Scientific American 1922-01: Vol 126 Iss 1

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| Sa ENTIFIC ee . The Monthly Journal of Practical Information } 55ea Copy JANUARY 1922 $4.00 a Year CrTTT tt. 1} i Lies — HE [——I r—H HE qt H— E45 J — oe —ls r—i J :— Hf — 4 . -— 4 F— — 9 He H— 7 — rj . Lad mm a ae HE . — s r—ji h—H — 4HE- . r] -—-4H oH 4 -— qQE-4 e . P— r—4ty 4 . Ul ea Ml Se Ul ll i} Scientific American Publishing Co., Munn & Co, New York_S / 4

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Abbreviated Edicn on How to Read the Chart: Prominent Makes of Engines M ‘ M t M t \ Ml ‘ WW j my ' . i { T at ( ( t \ 4 at wea w20 ~~ - oil” you may accidentally get cor- rect lubrication. But you are taking a long chance. [f you are one of the many who know the satistaction of using Gargoyle Mo- biloil we advise you to avoid this care- less request. Your best insurance of engine results is to ask tor Gargoyle Mobiloil, being Why correct lubrication is decidedly cheaper During this very dav, mechanics thousands of They are htting in are Dusy repairing automobile engines. gasoline. cleaning out carbon, new piston rings, putting in new bearings, regrinding worn cylin- ders. tt least 5 mMéeces 5» of these repairs ary by bad lubri- old haphazard— were made — cation— by the “Give me a quart of atl, Mobiloils A grade for cach type of motor Domestic New York (Main Offce Boston Chicago Branches Indianapolis Minneapolis Buffalo Blind Luck— or Science. Y SAYING “Give me a quart of Not a gasoline by-product Nine out of ten lubricating oils on the market are simply by- products in the manufacture of Gargoyle Mobiloil is not a by-product. It is produced by lubrication specialists who are recognized GARE “GIVE ME A QUART OF OIL” Choose! particular to specify the correct grade for your car. The careless request, “Give me a quart of oil’’ means: “Qh, I don’t care who made the oil. “I don’t care how much carbon I get. “1 don’t mind overheating, rapid de- preciation, noise or repair bills.” You are matching blind luck against lubrication science. the world over as leaders in lubri- cating practice. Gargoyle Mobil- oil is manufactured from crude oils chosen for their /ubricating qualities—not for their gasoline content. They are manufactured by processes designed to bring out the highest /ubricating value —not the greatest gallonage of gasoline. This is one of the essential reasons for the superiority of Gargoyle Mobiloil. Pittsburgh Kansas City, Kans Detroit Dallas Philadelphia Des Moines VACUUM OIL COMPANY —— —— re tied AN nes : Pate tine e JAN W are fi no sil years nal of seriou tle di! toas aims public ence ¢£ the w friend journ: into t both t entist. edited ever | cisms the S« that i your ¢ Ul d This ¢ featur our fo appear year. densed ments served on pas the res oursel point. the S« imposs real p fresh i has bee and it gotten, their o in the momen side of our ow view ; clarity seemed it; we eur ow All of we wel UR an reveals goodly howeve Certain one of of old deal of hobby, films ; siastic this all. day it « philatel know lec frauds, sort. T feits an that th tor, an these ir oecurres pose th. stamps made s\ rest of 1 upon te This he ee)

