting companies and listeners of more than one country. Arthur Burrows relinquished his duty as program manager of station 2LO, London, to manage the office of the bureau at Geneva. His office will be a direct channel for the interchange of programs, regulations, ideas, and all matters of interference, among the broadcasting stations. The aim of the new bureau is to establish an effective link between the various Euro- pean broadcasting stations, keeping in view the possibility of activities being extended to other continents; secondly to defend all policies and measures affecting stations’ in- terests; thirdly to centralize the study of all questions arising from the rapid develop- ment of wireless telephony, and finally, to initiate and further all efforts toward the improvement of broadcasting generally for the benefit of all nations, individually and collectively. The bureau intends to make a feature of | relaying concerts from one country to an- other. It also plans for the interchange of | programs, and entertainers. CKAC Radiates Information for Motorists Near Montreal RapDIO-EQUIPPED motorists in the vicinity of Montreal this summer get from CKAC, | daily road reports and information regard- ing points worth visiting. J. L. Perron, Minister of Roads for the Province of Quebec, made arrangements with the broad- caster to send out at intervals each day all information of value to automobilists. The broadcasts contain a general guidance for motorists, short cuts, bridges and roads be- ing repaired and location of camping grounds. The items are put on the air at 4:00 P.M. daily and at 8:30 p.m., Eastern Standard Tuesdays and Saturdays. Fifteen- bers tell the advantages of each locality from. the tourists’ point of view. Radio Congress Approved Short Waves for Amateurs THE success of amateur stations in send- ing short-wave signals from country to coun- try led the International Radio Congress, recently held in Paris, to approve a series of recommendations relative to specific wave- lengths to be assigned amateur transmitters. AvcusT, 1925 The world was divided into four sections for the purpose of assigning the short- waves—the United States, Europe, Canada and the rest of the world. The waves de- cided upon were: United States—85-75 and 41.5-37.3 meters. Europe—115-95, 75-70 and 47-43 meters. Canada—120-115 and 46-41.5 meters. The rest of the world—96-85 and 37.5-35 meters. Lower Waves May Be Assigned to Class B Broadcasting Stations THERE are now 95 Class B broadcasting stations. Every available channel in the wavelength band assigned to this type of station is in use. A discussion between the Department of Commerce and the National Association of Broadcasters indicates that the wavelength band for Class B stations may be lowered in the fall to 250 meters. “Until the public possesses a greater num- ber of receiving sets which will go down as low as 250 meters, we presume Class B licensees will try to avoid being allotted the proposed low wavelengths,” said Paul B. Klugh, Executive Chairman of the National Association of Broadcasters. “Unless a certain broadcasting station which is dissatisfied with its present wave allotment recedes from the position it has taken, the matter will probably land in the courts. This would be unfortunate, because under the present law Secretary Hoover is almost defenseless and is doing his best to preserve harmony. It is a hard thing to dissuade certain citizens conversant with those phases of the Constitution which guar- antee equality from demanding what they believe to be their rights. The fact that the air is crowded does not interest them. “There are two lines of fundamental rea- soning as to how the use of the air should be allotted,” said Mr. Klugh. “The first deals with priority, and the second with ability and fitness. The proponents of pri- ority argue, ‘Our time should not be divided. We were first and have rights.’ To which those striving for a division of time retort, “Because you were first is no proof that you are best. We propose superior equipment and programs, and in the interest of public entertainment should have part of your time.’ And so the battle goes on, with the Depart- ment of Commerce struggling under its lim- ited number of Class B air channels, manu- facturers making receivers so sensitive that stations thousands of miles apart hetrodyne, and an army of prospective broadcasters determined to break in somehow. “There is no doubt that the next session of Congress will enact new radio legislation. It is likely that the finally amended White- Howell bill will be used as the basis. We suggest that all broadcasting stations study this matter carefully and express their opin- ion to this association without delay. Our representatives in Washington, backed up with such opinions, will do their best to protect the interests of broadcasters in the informal discussions now taking place.” Hamilton Has 6,000 Listeners Ir is estimated that there are 6,000 radio receiving sets tapping the ether over Ham- ilton, Ontario. Each