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oil. get. inst ibri- »bil- rude ting line ured ring alue of tial of ans \ 2 ee aaa eRe. le esate JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ith the Editors TITH this issue, the third of the new \ monthly ScreNTIFIC AMERICAN, we are finding our stride, so to speak. It is no simple matter to change the habits of vears: after having edited a weekly jour- nal of popular appeal and a supplementary serious monthly review, we found it a lit- tle difficult, at first, to readjust ourselves to a single monthly journal combining the aims and ideals of both of our former publications. But what with the experi- rained with each issue, together with ence £ the worthy many of our this new friends and readers, of being molded suggestions of we believe rapidly ours is journal into the kind of periodical that satisfies both the layman and the professional sci- entist. After all, it is your magazine, edited for you; and the editorial ear is ever listening for suggestions and criti- cisms that throw light on what you wish the ScrentirFI1c AMERICAN to be, in order that it will prove most indispensable at your desk, work bench, or in the library. UR editorial pages in this issue are devoted to a review of the past year. This double-page review has long been a feature of the ScrENTIFIC AMERICAN. In our former weekly the review of the year appeared in the first issue of the new year. We have always felt that this con- densed résumé of the progress and achieve- ments of the year just brought to a close served as nothing else would to check up on past performances for the benefit of the reader and ourselves alike. Why for ourselves? Just a word to clear this point. Living so close to the columns of the Screntiric AMERICAN, it is virtually impossible for the editors to develop a real perspective while any issue is still fresh in our minds. But—after an issue has been left six months or a year behind and its contents have been largely for- gotten, the editors ean critically read their own handiwork, being, for the time, in the position of the reader. For the we place ourselves on the other we review moment side of the publishing business ; our own work from the reader’s point of learn with what degree of clarity we have described something which seemed quite simple to us who had seen it; we have an opportunity of criticizing view: we eur own efforts and improving our work. All of which is a good thing. Therefore, we welcome the review of the year. UR list of editors, contributing editors and so on, appearing on this page, reveals the presence our staff of a goodly number of specialists. Apparently, however, it does not tell the whole story. Certainly it does not make it clear that one of us is rather absorbed in the study of old architecture ; that another is a good on deal of a motion picture authority—his hobby, in fact, is making motion picture films; that we have with us an enthu- Siastic collector of Dickensiana. Nor is this all. In casual conversation the other day it developed that one of the staff is a philatelist of parts, with an intimate knowledge of stamp markets, stamp frauds, and numerous other things of the sort. The conversation turned to counter- feits and counterfeiters, the sort of fakes that they try to foist off upon the collec- tor, and the means employed to show these in their true character. It hadn't occurred to the philatelic member to sup- pose that anybody but a collector of old Stamps would be interested; but his story made such a profound impression on the rest of the staff that he was at once called upon to tell it to our readers well. This he has done. And he makes it plain as CONT ENTS JANUARY, 1922 LEADING ARTICLES America’s Domestic Food Supply.............. By Robert G. Skerrett 6-7 The Radio Central. Beds tosadaace a A EO ere By Austin C. Lescarboura 8-9 The Hydraulic Laboratory................e0- By Robert G. Skerrett 10-11 Stamp Frauds and Their Detection.............. By J. Malcolm Bird 12-13 Comets That Have Lost Their Tails............... By J. Springer 14-15 RO: Pee GI sos 6 noses cv cccicaceces By J. Bernard Walker 16 Vehicular Tunnel Ventilation. .... er eee ee By the Staff 17 The Hydraulic Jump........ Terre, : -By Harry A. Mount 18-19 Review of the Year 1921.......... aialnGce a .......Hditorial Comment 20-21 Prom Steamer to BERS BID. o.oo ccccescsevesiosensen By the Staff 22 With Eye-Piece and Camera.............+4+ -By Albert A. Hopkins 23-24 Naval Construction in Japan........ jn dgieamad By Hector C. Bywater 25-26 Recent Advances in Lighting eked s.0b sen bewaehewa eed By M. Luckiesh 27 Government Railroad in Alaska Nearing Completion...... By the Staff 28 29 Noises for the Movies............. Raise Kee $a By Albert A. Hopkins 30-3 Reading Between the Lines................0.e000- By Jacques Boyer 32 BONG WII 4.555554 56:3.0'6-0455 we owndcnssscee% By T. Hart Anderson 34 Sir Ernest Shackleton’s Ship the Quest...... ks .cees Full-page drawing 35 Recent Discoveries in Greek Lands..............seeee00: By the Staff 36-37 Pe eee re So errr rer By Harry A. Mount 38-39 New York’s Proposed Belt Railway......... ...By William J. Wilgus 40-41 Ripememitie TAUNNOT LAONOR. ooo 6ncc sc cccccscsvceses By George H. Dacy 42-43 The Latest in Steel Rails. . TE Oe rE By Frederick C. Carl 44 The Noiseless Elevated. So ba aee -By William A. McGarry 46-47 Bombing and Bombing Sights. “ees icine ae eke By Dr. E. J. Loring 49-51 Intake, Compression, Power and E xhaust..... ‘ine Gio aware jy the Staff 53-54 Why Not Long Distance Stenography?............... ..By the Staff 57 The Mechanism of the Psychic....... B y . Here ward Carr rington, PhD. 60 SHORT ARTICLES The Electric Field of the Atmosphere The Mount Everest Reconnaissance. .... 87 : During SPR eee 7 De es cc crcmkusinnmenedo® 39 Gear-Shift Innovations ............+++- 7 How Sensitive Is Dynamite? - 39 The Legal Adviser in Foreign Trade.... 19 Studying the Flight of Flies. 41 Standard Specifications for Large Incan- “ sie ‘ 99 Magnetic Testing of Wider Applicability 43 descent Electric Lamps .... 22 “ - m4 The Determination of Oxides of Nitrogen 26 Keeping Track of Surgics al Operations. . 45 Track Laid on Cables While Fill Is Be- Hot High-Nitrogen Gas in a Metal Mine 45 fot al asd ditheth W's arenas 29 Lumber of Steel ............ peatanesan 47 Large Diesel Engines aiseen ae 30 The Grunewald Automobile Race-Course 48 Bottling and _ Labelling thine for How Did the Ichthyosaurus Live?...... 52 Smal!l Seale Operations. 33 Trolley Snow-Sweepers ... d 55 ~ or Electricity to the Metal- Melting 33 Concrete Tower for Dam Construc tion. . 55 Seeing ‘Ola Ps aintings. ‘as. ‘They Were ; Combining Motion Pictures with Clock- Originally Executed ..........+.se008 33 Ce Sc 57 DEPARTMENTS The Service of the Chemist 56 Electrical Notes ....cccccccsccccccvcccs 72 The Heavens in January............... 59 BEE HTNOID ccc dcccccccnccesenconsse 73 Inventions New and Interesting........ 61-64 ee OOO «6.0.4 pnid6.6000060800080'08 06 74 Our Readers’ Point of View............ 65 Mechanical Engineering MANNE sc onene0% 75 Recently Patented Inventions . 66-70 Patent and Trade-mark Notes.......... 76 Miscellaneous Notes .........-seeeeeee8 71, 79 Wind, Cell GEE 601006040 nen ctececdcce 77 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Munn & Company, 233 PUBLISHING COMPANY Broadway, New York Founded 1845 President CHARLES ALLEN we ie ALLAN C, HOFFMAN, ORSON D. MUNN, Treasurer Secretary EDITORIAL STAFF J. BERNARD WALKER AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA J. MALCOLM BIRD DEPARTMENT EDITORS ALBERT A. HOPKINS, H. E. Howe, Victor W. PAGE, HENRY Norris RUSSELL, Prof. of Astronomy, Notes and Queries. Chemical Engineer. Automotive Engineer. Princeton University. CORRESPONDENTS Washington, D. C. Berlin, Germany Cc. H. Ciavupy, ALFRED GRADENWITZ, Leonard W. Hector C. Bywater, London, England. MATTERS, Buenos Aires, Argentine Rep. CORRESPONDING EDITORS H. Drepericus, Prof. of Experimental Engi- neering, Cornell University. Sau, DusHMAN, Ph.D., G. E. Research Lab- oratory. Epwarp EL.Lery, Consulting Chemist, Union College. Ratpw J. Focc, Prof. of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University. Leon A. HAUSMAN, Ph.D., Instr. in Proto- zoology and General Biology, Cornell Univ. Harry S. Hower, Prof. of Physics, Carnegie Institute of Technology. Nela W. A. Mure, Ph.D., New York Botanical Garden. W. C. PeckHaM, Prof. of Physics, Adelphi College. H. C. Ramsower, Director of Agricul. Ext. Service, Ohio State University. Samuet J. Recorp, Prof. of Forest Products, Yale University. JoHNn Ritcnie, Massachusetts Inst. nology. J. HAMMOND SMITH, of Tech- Prof. of Civil Engineer- M. Luckresn, Dir. of Applied Science, ee” Tiaie alk Weniaiaaein Research Laboratories. ing, Univ. of Pittsburgh. Roy W. Miner, American Museum of Natural Epwarp G. SPAULDING, Ph.D., LL.D., Prof. of History. Philosophy, Princeton University. H. F. Moore, Research Prof. of Eng. Materials, G. A. Younc, Head, Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Minois. Purdue University. Vol. 126, No. 1. Published monthly. Entered as second class matter, June 18, 1879, at the post office at New York, N. Price, 35 cents a copy. and Mexico, postage prepaid. Copyright, $4.00 a year. Reg. U. s _Patent Office. Y., under the Act of March 3, Postage prepaid in United States and possessions, Cuba and Panama; $4.50 a year for Canada. 1921, by Scientific American Publishing Company. Gr Illustrated articles must not be reproduced without written permission. 1879. Foreign subscriptions, $5.00 a year, Great Britain rights reserved. “Scientific American” ineffective lighting. that he has only begun to tell about the curious sidelights of his hobby, and that if you like the story he puts before you now, there is more material to draw upon. NE afternoon, not very long ago, business in this office was just about suspended, while stenographers and edi- tors, office boys and department heads gathered about one of the editorial rooms, SO from which the most amazing noises is- sued. Blood-curdling shrieks alternated with low moans and loud clankings; lions roared, dogs barked, shots were heard, and pandemonium in general had appar- ently broken loose. Initial suspicions that we were haunted broke down before the revelation that one of the editors had brought in a collection of noise-making properties that are used in connection with motion picture presentations. We gathered about the collection, appropri- ated the instrument with whose particu- lar variety of racket we were most im- pressed, and proceeded to distribute the uprising somewhat. We are sorry we can- not print the sound waves and give some real idea of the delightful manner in which the artificial lion bellowed. Mr. Hughes’ surprising attack I AD upon the problem of naval establish- ts come a little earlier, it might have led into omitting from this issue the statement by Mr. Bywater of Japan's pro- gram and her measure of accomplishment, But this part of the was on the press when Mr. Hughes made his address, we could only hope that the progress of the conference would be such that we might be able to say an intelligent word of comment on this page—the last one to go to the printer. Another of those kalei- doscopic changes may completely shift the scenes; but we write words at a moment when it seems fairly clear that most of the delegates have come to Wash- ington prepared be very enthusiastic about general disarmament. \ 7E started something. In one of the ‘Y concluding issues of the weekly ré- gime our automobiling member expressed some pointed opinions about the efforts made to light our highways for night traf- fice. It will be recalled that he summed . up the situation by giving it as his expe- rience that every style of highway light- ing yet displayed was at best confusing, and often dangerous; that his own prefer- ence was all for the highway completely unlighted save by his headlights. This Phillipic brought a prompt visit from the genial gentleman who keeps us informed of what the big Schenectady research lab- oratories are doing—yes, we suppose he would have to answer to the title of Press Agent if anyone were to insist upon it, He told us that we had pubiished this editorial right at the moment when the illuminating experts of his company had perfected what they considered to be the ultimate in highway illuminating. These folks, he reported, were all worked up about the matter, and were sure that if we would only come up and inspect the in- stallation we would be convinced. We are willing to try anything once, so we went. And we were convinced. In the February issue we shall tell you all about it—what the new system is, how it works, and what it does. Right here, by way of indicating that the subject is of interest and impor- tance, we will say that the road is lighted men us issue sO these to so that one can see a cat crossing it nearly half a mile away, and at a cost hardly in excess of that of the familiar

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Friction, from the beginning of time, has controlled man’s progress, either as a friend or as an enemy. Earliest evidence of the friendly use of friction was the rubbing of the hands and body to keep warm and finally the rubbing of a pointed stick to start a fire. But friction, like the fire which it starts, is, in many ways, man’s formidable enemy. In the operation of machinery and in the development of all automotive vehicles, friction must be held absolutely under man’s control; or else, the mechanical power which has carried man from savagery to his present high estate, would be so wasted as to hold progress and development at a standstill. Without anti-friction bearings (as they are called) machinery in general would have remained as in great-grandfather’s day. No railroads would streak across the land—no motor cars—no trucks—not even power-driven boats could ply. In this battle, against “enemy” friction, human inventive genius has progressed rapidly from the early cumbersome types of soft, slippery metal collars which encircled axles and shafts—through various applications of balls and rollers—to the tapered roller bearing of today, as typified in the product of the Timken Roller Bearing Company ;— 4 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN THE TIMKEN ROLLER BEARIN Timken Tapered Roller Bearings for Passenger Cars, Trucks, Tractors, Trailers, Farm Sasi Machinery, and Industrial Appliances SEND FOR TRUTH-TESTED FACT #2, JANUARY, 1922 MKEN Tapered ROLLER‘ BE t 7. It has progressed from those early nuisances that required greas- ing or oiling every few hours to the Timken Tapered Roller Bearing of today that requires attention as infrequently as every year or two. Here we have a light, compact, and self-contained device that is friction’s absolute master. For not only do Timken Tapered Roller Bearings hold friction to a negligible minimum— But in so enabling wheels and shafts to revolve at frightful speeds with ease and safety— Timken Tapered Roller Bearings, at the same time, carry all the loads that may be thrust upon them regardless of the direction from which these loads may come. No matter how, nor where, nor when that shock or load is applied— Your Timken Tapered Roller Bearings rest snugly in their various housings, absorbing or deflecting those blows— The while your motive power is being delivered through these bearings, without interruption, to the driving wheels. And finally, when that wear which must follow all motion es a becomes apparent,—a simple adjustment and your Timkens function as when new. YG CO, CANTON, OHIO “FRICTION” AISA AALT LAYMAN UOATTAAU NAG EANDANUAAUNTI NY EIFFE ‘555 FEET.———

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Y, 1922 |

2 an On ANNE a es Se a rs Een fot ey hee 2 en ERIS.

(nti

OTT SEVENTY- SEVENTH YEAR Tio

Ens ae

“THE MONTHLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION

NEW YORK, JANUARY, 1922

Corn Crop - 1920

Revative Proouctivity PER AcRE OF VaRiIoUS COUNTRIES Gauceo BY AVERAGE Yietps of CEREALS AND PoTAToOES

Potato Crop 1920 Puienty of Room ror IMPROVEMENT ‘ BY America’s FARMERS. at ; i fe Big so 2 feat 7 x Ce yl? ud tas <4 ja Sd ox j : ae sis 5” a EIFFEL TOWER

VWWASHING TON MONUMENT "$55 Feet ——

Tota AREA oF 1 AorRicuLTURAL LANDS in US: 1903,.269,000. Acres.

Mik Prooucen in A YEAR z CHEESE OLEOMAR] GARINE MALTED, CONDENSEDETC, BUTTER WASHINGTON HOUSEHOLD MONUMENT

Annuat Proouction or Dressep Meat From Cattie,Hoes, and SHEEP

7 782 FEET

Consumption 12600060000. Les. == 765 Freer

THe Loar We Eat YEARLY lr Wouco Be 27percent LarRoer if We Consumed ALL oF THE Domes tic WHEAT

Copyright Scientifie American Pub. Co OUR FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION AT A GLANCE:

FACTS AND FIGURES ON OUR LEADING FOODSTUFFS, PRODUCTIVITY PER ACRE, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER NATIONS, AND RELATIVE AREAS OF PRODUCTIVE LAND AND CULTIVATED LAND. THE EIFFEL TOWER, WASHINGTON MONUMENT, AND WOOLWORTH BUILDING ARE EMPLOYED AS STANDARDS FOR COMPARISONS.-—(See pages 6 and 7)