owner must have a license to receive and it costs one dollar. A radio dealer at Niagara Falls calculates that there are 8,000 radio sets in use in that city. Two Ocean Vessels Use Low- Wave Transmitters Tue French meteorological steamer Jacques Cartier, is equipped and licensed to use short wavelengths for transmission. The ship uses 45-meter waves in daylight and the 115- meter channel at night. She is now plying between France and the Gulf of Mexico. The British steamer Samaria was recently equipped with a low-wave installation for experimental work with American and Brit- ish amateurs. The 20-meter wave is used in the day time and 90 meters at night. The Samaria’s call is G6YM. i i ee i i, te le eel) te ee fe Le ho-ho--- EE! Reo --Be on oe en mu mai Pul pos A Ai

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25 ns rt- da de- ng the of the nal hat ms the ave ith lar- hey hat rea- uld irst rith pri- led. ich ort, you ent blic ne. art- |im- nu- that yne, ters sion ion. ite- udy pin- Our up : 2 the adio lam- ea that city. ques use ship 115- lying xico. ently | for Brit- ed in The AUGUST, 1925 The Book Department Below are given by subjects, some of the standard and recent books that can be recommended for clearness of treatment and understandability. We will cover two or three subjects each month. Full descriptions will be furnished on request. Automotive Engineering The Gasoline Automobile by Hobbs, Elliot and Consoliver.............0+2.++0+$3-20 Automotive Ignition Systems by Consoliver and Mitchell.................+.+ 2.70 Motor Vehicle Engineering—Engines—by Favary..............0e-ceceeecceece 3.70 Motor Vehicle Engineering—The Chassis—by Favary............2.s0eeeeeeees 5.20 Se a ED FE TIO 5 en's si s.ceivnelbn + vauenacsedecseavsacces 3.20 DE IE OE BIN ana jet bons 7 Ho bedside + 5506s 0dnhecamndceecean 2.70 J a ee eer ene ee 3.20 Elementary Thermodynamics of Automobile Engines by Hamilton......... 3.20 I OE SN dg re oc vn bc ney 000 santsasisinecceeces 2.20 Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Repair by Good..............cccecccccecccess 2.20 Automobile Laboratory Manual by Good....................+- enedeeets ences 1.70 i eR a en ee 2.70 Gas Engine Ignition by Norris, Winning and Weaver..............0+- és0edeee LOO Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Principles of Chemical Engineering by Walker, Lewis and McAdams......... 5.20 Handbook of Chemical Engineering by Liddell......................0.c00e 8.20 The Metallurgists’ and Chemists’ Handbook by Liddell...................... 5.20 Principles of Organic Chemistry by Norris...............c0-ccecceccecceccses 3.20 Experimental Organic Chemistry by Norris. ................02eecceccecceeces 1.70 Text Book of Inorganic Chemistry for Colleges by Norris................+ 3.70 Laboratory Exercises in Inorganic Chemistry by Norris and Mark........... 2.20 RE SE og. ..c.cocceeattiiha dad panwibleee see veccsenetssee 3.70 ee EE Or re has an sihhtd snes seneceehp cbedsccestessecccs SAB Proteins and Theory of Colloidal Behavior by Loeb......................- 3.70 Applied Colloid Chemistry—General Theory—by Bancroft.................--- 3.20 da omcaecuacdedwscbecscocewesteee 4.20 Physical Chemistry for Colleges by Millard..................ccecccecceeeees 3.70 Analysis of Fuel, Gas, Water and Lubricants by Parr....................00- 2.70 Technical Gas and Fuel Analysis by White.................cccceccccccceecs 3.20 Chemical and Metallographic Examination of Iron, Steel and Brass by Hall NT OD, ise Alin tnes 0tccen 0d aban ee vhs s0énanbvightesscctsostunvewes 5.20 Elements of Fractional Distillation by Robinson..................ceceeeeeeees 2.70 a I a 5. hos ocd daccdevhaccosnncedsbawtissedsces 4.20 Pe I Ns gor 6 cad ota cence phadinec0e dike cpscncsdves 2.70 os onc del diene th behineeubinn 064.060 kes 8idies eo 3.70 American Fuels by Bacon and Hammer...........0..0.cccccccccccceccecccecs 12.00 The American Petroleum Industry by Bacon and Hammer........ bacnadeiane 12.00 Civil Engineering Handbook of Building Construction by Hool and Johnson................... 10.00 Foundations, Abutments and Footings by Hool and Kinne........ PAE OBE oO 4.20 Structural Members and Connections by Hool and Kinne...............0.e0+ 6.20 Steel and Timber Structures by Hool and Kinne...............cececceececeee 6.20 Movable and Long Span Bridges by Hool and Kinne................0.c000005 5.20 Stresses in Framed Structures by Hool and Kinne..............2...0eeeeeeee+ 20 Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Structures by Hool and Kinne............ 6.20 Design of Masonry Structures and Foundations by Williams.......... eaeces, ae Handbook of Steel Evcetion by Bland... ...ccccoccccsccscccocsceceocccsoce 2.70 Structural Engineers Handbook by Ketchum................-..ceeeeeecceees 7.20 The Design of Mine Structures by Ketchum................c0.ceccecccceees 5.20 The Design of Walls, Bins, and Grain Elevators by Ketchum............... 5.20 Design of Steel Mill Buildings by Ketchum...................0cceececceeees 6.20 Design of Highway Bridges of Steel, Timber and Concrete by Ketchum..... 6.20 Graphic Analysis—A text book of Graphic Statics by Wolfe................06- 4.20 Elements of Graphic Statics by Hudson and Squire................ceeeeeeees 1.40 Essentials in the Theory of Framed Structures by Ellis.................... 3.70 Retaining Walls, Their Design and Construction by Passwell............... 4.20 re MN SS I IN oo 4 6h.05 6% te ape netivet sieaw soewids iguewesededoaie 3.20 Construction of Masonry Dams by Smith.................cccccccccecccecees 3.70 Sy tee re I BIND, oon s owe scncaccesietausseensdumeadnoudee 3.20 po I ee eee eee ee 5.20 Structural Engineering by Kirkham...............ccccccceccses Aoaenntecense 5.20 All prices postpaid Short History of American Railways By Slason Thompson A most interesting record of achieve- ment covering all phases of development. Well illustrated. Chapter XII gives con- densed biographies of some of the more The New International Year Book By F. M. Colby and H. T. Wade A compendium of the world’s progress for 1924, covering every phase of activity or accomplishment with biographies of dis- tinguished men who died during the year. An excellent reference. Published by prominent officials. Published by Bureau Dodd, Mead & Co. $6.95 postpaid. of Railway News & Statistics. $2.20 post- paid. Water Supply of Buildings and Electroplati' ¢ and Electro- - Rural Committees By W. S. L. Cleverdon Prof. Sanitary Engineering, N. Y. Univ. A practical little book; the result of much experience and study. For the lay- man who works things out for himself. Published by D. Van Nostrand Co. $2.65 postpaid. fo ning By W. Blum an‘ G. B. Hogaboorn U. S. Bure: of Standards The results of research practically ap- plied to the whole field of commercial electro-deposition. Clear and understand- able. Published by McGraw-Hill Book Co. $4.20 postpaid. All the above books are obtainable from the Scientific American Book Department, 233 Broadway, N. Y. C. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 141 STRENOTH—LIGHT WEIGHT — DURABILITY Brockway uses DAYTONS A powerful truck is the Brockway— and a rugged truck demands rugged wheels. Brockway has found in Daytons the super-strength it demands. The steel wheel is not a passing fancy. U. S. Bureau of Standards tests, Under- writers Laboratories’ tests and the test of years of exacting service under the most adverse conditions have proved that the Dayton Steel Wheel is the nat- ural, common sense wheel for motor trucks. That’s why nearly all leading truck makers use Dayton Steel Wheels. Spec- ify them on your next order. THE DAYTON STEEL FOUNDRY CO. Dayton, Ohio Dayton Steel Truck Wheels TIRE ECONOMY —ACCESSIBILITY— APPEARANCE Going to Travel? Then by ail means refer to the travel section of Harper’s Magazine—Every month you will find many alluring suggestions and vivid pictures of America and faraway places including the announcements of a _ large number of Tourist Agencies, Railroads, Steamship Lines, Resorts and Hotels. Sailing Dates in Every Issue | LEARN WATCHWORK JEWELRY, woRK AND ENGRAVING A fine trade commanding a good salary and your services always in demand or you can start in business for yourself. At BRADLEY INSTITUTE The greatest school for } aay in hee world Ad- dre ess logical ot. H, Bradley Polytee me ingt.. Peoria. Ill., for var latest . Real or. Makers | There’s no limit to what you can make with F oley Saw | Tools. File and set saws ic cally in 6 Joe Kohler, Colusa, IIL, writes: “Foley Saw Tools sure doa g job as the 5 | saw runs easier and cuts much faster than when filed by hand. I would not take four times what I paid for For the convenience of our readers we will publish each month the sailing dates for Europe and other countries together with the dates of special tours and cruises. Feel perfectly free to write us—Our Travel Bureau will gladly furnish any information desired. HARPER’S MAGAZINE 49 East 33rd Street, New York, N. Y. | 923 E. Lake St. | pat on it.’ | Write for aus information about these ful inventions. FOLEY;SAW TOOL COMPANY

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142 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 \ Dy-% reticent hemwere wer ens ~ ine More. map « Engineering apermiene = meet ot mae Sah a tor yond n te WISCONSIN FO Revoeme e. BLECTRIC COMPANY WISCONSIN ELECTRIC COMPANY RACINE WISCONSIN, USA DUMORE ELECTRICAL TOOLS AND APPUANCES, January 6, 1925. Seientifiec American Publishing Ce., Hew Tork City, 5. I. Gentlemer:- When someone does & job well, it io only fair thet be reesive, ot leest, an acknowl t of 16, ané @ friené- aye on the back. So, are writi the closing of our records for 19284, shows as that SCIENTIFIC bes taken one of cur big jobe, and fone it exeeedingly well. We bave for years been making high quality fractional various appliances and teele that we needed to make this basiness really prefitebie. ee and te de it eeoncni- How to secure more of this basi esliy and quickly was o@ prod: etern Advertising Agency of thie city, who have nd) F sccount for eslled into consultation. After a esrefal anslysi angles of the siteation, we decided te ase emall lies spece, backed by quarter pages in SCIENTIFIC sMBRICAE, 21 motor basiness for 1924 will appr * sot om, © betantiel ineres: pre- ie that « large share ef this Tease o4 to SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, and we want you te ider your pudlicetien as « permanent part ef list. Know ‘that oar pablicetion Very trely youre, " eam pater COMPANY 7] "4, 4 ii— Advertising Ménager, 5.4. Schulte - Wisconsin ee $076 tementh eee TRIE CO, Rein. Wiese, WISCONSIN ELECTRIC COMPANY RACINE, WISCONSIN 1924 Campaign in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Planned and Executed by Western Advertising Agency, Inc. 214 Fifth St., Racine, Wis. ~ “|

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rl bo | eh Aucust, 1925 PATENTS TRADE-MARKS DESIGNS FOREIGN PATENTS MUNN & CO. PATENT ATTORNEYS Associated since 1846 with the Scientific American WOOLWORTH BLDG. - 233 Broadway, N. Y.C. SCIENTIFIC AMER. BLDG. - Washington, D.C. TOWER BUILDING - - - Chicago, Il. HOBART BUILDING - - VAN NUYS BUILDING - Los Angeles, Cal. Books and Information on Patents and Trade-Marks by Request. Associates in All Foreign Countries. San Francisco, Cal. |! UNISOL Reg. U. 8. Pat. Off. The longer UNISOL is used, the more it is lized and appreciated FOR BOILER FEED WATER TREATMENT. NOTE: Recommended for well water and all other boiler plants. ASSURED. Pamphlet on request UNISOL MFG. CO. -:- Jersey City, N. J. MARTIN BUILDINGS “BUILT TO ENDURE” IMMEDIATE SHIPMENT WARENOUSES INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS GARAGES Ready to Erect Completely Fabricated - Take advantage of our Low Overhead Cost and Efficient Engineering Service to obtain BETTER BUILDINGS AT A LOWER COST Wrue for Quereuons THE MARTIN STEEL PRODUCTS Co. ourt.B MANSFIELD. OMtic Forming a Company? If starting a new business or reorganizing one, you may find it expedient to organize on the Common Law plan under a Declaration of Trust. The econo mies and advantages are set forth in “‘D-93" pamphlet mailed free upon request. C. S. Demaree, publisher of legal blanks, 708 Walnut, Kansas City, Maéssouri. Three Valuable Patents For Sale No. 1,497,.9h7—A metallic tie. No. 1,511,867—Rail clamp and brace, preventing absolutely the roll ing and spreading of rails. No. 1,490,852—Another model of metallic tie. All invented by a lifetime For sale by E. J. Baker, railroad man and miner. Fries, Va. Cortez (GARs -MADE.AT KEY MANUFACTURERS and CAPITALISTS Something new. Patented keyless lock for autos, doors, etc. Burglar proof. For sale or on royalty basis. Thomas Knight,52 West Lake Ave., Atlanta ane Books for the Outdoor Boy During the vacation period boys will want to have a good time before they start to school again. Why shouldn’t they have a lot of fun and improve their minds at the same time. Our Boy Books accomplish this very nicely. The Boy of Eight or So Would be interested in Bond’s American Boy The Boy of About Ten Would be interested in Bond’s American Boy at School . .« $1.80 postpaid The ow. of Perhaps Twelve Would be interested in Bond’s Pick, Shovel and Pluck . « $1.80 postpaid The Rey ‘Just Prior to Manhood Would be interested in Bond’s With the Men Who Do Things ; $1.80 postpaid Or the complete set t of four volumes in a neat box can be furnished at . - $5.30 postpaid Scientific American Publishing Co. Woolworth Building New York WEST) $1.80 postpaid SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN “Spirit Return” (Concluded from page 85) I am here, old boy” or “Gill, I love you” and so on. Neither is her very high grade of mentality highly complimented by some of the jargon that is claimed to have been transmitted directly by her in some of the long letters and poems submitted as her dictations. It is perfectly evident that the | communications are limited to the mentality of the transmitter, which was usually of a low type. What means this medley and how are we to explain the phenomena as presented by the voluminous correspondence? Most of it can be swept from the board and considered explained by automatic writing, somnam- bulism, positive and negative hallucinations, objectifications of the subconscious, dissocia- tions of personality, and kindred phenomena which have long been recognized and which | can be found in abundance without resort to a so-called super-normal or a post mortem state. The further investigation progresses, the more one feels that the so-called occult or supernormal, if properly understood, can be organized and classified under the various phases of conscious and subconscious ex- perience, explicable on the basis of psycho- logical principles which are well understood. In the face of such advocates as Lombroso, Lodge, Crooks, Stead, James, Hyslop, Doyle and others, it makes one pause before he pushes the whole affair aside as unworthy of the attention of conscientious investigators. While, with