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America’s Domestic Food Supply In Which We Take Inventory of Our Needs and How Far They Are Supplied by Home Production ] OW far is America’s market basket filled from her | own resources Is the domestic food problem one that need cause us any alari These questions are persistently recurrent, and are generally asked more frequently when the cold of win ter grips the land and our arable acres cease, in large part, for the nonce to be actively productive. True, the sea, some inland waters, the range, and the barnyard continue to supply us with great quantities of food stuffs year in and year out, but the main burden of sus tenance rests upon the seasonal crops that are grown and harvested mostly during the prevalence of warm weather It is doubtful if the average citizen gives more than a anomentary heed to the sources from which his daily diet is drawn; and taking the country by and large the public is generally ignorant of the immense amount of provisions that must be continually available in order that the physical wellbeing of the nation may be main- tained at the proper standard, No matter how we may view the importance of our manifold industries, it is indubitably a fact that agriculture is the greatest of all of these activities. Indeed, it is the foundation of the nation’s prosperity, for the very life and vigor of everyone is conditional upon plenty of good and nour ishing food The biochemist has told us how many calories the food eaten daily by man, by woman, and by child should contain requirements under various cir cumstances of and this expert taken pains to detail how the several percentages of nutritive to meet bodily occupation has elements can be obtained va- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN By Robert G. Skerrett while the sweet potatoes raised reached a total of 112,- 368,000) bushels, Of beans we had for distribution 9,075,000 bushels; of onions 19,119,500 bushels: and our markets handled S20.750 tons of cabbage. Beside these staple vegetables, the so-called truck crops fur- nished us with 577,464 tons of sweet corn; 24,683 tons of snap beans; 38,605 tons of asparagus; 41,654 tons of cucumbers 12,106,055 erates of lettuce; 21,335,000 bushels of onions; 26,354,140 bushels of early white potatoes ; 133.272 tons of peas ; 2.422 000 crates of cauli- flower; 1,022,258 tons of tomatoes; and 3,660,773 crates of celery. From our orchards we obtained 43,697,000 bushels of peaches; 17,279,000 bushels of pears; 27,200,000 boxes of oranges; and 240,442,000 bushels of apples. The cranberry harvest netted 431,000 barrels; our melon patches yielded 11,652,356 crates of cantaloupes and watermelons to the number of 49,577,000, while our strawberry beds produced 4,590,700 crates. As all of us know there are other fruits and berries which play part in our dietary, but space forbids detailed statistics, With one exception, the people of the United States are the largest meat eaters in the world, and something like 22 per cent of their income is spent for this com- a more or less conspicuous modity. Therefore, in order to appreciate the magni- tude of the industry devoted to gratifying this taste, let us see what our farmers and ranchmen produce to meet this demand. In 1920 our edible livestock mileh cows: and main of 23,321,000 $5,067,000 the eattle: made up in 12. 870.000 other was sheep ; sub- JANUARY, 1929) 2 Ni rere the ratio is one to ten; in the West it is one to twelve: and in the Central States it is one to twenty. A quarter of a century ago there was virtually no difference between the market value, per hundred pounds, of a matured wether or a young lamb, ang for that reason the sheep man held his stock a fey years for the purpose of getting several clips of wod and then disposing of his old sheep at a fair price However, a great many of these mature animals die of old age and never reached the market. Now, lam) commands not only a better price than mutton, and j more widely eaten here, but the augmented flocks fur nish us with amplified stocks of wool. At the presen time fully 75 per cent of the receipts at killing center consists of lambs and yearlings and about 5 per cent of matured wethers—the remainder being old ewes and rams, It has been said that the United States produces ip the course of a twelvemonth enough poultry and eggs to buy the cotton and tobacco crops of the country for that period. Astonishing as this statement may seem a little analysis reveals that it is correct. In 1920, the farm value of the tobacco grown was $318,359,000, and that of cotton reached $914,590,000—a total of $1,232. 949,000. From our hen houses we garner annually now 2,500,000,000 dozen eggs, in round numbers, and ouw production of poultry during a like interval is in the neighborhood of 1,700,000,000 pounds. Taking the yearly mean prices for eggs and poultry, the farmers’ got in 1920 substantially $1,675,000,000 for these food- stuffs, bearing out the comparison quoted. Coming down to. dairy riously from divers edibles. products, our citizenry are Again, the more practical- unusually favored. Despite? minded student of the sub- HE people of no other nation can boast a dietary as abundant and as varied as that of the the fact that our average ject has explained that the dwellers in the United States; and the most suggestive aspect of this matter is that with cow gives in the ccurse of 4 average adult needs between 2% and 4 pounds of food- stuffs every twenty-four hours to furnish a sufficiency within our gates at the present time. few exceptions the vast bulk of these comestibles is of domestic production Provided the farmer's labors can be made worth his while, our natural agricultural re- sources are such that we can take care of hundreds of millions of citizens more than we have The problem is essentially a better and fuller use of the am twelvemonth less than 4,00 pounds of milk, the total) yield for 1920 was approxi mately 90,000,000,000 pounds © 10,400,000,000 gallons of protein, fat, and carbo- - ‘ ; : ° hydrates. In passing, let it arable acres at our disposal. In this, science and engineering will play in the future larger parts From this we made 160mm be recalled that the youth than they have in the past. 000,000 pounds of butter:7 of beth sexes demand quite as much at some periods to appease their appetites as do matter of To-day, the average American requires for the preparation of his three meals raw products totalling about four pounds; and, itemized, these are apportioned as follows: Bread, 16 ounces; meat, 8 ounces; lard 1.42 ounces; milk, 16.3 ounces; vegetables, 12 400,000,000 pounds of cheese; 1,578,000,000 pounds of con? densed milk; more than 35, 000,000 pounds of powdered pee As . ounces; fruit, 9 ounces; and sugar 4 ounces. scales anh cue ae act our per capita consump- one . : oi . o alted and ste zed milk, re gp hece Paget re re? The distribution of these vital commodities among a population of 105,000,000, scattered not to mention 260,000.08 pounds, and this calls for throughout the length and breadth of the land, is a business of immense proportions which calls zallons of ice cream, leavill provender totalling 215,250 to ils aid agencies of various sorts and of a highly developed character in certain instances: then enough milk to enter) tons, or the annual provid- Without these facilities the bounty of one section of our land could not be placed at the disposal into the manufacture off ing and distributing of 78,- 566,250 tons of foodstuffs! The American public of another, nor could the overflow of one season be made available during the months of natural scarcity.— THE EpDITor. 370,000,000 pounds of olee7 margarine and to provide) fluid milk for household pur J spends $18,000,000,000 on its table each twelvemonth, or $49,315,000 per diem; and we are authoritatively in- formed that out of this stupendous sum 31 per cent is spent for bread. sugar, and fruit, while 69 per cent is devoted to the purchase of meat, fish, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, and lard. The major part of these comestibles are produced by the 6,448,366 farms in the United Stutes; and the area embraces an ag gregate of 055,676,545 acres. r ating of these farm-lands represent a ment of $80,000,000,000: and the value of output is in excess of $20,000,000,000, Stupendous as these figures are, still they probably fail to bring home to most of us what they stand for in measures of foodstuffs. However, data are available which give the information desired and reveal at the same time how much it takes to nourish this nation and for year potatoes, involved The owning and the ope eapital invest- the annual commodities 1920—a to have, besides, a surplus of some export. The work of our farmers during typical of large crops generally, resulted in an abun- dance of food for ourselves, great quantities of feed for our domestic animals, and a vast amount of raw mate- rials for the fabrication of clothing. Our cultivated acres yielded 787,128,000 bushels of wheat ; 3,232,367,000 1.526,055,000 bushels. of oats; 202,- 69,318,000 bushels of rye; bushels of corn; 024,000 bushels of barley; 13,789,000 bushels of buckwheat; and 53,710,000 bushels about 150,000,000 bushels of more than 6,000,000,000 bushels of rice, not to mention grain sorghums. In all, of cereals. Further, our farms grew the mentioned $30,458,000 during year a white-potato crop aggregating bushels, During the year in ques- than 100,000,000 stantially 66,650,000 swine. tion our abattoirs slaughtered more animals; and the dressed meat, including lard, amounted to quite 20,500,000,000 pounds. That is to say, there was placed on the market meat enough to supply everyone of us with 195 pounds, or about 8.5 pounds more per capita than the consumption. For several years we have been eating less meat than previously and substituting larger quantities of other foodstuffs instead. That is to say, where our diet was formerly composed of about two-thirds meat and one- third cereals we are adding more of the latter to our fare and drinking larger measures of milk. The dieti- cians tell us that the change is better both for our bodies and for our purses. Striking a national average, each of us does away annually with 6.4 pounds of lamb und mutton, 80 pounds of beef and veal, and 100.1 pounds of pork. In this connection it is interesting to point out that the urban dweller consumes more beef and sheep products than his brother in the rural dis- tricts, while the latter eats more bountifully of pork. Of marked economic importance is the prevailing tendency of the American public to eat more lamb per capita than is the case in any other country, while mut- ton is less and less called for by the people. This sit- uation has been brought about by a realization that the sheep is quite as important as a source of meat as it producer of wool; and the consumer prefers today the delicately flavored lamb to the stronger- tasting mutton. In the East, one pound of mutton and lamb is used for every five pounds of beef; in the South is as a gallons per capita annually. It is rather significant that our production of oleomar garine has increased more rapidly than our popula tion. The per capita consumption of this foodstuff was © only a little more than half a pound here in 1908, 7 while at the present time it exceeds three and a half q pounds. 4 From our waters, salt and fresh, we obtain yearly j 2.400,000,000 pounds of fish, and about 72 per cent @ this catch is taken from along the Atlantic seaboard] As a people we are not notable fish eaters—the year consumption per person being about 18 pounds @ against. 65 pounds in England. However, it is safe @ say that nowhere else in the world can people remote} from the sources of supply enjoy the variety and abut dance of fresh seafood such as are available to ow citizens hundreds, yes thousands, of miles inland. It§ may not be commonly known that 90 per cent of all of the fresh halibut eaten by us is caught off the coast &® Alaska and delivered thence to all sections of the country. Similarly, most of the fresh salmon served uF poses to the measure of i is moved long distances to gratify our palates. This? matter of handling fish logically brings us to tweg@ the modern methods employed to preserve perishable} to effect their distribution under cit will insure their fitness for consump® s o . e : 2 prime phases of the question of our food perishable and cumstances that tion. The cold storage warehouse and the refrigerator cat zg have revolutionized the American dietary and haveg™ made it practicable to spread the fruits of the cael of plenty over the months of normal scarcity; to ste comestibles ee) te eS cole Ap! bet! fro! lar! ing sun mol in 1 con diti pre: an goo has gra of 2 non whe T pro] on | wea and the auti first care they four £00 or u eggs duct for thar Li idly wer shel tice and exte anni the pies. sup] sake shel serv Ac mar erall ities fron to te the : for ‘ mate pack Ac cold stor: upon the | 45 d legal artic gree: their it se time neat used tura! Steac Ou the alone