perfect justice, we revere our scientists as our main hope in the advancement of knowledge, it does not necessarily follow that they are the most competent observers and judges in a field where fraud and trickery seem to be in the ascendency. They tend to accept what they see because nature in the laboratory is always frank and sincere anad seldom fools them. The spiritualistic field is too saturated with fraud to be trusted exclusively in the hands of those who have had an exclusively “scien- tific” training. serious Science Notes How Powerful an Engine Is an Athlete? Exact studies of the physical exertion put forth by the members of the famous Yale crew of 1924 made by Dr. Yandell Hender- and Dr. Howard W. Haggard, of the Department of Applied Physiology at Yale University, show that each man developed, during the period of a boat race, about one- half horsepower. Determinations of the energy expended were obtained in various ways. In one test the men were exercised individually on row- ing-machines with power meters attached. In another, the ratio of the amount of oxy- gen taken in to the amount of carbon diox- ide given off in breathing was determined. In a third the racing shell which they used was towed by a power boat with a spring scale in the towline. “The data from these three methods were in general in fair agreement,” says Dr. Hen- derson. “They indicate that the maximal power exerted is from .45 to .55 horsepower per man, or, expressed in the heat equiva- lents, 4.8 to 5.9 calories per minute, with a total energy expenditure of 19 to 29 calories son per minute, or 13 to 20 times the basal rate.” It was noted that, however great their exertion, these athletes did not puff and blow noticeably. This is in marked con- trast with the distress of untrained or half- trained men. The amount of oxygen which the oarsmen took in through their lungs reached about the limit of the carrying power of heart and blood, yet it was not sufficient to replace the amount burned up during the race. As Dr. Henderson expresses it, “the athlete draws heavily on his credit and incurs oxy- gen deficits. These deficits are repaid by the high rate of oxygen absorption for a time after the work is ended.”—Science, Jan. 30, 1925. at a whale of a difference just a few cents make Students or Workers Do you know even 2 iittle about Drafting or Engi neering. Thousands of opportunities in new expert profession. Calculating Strength of Beams, Girders and Machine Parts. Needed on every modern building bridge, machine. We teach principies and “short cuts.” Write for free books. Pleasant work, high salaries. Lightning Method Publishers, Long Beach, Calif. Beach Haven has the best combina- tion of seashore features on the Atlantic Coast. @ Matchless bay for sailing, always good fishing, perfect beach and bathing. @€ The ENGLESIDE has all the modern conveniences, private baths with salt and fresh water, and is 4 home as well as a hotel. Sure relief from hay fever. Open June 20th to September 30th. Five Tennis Courts. - Send for booklet. THE ENGLESIDE COMPANY, Inc. OWNERS ROBT. F. ENGLE, Treas. and Mer BEACH HAVEN, N. J. HOTEL VAN RENSSELAER NEW YORK AN hotel for those who appreciate a homelike atmosphere; situated where Father Knickerbocker made his bow; the very center of Historic Fifth Avenue; in the Washington Square dis trict; easy of access to shopping and theatres; Via the Fifth Avenue Busses, Subway, Surface and ‘‘L’’ Cars AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN PLAN RESTAURANT Single Room and bath $5.00 Amer. Plan $3.00 European Plan » Double Room and bath $8.00 Amer. Plan $4.00 European Plan 2 Rooms and bath $19 00 Amer. Plan ,3, $6. 00 Europeen Plan — Weekly rates for a stay Oh, of two weeks or longer Write for further infor- mation to A. R. McCABE, Mer. 17 East 1ith Street Two doors East of Fifth Avenue

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN AUGUST, 1925 CONTENTS AUGUST 1925 ARTICLES

Saving the Motorist from Himself—By H. W. Slauson, M.E.....cccccccccccccccccceceece 11-19 Matter, Ether and Energy—By Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.....ccccccccccccccccccccccccece 90- 81 ee SE I NE do vib bcccevsccoccsdockoobececdeceacdendedecs eds 82-— 83 4 Te to ee Pee eee Pie ae, ee eee pe ee ee ae 84 "epeces meeeem —y S. Bie Gideews, PO.D.. BED. 2. oc ciicc ccccccdcccccdesscsvcccdcecees 85 Plumbing the Depths of Neptune’s Secrets—By Albert A. Hopkins..................... 86— 87 Remarkable New Tests Favor the Einstein Theory—By Professor Henry Norris Russell. . 88 es ey I an 6 os 2 5 0.0.0 6d6590.040 O0EeSO0d 0000060 460'0b0uC06s 89 Contact and Refueling Now Accomplished in the Air— By Major H. H. Arnold, U. S. Air Service 90— 91 A Record of Achievement—By William I. Wyman.............ccccccceccccccceccccccecs 92 Radio at the Nerth Pole—BDy Orrin B. Dumlap. Ir. .......ccccccccccccccccccccccceveccs 93 How Explosive Are Explosives?