Page 7

YY, 19225 oO twelve: tually no hundred amb, and ck a few ; of woe iir price nals died ow, lamb n, and i ocks fur e present g center per cen ewes and duces ip and eggs intry for ay seem, 1920, the 000, and f $1,232. ally now and our s in the ing the farmers * se food o dairy mry are Despite average irse of a an 4,000 ne total approxi ) pounds ‘allons e 1,600-" butter ' cheese of con han 36, ywdered ~“d milk, ),000,000 leaving Oo enter® ure of of olee 7 provide | old pur e of BF nnually. g yleomar x popula 7 ‘uff was § n 19,5 | a half * al yearly cent &F aboard © . yearly 3 nds #&F safe wil remote 7 d abut to ow nd. It’ f allad® ‘oast of of the rved us . This to tw ly—i.e. 9 ‘ishable § ler cit) nsump | tor cary 1 haves seasons to stay JANUARY, 1922 bilize the agricultural industry over the entire year; and to neutralize climatic conditions so far as to en- able the produce of warm or favored sections to be dispatched to those not so smiled upon by Nature. By reason of these facilities the American enjoys the year round a fuller, a better and a more diversified fare than his foreign fellow anywhere. Further, these same agencies encourage the utmost use of our arable acres through the assurance that a greater measure of their output will sooner or later reach a profitable market. How, but for the cold storage warehouse and the re- frigerator car, would it be feasible for us to put away during the spring and summer immense quantities of new-laid eggs, freshly made butter, poultry, fruits, and vegetables, etc., and then send them broadcast later on so that the mild months, in a food sense, can overlap or ameliorate the harsh conditions of the periods of cold? We are authoritatively told that laid in April and placed promptly in cold storage are apt to be better than the rival fresh commodity that is sent direct from the nests to the market during August. Simi- larly, butter made from cream produced by cows feed- ing upon the succulent grass of the spring and early summer is sweeter and of finer flavor, even after months in cold storage, than butter churned later on in the year. The essential thing is that the perishable commodity, be that what it may, shall be in prime con- dition before it is put in storage, for this method of preservation can only arrest deterioration. Sutter of an inferior quality will suffer more in storage than good butter; and the U. S. Department of Agriculture has held butter in cold storage for three years—the grade then being such as to warrant its scoring 92 out of a possible 100 in order of merit. However, for eco- nomic reasons, butter is usually less than a year old when it leaves the freezer for the market. The length of time that eggs can be retained in a properly operated cold storage plant depends mainly on their state when they enter. &ggs laid during cool weather keep best and longest. Therefore, the March and April pack of eggs is held for midwinter use, while the June pack is usually disposed of during the late autumn and early winter, when seasonal production first begins to decrease. If the spring eggs have been earefully graded and packed before going into storage, they can be served poached or soft boiled and will be found palatable up to six months old, and they are still good for food at the end of nine months when prepared or used in other ways. At no time does the number of eggs in storage exceed 10 per cent of the annual pro- duction, while in the cuse of butter the quantity stored for subsequent distribution does not amount to more than 7 per cent. Latterly, the frozen-egg industry has increased rap- idly. Twelve years ago the eggs that are now frozen were practically a loss, because they either had cracked shells or were otherwise unfit for storage. The prac- tice is to break these eggs into buckets or containers and then to freeze them. In this form they are sold extensively to bakers and confectioners; and thus an annual of $50,000,000 is avoided. The public is the gainer by reason of the greater quantities of cake, pies, and candy at its disposal, while there is a larger supply of perfect eggs for different purposes. For the sake of those unfamiliar with the subject, eggs in the shell are carried at a temperature low enough to pre- serve them but high enough to prevent freezing. According to the requirements of the season and the market, foodstuffs are pre-cooled or frozen, and gen- erally speaking the first process is applied to commod- ities that are to be held for a short while—ranging from days to a few weeks, whereas freezing is resorted to to insure keeping over a period of months. Fish. in the frozen state have been so preserved experimentally for 27 months without showing any chemical change or material loss in palatability. Our annual frozen fish pack is, however, usually distributed within ten months. According to the Federal authorities, we have 1387 cold storage establishments, representing an aggregate Storage space of 463,025,213 cubie feet. Depending upon the nature of the business done by these concerns the temperatures range from 10 degrees below zero to 45 degrees above. In fact, the term cold storage, as legally defined, means the storage or keeping of any article of food at or below the temperature of 45 de- grees above zero Fahrenheit. Some plafffS have at their disposal quite 5,000,000 cubic feet of space; and it seems that these conservation facilities do me at any time contain more than 10 per cent or 12 per cent 6f the meat supply of the nation. This“indiéates.#hat they are used in a way that serves to stabilize both the agricul- tural and the fishing industries and that tends to Steady prices against extreme variations. Our citizenry as a whole, however, could not enjoy the bounty they now do if dependence were placed alone upon cold storage warehouses. The refrigerator oS ezges loss SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN car has become an indispensable link between these res- ervoirs of comestibles and our widely scattered con- sumers, Refrigerator cars—and there are thousands of them in use—widen the effective radius of cold-storage service, whether they be employed in the transportation of chilled or frozen commodities. Other mediums by which seasonal abundance can be conserved for later consumption are our great grain ele- vators and our canning, drying, and preserving indus- tries; and through these agencies a steadily increasing percentage of each crop reaches our tables from year to year. Both Federal and State authorities are doing their utmost to improve and to amplify our herds, our grains, our vegetables, our fruits, ete., and to develop those species and varieties which will flourish best in the different sections of the country suited to their propagation. Thus, in the main, the United States is able to load her market basket and to provide from domestic resources food enough for her people; but, even so, we do face a vital problem that sooner or later must be solved. One hundred years ago out of all of the persons em- ployed in American occupations 87.1 per cent were en- gaged in agriculture. A half century later the tillers of our soil represented only 47.5 per cent of our work- ers, and the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, touching upon this point, has declared that it would not be sur- prised if the complete returns for 1920 showed that only 30 per cent of our industrial army are farmers. Whether this state of affairs will be offset by improved agricultural machinery, the wider use of the farm tractor, and greater reliance upon motor trucks for the speedy delivery of produce to shipping or distributing points, is a matter of speculation. Certain it is, in view of what is done abroad in some ccuntries, that we can get larger yields per acre of several staple crops than we now do. This can be achieved by closer adher- ence to the scientific cultivation of the soil—putting into daily practice the lessons learned at our numerous Agricultural Experimental Stations. Nature has been generous to us, and America need never feel the pinch of want, never be short of food, if her husbandmen make the most of her available acres and diversified climate. The Motor Tanker “Conde de Churruca” TWIN-SCREW oil tanker recently launched at the works of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company, is described in The Engineer, Sept. 16, 1921. It is propelled by two 1250-brake-horsepower Arm- strong-Sulzer engines, representing the most recent type of design and also being the largest engines of this type which have up to the present been fitted in a British mercantile vessel. The deck machinery, con- sisting of the anchor windlass, winches, and derricks, is all steam driven, the steam being raised in an oil- fired donkey boiler which also provides steam for the heating coils in the cargo and fuel tanks. The engines develop each 1250 brake-horsepower at 100 revolutions per minute in four cylinders of 600- millimeter bore and 900-millimeter stroke. They are equipped with a rotary-sleeve valve which controls the admission of scavenging air to the cylinder. The cor- rect position of this valve is determined for head and astern by a simple loose eccentric worked from the operating gear. The starting and reversing mechanisms are so inter- locked that no false start can be made. During the trials it was shown that each engine could be started and stopped twelve times consecutively without replen- ishing the starting receivers. There are eight of these, each of 800 liters capacity. In addition to the high- pressure receivers there is a low-pressure receiver sup- plied through a reducing valve. This receiver provides air service for the motors for the operating gear and the turning gear, and also for the air-driven lubricating- oil priming-pump and the whistle. The piston is cooled by a spray, sea water being used as the cooling medium. During the war an ex- periment was made to test the effect of heat stress on the delicate parts of the engine. The test engine was overheated till the exhaust pipe was heated to redness and collapsed. When the engine was opened up the piston rings were intact and the lubrication was unim- paired, owing to the efficiency of the cooling system. The piston itself is made in two sections, The crown is.only about 44 millimeters thick and is supported by five buttresses of special shape which allow the piston to take up its own position when the heat stresses come on. The piston-rod is so joined to the body that the piston is free to expand radially and sticking is claimed to have been entirely eliminated. All control mechanism is grouped on the top plat- form in full sight of the valve-gear and fuel-pump mechanism. This is, however, optional, and the makers are also prepared to fit auxiliary control on the lower 7 platform. The starting valve is operated by a mechan- ical device, so constructed that it can be readily re- moved and examined. This makes it possible for the engineer to assure himself that the maneuvering gear is in good working order. Among auxiliaries attention is called to the eleetric steering gear and the combined compressor and generator to be used for emergency purposes. This consists of a two-stage air compressor delivering air at 1200 pounds per square inch driven by a 12-horsepower hand-started hot-bulb engine, which is also coupled to an 8-kilowatt 110-volt emergency gen- erator. The two engines, built with flywheels, pumps and all fittings, weigh about 330 tons, The Electric Field of the Atmosphere During Storms Feet macge ne physicist named Norinder has been en- gaged since 1918 at Upsala making careful meas- urements of the variations of the electric state of the atmosphere during the course of storms. For this pur- pose he records by means of a very rapid instrument the differences of potential manifested between two parallel horizontal wires, whose distance from the ground is adjustable up to forty meters in height. He thus determines through the oscillations which appear in the recorded curve, the variations of the “gradient” of the potential measured between the two wires; the term “gradient of the potential” is applied to the dif- ference of potential between two points one meter apart from each other. The diagrams obtained make it pos- sible to distinguish two kinds of variations in the elec- tric field during a storm—first a slow variation lasting for at least ten seconds, which appears to be connected with the movements of the clouds and with silent dis- charges; next there appear very rapid changes in the electric field, which are connected with the flashes of lightning which occur in the vicinity of the post; in in- tervals of time much shorter than one second there may be observed the variations of the gradient comprised between 30,000 and 60,000 volts per meter. Several times gradients of 100,000 volts per meter were observed and on one occasion 135,000 volts per meter, and this in observations made at a distance of about 2 km. from the point where the electrical discharge was produced. The most interesting thing about these measurements is the proof they furnish that the value of the eiectric field of the atmosphere during storms has hitherto been underestimated. It has been thought heretofore that the maximum gradient in the vicinity of the ground was only about 20,000 volts per meter. Norinder’s experi- ments prove it may be much greater, and this explains many accidents on electric lines which had been thought to be sufficiently insulated. Since Norinder’s observa- tions made at several kilometers distance from the elec- tric discharge itself show gradients as high as 100,000 volts per meter the gradient in the actual neighborhood of a “thunder-bolt” may be really formidable. Gear-Shift Innovations NE remarkable solution of the change-gear prob- lem is the Lentz Hydraulic Gear exhibited by the constructors, Messrs. Bruschke & Bergner, of Berlin. This comprises a system of oil pumps, the primary part of which is driven immediately from the motor and, aceording to the actual adjustment, feeds one or several secondary pumps with compressed oil. There are no toothed wheels, the mechanism works quite smoothly and noiselessly and the wear and tear on the motor and tires is reduced to a minimum. The gear also serves as a hydraulic brake and does away with any ciutch, one special type being at the same time a substitute for the differential gear otherwise indispensable. A radical solution of the change-gear problem has been devised by Dr. Maybach, by doing away entirely with this organ. In fact, Messrs. Maybach-Motorenbau, Ltd., of Friedrichshafen, have on show a gearless motor-car. Instead of transmitting the energy of the remarkably elastic motor to the rear wheels through the intermediary of a four-speed change-gear, the jointed shaft leads immediately from the clutch to the rear-axle drive. The motor is started electrically, the starting pedal being so arranged beside the accelerator as to enable both to be acted upon simultaneously until the carburetor position most favorable for starting is reached. The starting motor is so designed as to start safely and noiselessly not only the motor, but the whole of the cate ,In addition to the usual braking pedal, to the right Of the steering column, there is provided, in the place of the ordinary clutch pedal, a pedal actuated whenever an extraordinarily heavy gradient is to be negotiated. When pushing this “Mountain Pedal,” there is readily noted an intermediary position where the motor is out of connection with the driving gear and therefore can be kept running light, whenever this, for some reason or other, is thought desirable,