—By G. A. Rankin. ..........ccccccccccccccccccecececs 94— 95 Chemistry in World Affairs—II—By H. E. Howe............cccccccccccccccccccceseees 96— 97 Daylight, Twilight and Mist in the Movies—By Edward Ellington................sseeee: 98-— 99 Another Side of the 5-5-3 Argument—By Captain Dudley W. Knox, U. S. N...........-- 100-101 The Delaware River Bridge—By J. Bernard Walker...............ccccccceccccccccceces 102-103 The Centenary of the Railroad—By Francis Dickie..............ccccccccccccccccccecces 104-105 Mammals Almost as Small as Insects—By S. F. Aaron.............ccccccccccccccccccces 106-107 | From the Scrap-book of Science—Two pages of photographs. ...........ececeeeececeeee 108-109 | Fish from Artesiai Wells in the Sahara—By Robert L. Duffus 0 er ern ee 110-111 } The Mountains Light a City—By Thomas R. Horner, F.R.G.S.........ccccccccccccscecs 112-113 ss Engine Balance—The conclusion of the discussion of counterbalance— | By P. Cormac, F.R.C.Sc.I. 133 for Big Trucks—Heavy Loads—Hard Pulls — DEPARTMENTS J . " ete, Db ee. Det, i nc. 0d 0 65004006 54050506006b0N 0 bs6b6s eeabsbdnr’crseses 114-118 Double-Traction Tires— with 80 powerful road grip- name d ae a 6:0 400000004 dheuedsdonet basdeaunsbdaadceets us 0a 119-121 . 4 “ - SWS TOF IMVEREOEE. . 2.2 cc cccscccccccccccccces cc esessesesoccc veces cesecceesceccccesess 119 ping cogs—are the tires for excavations and pit work. Scientific American Digest... -...-0..-..-0.c.cccuscsssecesscesseeneesatesseesste ees 122-125 ° earning to Use Our Wings—A Department of Aviation News. ..........ssseeeeeeeees 126-129 Applying every ounce of power to the road, the broad In the Editor's Mail—Where Reader Meets Reader..........ssecccccessccececcccceceess 130-132 . : ° ee CU: WE SUNN, 5 50 Sanat check scs scab edoccwels cleebaecese Soccescccccccopccose 134 treads ride steadily over soft ground, carrying full loads. Science and Money—-Research Decreases Cost of Electricity...... TTT TTT TTT TTT TTT TTT 135 5 ' Radio Motes coccccccceccce dade hens obtd 66:66 Feb tenes bb55464640n0RNOCS eccccccecocs «++ 136-142 The big volume of tough, lively rubber absorbs road vibrations and gives extra wearing depth. Designed by INDEX TO ADVERTISERS " . ° * 4: Dheteines: Bi. 634 caccnccnnstine dinsesece 125 Liggett & Myers Tobacco Co....... cocecs 148 Firestone to permit natural flow of rubber, avoiding Advertiser 60-002. 138 Lightning Method Publishers. : ir MDs 0 ogeced'cc od cedaced une ves 13 ——. Geer a Tete eee eeeeeeesereesenes 148 Schwerdtle Stamp Co............cseeeses 136 y CMCE LO. . +e cerccccces teeeecrons 127 Scientific Apparatus Corp............... 125 Simonds Saw & Steel Co.............000% 134 ey See Weetnesy Ge. ..ccsccsscecccs 141 South Bend Lathe Works................ 144 a hs On eevee Gkdseseannene 143 Stephenson Laboratory ................. 131 Sonera: ee Mr eee 132 Stewart Iron Works Co., Inc............. 127 F. J. Drake Fy eee 134 Strom Ball Bearing Mfg. Co............. 125 IE GER 600 knbs Fucdvccesedéences 126 Taylor Instrument Companies............ 130 “ : 9 Timk Roll B i Bin.0.00 geesgesees 73 AMERICANS SHOULD PRODUCE THEIR OWN RUBBER . iieterh.| Snatutdn On, Ine........ opooonmeparnnes OD | PN Mind Mi ark -atcdes sehen ch once 134 _-— — i Federal Motor Truck Co......ccccccccess 7 Trt ‘ Firestone Tire & Rubber Co............. 144 ae Mfg. Co. notin 5 egg > land tag tet pg 143 “S E ARS Dele er Deak Od... ..ccc.ccececcsces ce te -_ ee eeat ling lahtehaenetebteneh tes oa INVE NS PERFECTED—MODELS MADB “SS ry eae eee All Hinds-Smali Ina fully equipped machine shop General Electric Co.........++++- Back Guess Veeder Mfg. Co 139 The most accurate made end prices Manufacture dies, tools, jigs, and fixtures General Bloters Corp. ..cccccccccccccccce 29 Vilter Mfz “Co eI) Cee fe ee 134 reasonable We carry « of precision eS ne ee ae ” tne of genre ta tins quote sn ae Let us manufacture and act as your factory Harper & Brothers 141 West Electric C 74 a " ~ | 4 TOUNETS...++eescerecresessecs ‘ estern a ee — ae your tae f | oot yy are. O. G. Hopkins...... : --+ 139 Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co.. Write for Catalogue 20 R Tel. Bol. 1819 eee Fest Shelby bee codescaneseabsserede = aioe 1. Oe = aid Pst Cover otel 3 e reseeeeeeeseesecesonns os ohn L. iting-J. J. ams Co........ 136 CHICAGO STOCK GEAR WORKS Hotel Van Rensselaer...............+++- 143 Willys-Overland, Inc. ............ hird Cover 105 South Jeflersen Street (Chicago) oo Huther Bros. Saw Mfg. Co.............. 136 Wisconsin Electric Co...............- 130-142 Wood Shovel & Tool Co...........0.0055 135 BA RN ES Kellogg Switchboard & ‘Supply ik a0s see 134 Thomas Knight cdves cadabessseebauh es 143 Maney Bebe, GOs ees cccccscvcvceveveeses 139 Electric Bench (MADRID) Scroll Saw Not a Toy but « prac- Capital 10,000,000 Pesetas tical Tool , 7 ‘ ‘ : vies ase brne| Desire exclusive Agencies in Spain of Amer-| SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING COMPANY . en! ory is Wheel, ‘etc. | ican Manufacturers and Inventors of patented W.F.& JOHN | goods. Would also buy patents for manufac- Munn & Company, 233 Broadway, New York BARNES CO. | turing in Spain.