Page 8

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Radio Central

JANUARY, 1922

America’s Bid for World-Wide Wireless Supremacy as Crystallized in the Huge Station at Rocky Point By Austin C. Lescarboura three miles for the diameter woke 1144 miles long, or the heel or circle circumscribing the towers and the erials The station site covers 6400 acres, or about en square tiles At the present writing the first twelve towers have been erected and the two aerials which they support ure in operation. The construction of Radio Centra] began July, 1920, and the first test signals were sent § in October, 1921, or a little more than a year from the J time work started. On November 5th the first unit of Radio Central was officially thrown open to the ® public with elaborate ceremonies, the principal feature } of which was the broadcast. AP Bin Wasted ve vial

was

TOMMERCI nd rapid communi on are partners Cc Kespecialls th true in long-distance commerce vhich only became possible with the establishing of a niversaul postal service and reall practical Vith the evelopment of till ore rapid means of communi« tion In the form of the telegraph, cable, and wireless Poday the merchant in New York deals with his custo er in China with every pos sible facility; for a rapid and reliable interchange of thoughts brings these par ties within what veritably amounts to speaking dis tance The .more detailed matters are handled by cor respondence, to be sure: but there is urgent need for the communi- faster arteries of cation now available even to the remetest corners of the earth. Until now we have been pretty fied to do ourselves, with little thought Americans well sutis business among

ing of a message by Pregj- dent Harding. The Presgj. 7 dent, pressing a button ip the White House, set to work = an automatic transmitter which sent his message over land line to Rocky Point where it was automatically relayed to the Alexanderson high-frequency alternator and dispatched to the most 7 distant points in the form of radio waves. Each steel tower of Radio| Central is 410 feet high while the cross-arm @ bridge supporting the aerial wires at the top measures 150 feet from tip to tip. Ih all, 1800 tons of structural

ind attention pald to the world. Such export General view of the Central Traffic Office of the Radio Central. These operators receive and transmit steel were used to erect the outside trade as we did handle was radiograms through the receiving and transmitting stations many miles away first twelve towers, each largely unsolicited. But now tower requiring approxi mately 150 tons. Furthermore, 8200 tons of concrete that the world has turned a new corner and we find ourselves obliged to take a hand in international trade there is littie doubt but that we plan to play as anything else in this game just as strenuously and thoroughly which we have yet engaged. The first step is to establish rapid and reliable means leading countries of the of communication with the world. Not satisfied with the vast network of cables we are going ahead with a vast system of wireless which will place us in direct touch with our friends in Europe and our heighbors to the south. Our plans which are well along toward realization, are to make New York City the focal point of wireless or radio traffic, just as Great Britain has long been the center of a large network of cables These plans find expression in the huge Radio Cen tral which is now in.operation to the extent of one With the foregoing facts this sixth of Its ultimate capacity. as a background on which to estimate the value of gigantic enterprise and the need for its ser vices, a description of this largest and latest of wireless pressing stations is of more than passing interest Radio Central is, as its name implies, a group of wireless stations that have been centralized for the purpose of more ready handling Radio Central is located at Rocky Point, Long Island, about seventy miles east of New York City. Yet the actual operation

DENMARK

Dory, : 3A 2) < $ & \ s . 7 3 ae “UTR —AMERIC®

Diagrammatic layout of the aerial system of Radio Central, indicating the separate aerials, towers, helix units and alternators was employed for the foundations of the twelve towers, the base of each tower leg being sunk nine feet below the surface of the ground. The distance between two § adjacent towers is 1250 feet. Curiously enough, one} fails to be convinced of the magnitude of these towers, § for the and sufficient reason that they stand § more or less alone in a wilderness of shrub oaks and smnall bushes, so that there is no ready means of draw ¥ ing a comparison as to size. In fact, many visitors to the station on the opening day stepped from the special train with the firm belief that the station was but a short distance away. The steel towers appeared to h® a quarter of a mile away, perhaps a little farther, bul certainly within walking distance. Yet to their} keen disappointment these same visitors whd had se@ out on foot discovered that Radio Central was several ® miles distant, and that the towers are highly deceptive ® both in size and in intervening distance. They may he seen for many miles across the slightly rolling country) of that part of Long Island. Each aerial consists of sixteen silicon bronze cable three-eighths inch in diameter, stretched horizontally from tower to tower. In all, fifty miles of this cabke has been used for the two aerial systems already com pleted. On the other hand, the ground system for both uerials consists of 450 miles of copper wire buried i§ the ground under the entire | Nave o good r f uv easy

of this station takes place in an office on Broad Street, in the very heart of New York's financial district. It is quite likely that the oper- ators who send and the dispatches through Radio receive Central never see the transmitters with they work over a direct land line, while the attendants at Rocky Point may understand little and less of the dots and flashed out by their equipment. may which cure dashes A description of Radio Central appeared in these columns at the time it was first concefyed. That was about a year and a half ago. The plans call for twelve verials, arranged as the spokes of a wheel radiating from a center in which is lo- the transmitting sta- Bach spoke of cated tion proper.

aerial system in starfish} and gridiron pattern. atl regular intervals the aeria® is connected to the grounl® through a huge outdoor helix} in accordance with the muy tiple-tuned aerial practie § developed by the Radio Cor® poration of American engy neers. Each of these heli} or inductance units is seg eral times lurger than a mah and altogether add greatl to the complexity of the Re dio Central installation. So much for the aerial system, which forms such ® important part of any radi station. The first powe house section which, as # ready stated, is located # the center of the aerial sf* tem, covers a space of feet by 60 feet and accom modates two 200-kilowall Alexanderson high-frequeng

single aerial steel towers, the wheel or comprises six so that there are seventy-two stee} towers in all. Each Arrangement of the receiving apparatus at the Riverhead station. ario detecting, and amplifying are arranged. The engineer is shown adjusting a receiving unit for the receiving operator in New York City Note how the various units for tuning,

transmitting alternato® with auxiliaries and equi? ment. It is a far cry from

ator vs by : stat Stat high lein poss vice Ame of 1 sible unit bine min tran prac by p hear in s Sout Fo maki tions tral here with radic the ; Staff is a Stron club. for t an of dinin