ORSON D. MUNN, President ALLAN C, HOFFMAN, Secretary and Treasurer Wockdord, f EDITORIAL STAFF W.OTTWAY & CO.,Ltd. Runs from lamp socket

i or y our Shop 0. D. MUNN, Editor and Publisher C. Iwosd; BERNARD WALKER, Editor Emeritus Apert A. HOPKINS LBERT G. INGALLS KATRINE A. CAMPBELL A Lathe of Your Own ee Mitton Wait Louts 5. TASADWELL Pror. Henry Norris Russe. Pror. ALEXANDER KLEMIN Any Style— Any Size —

South Bend Screw Cutting Lathe, 13° x SB Price $354 With « South Jend Lathe i im your shop you can Save money you now pay others ry lathe work Make money on fob we Get your work done oh en you want it Lo better wors just as you want it. Prevent information of yx “ pane getting into outside hands We mote it exsy for you to ow $2,000 w use in U. 5. and #4 Fore be va Cventries. Write for Catalog SOUTH BEND LATHE WORKS 518 E. Madison St. South Bend, Ind.

Stalking and Spotting Telescopes Price $25.00 Post Free

This Telescope has been specially designed for stalking and signalling and would be found of very great use on outdoor Rifle Ranges, shot hoies from the .22 Bore Rifles being easily determined at 100 yards. The Body Tubes and Mounts are of Brass Bronzed Black. The Body is covered in brown Calf with Caps and Slings. Diameter Length of O. G. Gooey Open 15 If fitted with Pancratic ‘Bee gare a variable power of 25 to 35, Magnification Illustrated Leaflet of Telescopes, etc., post free. ORION WORKS, EALING, LONDON, W.

CORRESPONDING EDITORS H. Drepericus, Prof. of Experimental Engi- neering, Cornell University. Saut DusHMAN, Ph.D., G. E. Research Lab- oratory. ” J Epwarp ELLery, Consulting Chemist, Union College. Rautpu J. Focc, Prof. of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University. Leon A. HAUSMAN, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. of a a Rutgers College and State Univ. of N. Harry S. Hower, Prof. of Physics, Carnesie Institute of Technology. Austin C. Lescarsoura, A. I. E. E., Croton, New York. M. Lucxtescn, Dir., Lighting Research Lab- oratory, National Lamp Works of General Electric Co., Nela Park, Cleveland. Vol. 138, No. 2. Published monthly. post office at New York, N. Y., Price, 35 cents a copy. $4.00 a year. D. T. MAcDoucAL, Plant Physiology, Washin Roy W. om. American Museum of Natural History. H. F. Moore, Research Prof. of Eng. Materials, University of Illinois. Dr. WALTER FRANKLIN PRINCE. H. C. Ramsower, Director of Agricul. Service, Ohio State University. Samuet J. Recorp, Prof. of Forest Products, Yale University. J. Hammonp SmirH, Prof. of Civil Engineer- ing, Univ. of Pittsburgh. G. A. Younc, Head, Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University. Director, Carnegie Laboratory for Institution of Ext.

Entered as second class matter, June 19, 1879, at the under the Act of March 3, 1879. Postage prepaid in United States and possessions, and Mexico, Cuba and Panama; $4.50 a year for Canada. Foreign subscriptions, $5.00 a year, postage prepaid.

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"7 fF Oo fF S&F OOAeH = An & OH eo wane r f SEPTEMBER, 1925 AERONAUTICS - HE college youth has long attempted flights of fancy, flights of oratory, and even flights of absurdity. Now he is about to go in for just plain flights. Daniel Guggenheim’s endowment of $500,000 for an enlarged School of Aeronautics at New York University will prove one of the greatest steps for- ward yet made in this country in the art of flying. The plan of the new school calls for comprehensive instruc- tion in aeronautical engineering, which will give us young men capable of the most skilled design and investigation in this new and fascinating field. Mr. Guggenheim’s generosity is matched by the University’s excellent judgment in selecting Professor Alex- ander Klemin, a member of its faculty, and Aeronautic Editor of the Scientific American, to direct the school. We congratulate the new school on its good fortune in securing so eminent an authority, and at the same time we must hand ourselves a bouquet in hav- ing our early judgment of Professor Klemin confirmed, CANCER UST as we go to press, the news- papers announce that an English physician has found out what causes cancer. It is said to be a parasitic organism so small that it has heretofore evaded detection under powerful micro- scopes. Doctors have long been divided into two camps on the question of what causes cancer. One camp—numerically the smaller—believes it is produced by a parasitic or outside organism, some- thing like a germ. The other camp be- lieves it is not caused by any parasitic organism. The new discovery has been received with keen interest, tempered, however, with caution on the part of physicians, whose experience with discoveries of a similar nature in the past has made them wary. We must not lose sight of the fact, moreover, that the discovery of the cause of cancer would not, in itself, provide a cure for it. The cure might soon follow, or it might not. The Scientific American is strongly interested in the new discovery and will publish an account of it when—and if —it is accepted by science. Otherwise, to encourage sufferers falsely would be cruel. MONEY ie is a pleasure to announce that the $100 prize offered by the Scientific American in the essay competition on the motion picture “The Best Observed Eclipse in History” is awarded to Mr. John H. Chase, of Youngstown, Ohio. Mr. Chase is to be congratulated on winning in a field where the competition was so close. Any one of a score of the essays submitted showed decided merit, worthy of a prize. Honorable mention, however, must go to Mrs. Alida Hammond, of Tucson, Arizona, Mr. Robert Clement, of Minneapolis, * Minnesota, and Mr. Edward N. Fox, of Philadelphia, as runners up. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN In This Issue If Man’s Ancestor Was Not a Monkey, What Was He? We have yet to find the fossils of cur ancestor, but the evidence of comparative anatomy indicates that he was, after all, similar to the modern monkeys and apes. Some, however, would side-step this unpleasant admission. On page 157, Albert G. Ingalls pleads for frankness on this question. Slow Movies of Flying Bullets Captain S. P. Meek of the Army Ordnance Department describes the apparatus at the Frankford Arsenal which snaps one-millionth of a second shadowgraphs of bullets in the air and shows the capers they cut. On page ‘158. How High Can You Fly? That depends upon your particular physical makeup. The government puts each of its birdmen through a set of interest- ing tests that reveal just how he will behave at any altitude and under any conditions. Read Boyden Spark’s article on page 164. Perhaps Our Universe Has Limits Scientists have two reasons for thinking it may have; the fact that the night is dark instead of light and the fact that gravitation & not equal in all directions. Dr. Nicolas P. Rashevsky tells what kind of universe might account for these phenomena. Bigger and Better Silkworms It was fourteen hundred years ago that China taught the West the secret of the silk industry. Now Americans are teaching the Chinese how to produce a race of super-worms. The story on page 166 is an absorbing one. MORE THAN 150 PICTURES Complete table of contents will be found on page 216. For Next Month YVoronoff’s Own Story of Gland Grafting The brilliant French surgeon in an exclusive interview describes for the readers of the October issue of the Scientific American his efforts towards making old men and women young again by gland transplantation. Not theory, not prophecy, but a record of what he has done and is doing. Making the Mother Map of the United States The topographic engineers of the Geographic Survey are visiting every square mile of the unsurveyed regions of the country, making the biggest map the world ever saw. They are charting the hills, the rivers and even the farmhouses as they climb snowy mountain peaks or break through track- less forests. Danger and adventure go into the making of the remarkable work described next month. The Swift March Against Disease Doctors have accomplished more in the last fifty years than in the preceding fifty centuries. Their solution of the mysteries of the human body and its ailments is one that should be related only by such a man as Morris Fishbein, M.D., editor of the noted Journal of the American Medical Association. He gives it in four parts—we publish the first next month. Other articles on the subject of Mass Fingerprinting, on The Romance of the Fire Alarm, on Light Waves or Light Bullets?, as well as“our invaluable listing of radio sets. MORE THAN 150 PICTURES Wonderful developments are taking place every day in the world of science. The Scientific American is watching and re- porting these advances for you. You cannot afford to miss a single issue. We will send the October, November and December issues to your home for one dollar. You will want more. * 147 INVESTMENTS ANY readers with money to invest have asked the Scientific Ameri- can for advice about the soundness of certain types of securities. To provide them with worth-while information we have been fortunate in obtaining the services of Chase Donaldson, a recog: nized authority who makes the subject of finance interesting. : Each month Mr. Donaldson discusses some outstanding phase of the invest- ment field in which you may be hoping to reap profit. He will not tell you the merits of this or that particular com- pany, but will give you facts you need to have about the underlying principles that indicate success or failure in par- ticular investment fields. After all, investments in this country are all based on or affected by scientific developments. If you want to take as little risk as possible with your money, it will pay you to read what Mr. Don- aldson has to say each month, n.'S. V. P. |. pate a brickbat and many a bou- quet is tossed at the Editor and sometimes the readers and writers them- selves hurl letters at one another through the Scientific American mail bag. All this is mighty interesting—so in- teresting that we want you to enjoy it with us. Therefore, we have opened a new department, “In the Editor’s Mail.” It is yours. Make yourself at home. If you think we are on the wrong tack as we sail over some scientific course, if you see us making sins of omission or commission, if you want us to get your viewpoint, write us a letter. We shall try to find room to publish it. Or, if you have come across some in- teresting bit of information the rest of us ought to know, write and tell us about it. HAPPINESS | avenge by the exceeding warmth of last month, one of our editors fled for “coolth” (why is not that a per- fectly good word?) to the Island of Newfoundland. It was 96 degrees in the shade in New York and 40 in New- foundland, where icebergs were floating past the entrance to Saint John’s harbor on their way south. The fishermen of that rugged island interested us. They are of good Scotch, English and Irish stock, rugged and clear-eyed, with red cheeks and revealing a charming na- tive courtesy. In the smoking room coming home conversation turned on the life of these people. An official of the Government told us that the average earnings of the fishermen is about $200 per year. This, with the help of the wonderful women of the country, who dig and plant and tend the small holdings of an acre or two, enables them to get along. “Are they happy?” asked one of the listeners. “Very happy,” said the official with emphasis; and there came to our mind the saying from an old book, to the effect that “the happiness of a man consisted not in the abundance of his possessions. . .”

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SEPTEMBER, 1925