Page 9

Central ere sent from. the the first n to the feature ‘oadcast- y Presi. > Presi. itton ip to work = nsmitter age over , Point 1atically nderson ternator he most ne form f Radio ‘t high irm oF e aerial 1eusures tip. In ructural rect the 3, each ipproxi- roncrete towers, ‘t below Pen twe gh, one towers, y stand iks and f draw itors to special s but a “l to be her, but ‘o their had set several ceptive may be country » cables ontally o cable ly com or both ried it » entire starfish rn. At - aerial ground or helix ne mut vractic ‘io Cor n eng e helix is sere a mad, > greatly he Re m. aeria en

ce ee 2») JANUARY, 1922 the old crashing spark gap of earlier transatlantic stations to the quiet and businesslike Alexanderson alternator. Yet this machine, which differs very little from the usual light and power generator ws) far as externals go, has brought about a new era in commercial radio. In place of the spectacular it has wrought the practical; in place of the uncertain, trou- blesome and awkward spark transmitter it has introduced the almost silent, simple and convenient generator which produces current that requires few high-frequency auxiliary pieces of equipment before send- ing it to the aerial, there to be propagated in all directions in the form of radio waves, The Alexanderson alternator also makes radio telephony a more practical thing than had been hoped for but a short while back, although it seems likely that whether on a handled by transmission, will be ultimately all small or large seale, vacuum tubes. Much remains to be done in the way of perfecting large vacuum tube units and reducing their first and upkeep costs, but the vacuum tube is ob- viously the ultimate radio transmitter, eliminating as it does all moving parts and elaborate accessories, However, that is another story, Now let us get of Radio Central clearly established. this operating scheme aerial amounts to a separate with a single will munication aerial or “leg” serve of the twelve that will ultimately Central. Alexanderson extreme distances, although it South alternator, may such as pacific services, two or three aerials may single transmitting unit, energized by alternators. Radio Central is divided into a transmitting station and a receiving station. Only the transmitting station has thus far been dealt with. The receiving station is located at Riverhead, Long Island, some sixteen miles uway from the transmitting station at Rocky Point. As in the case of Rocky Point, no operators are located signals at Riverhead, because the distant

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 9

2000 kilowatts, or 2700 horsepower. A mighty big bid for the worid’s radio su premacy, is it not? Theodore G. Hoster T is with great regret that we are obliged to chronicle the death of Mr. Theodore G. Hoster, who was associated with Messrs. Munn & Co. as a patent at- torney for over forty years. In this con nection he known to thousands of clients who had oceasion to consult him in relation to patent Mr. toster was one of the best recognized experts in the United States on several lines of in vention activity, and his disinterested ad vice was always at the service of all. A! though Mr. Hoster was not a native of the United States, having been born in Ger many in 1854, no one was more thoroughly Americanized than he. He was educated at a technical school in Winnweiier and came to this country in 1871. His first activities were related to me chanical enterprises in Ohio, Florida and Mississippi, and he was at one time iden- tified with steam navigation on the Mis- wis Cuses,

overseas station. and used as a American two are Part of the transmitting apparatus at Radio Central, neatly mounted on iron framework for ready inspection and adjustment. First of all, each transmitter station, practically, serving as the artery of radio com- one as the transmitter to France, another to Great Britain, another to Germany, still an- other to Scandinavia, and yet another to Poland. American countries will be taken care of by other aerials separate Thus complete the Radio Each aerial is served by a single 200-kilowatt that for trans- or more cepted by the radio equipment and automatically trans- ferred to wire lines and received the Central Traffic Office in New York City. is practically simultaneous from the moment signals are trunsmitted from the overseas station and picked up at Riverhead, to the moment of actual transcribing by. the receiving oper ators in New York. The centralized control as accomplished by the Radio Corporation’s transmitting station at Radio Central and receiving Station at Riverhead, as well as its other high power stations, has solved the prob- lem of multiplex operation and made possible this practical communication ser- vice which is now at the disposal of the American business man. <A sending speed of 100 words per minute is at present pos- with the use of each transmitting unit at Radio Central. This means a com- bined sending capacity of 200 words per minute for the two completed units. The transmission range of Radio Central is practically world-wide, as demonstrated by preliminary tests when the station was heard in all parts of Europe, as well as in such far-flung corners as Australia, South America and Japan. Following the universal practice of making modern long-distance wireless sta- tions as attractive as possible, Radio Cen- tral has received various little touches here and there which have more to do With human engineering, so to speak, than radio engineering. We have in mind the attractive Community House for the staff at the transmitting station. This is a low one-story building which bears Strong resemblance to the usual country club. It contains sixteen single rooms for the unmarried members of the staff, an official suite, a large living-room and dining-room, as well as quarters for the sible as audible signals at The action South inter- placed on the floor, and the inductance units above help. Then there are several detached bungalows for the married members of the staff. The personnel nec- essary to maintain the huge station in operation com- prises the engineer in charge with a staff of fifteen assistants, for the present. Ultimately, as one by one the transmitting units are added to the Radio Central, more personnel will be required, it goes without saying. Another little touch which the station and softens its otherwise grim aspect is the cooling pond, for cooling the water after it has circulated through the high-speed alternators. This basin of water covers sets off a ground space of 64 by 42 feet, and is 7 feet deep. The pond is equipped with four spray heads which, operating, beautiful and ornamental appearance, dressing in no little measure the entrance to the transmitting station building. when present a Radio Central must mean the focusing of the radio systems of the world on New York City. When com- pleted its capacity and its range will be such as to bring the leading nations of the world to the very door of the American metropolis, to and from which auxiliury communication can be maintained over the usual telegraph and telephone lines, in order that the entire country may use Radio Central. When com- pletely realized, Radio Central will probably comprise ten high-frequency alternators, giving a total output of The magnetic amplifiers are sissippi River. He finally gravitated to New York, and in 1880 he became one of the patent atterneys of Messrs. Munn & Co., and for over forty years gave up his life to the prosecution of patent cases. He numbered among his clients some of the most suc- cessful inventors which the United States has ever pro- duced. Commissioner Moore stated that Mr. Hoster had prosecuted more applications before the Patent Office than any attorney he ever knew of, There is little question that Commissioner Moore is right in this state- ment, and thousands of his clients will be very sorry to hear of his death. His associates in the patent offices of Messrs. Munn & Co., and also the Screntiric AMER ICAN, mourn his loss very deeply, as Mr. Hoster was a man of sterling integrity and his friends were friends of a lifetime. Design of Atmospheric Burners rIuE Bureau of Standards has carried on an extensive | investigation of gas burner design intended primar- ily for the benefit of manufacturers of gas appliances and industrial gas appliance engineeers. The results of this work are given in Paper No. 193 of the Bureau of Standards which is now for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. In this paper no extensive presentation of the theory has been attempted; the aim being rather to show by menns of tables and curves based on experimental data the effect of various factors on the opera- ow ‘ rechnologic

Steel forming only a small part of the Radio Central aerial system. seventy-two supporting twelve separate aerials in towers and aerials are to be towers There steel the completed

installation 1 LOCATION OF 4 STATION BUILDING ie \ \

tion of burners. With the arrangement of upparatus and method of testing that has been developed, it is possible to measure quickly and accurately the volume of air injected into any burner under any condi- tion of operation, as well as to determine the limits of operation with any quality Such information is essential in order to enable one to design burners for any predetermined condition of operation. In order to understand the various factors entering into the design of burners, it was found necessary to study the theory of the flow of gas through different types of ori- fices, the principles governing the rate of injection of air into the burner, the design of the injecting tube, the rate of consump- tion of burners of different port areas, and the effect of adjustment of the air shutter. various factors are taken up in of gus. These detail. In conclusion it is pointed out that on account of its simplicity, low cost, and re- liability, the burner is well adapted for domestic and most of the smaller industrial purposes. If it is pos- sible to widen the range within which such burners can be operated efficiently and without adjustment, and design them to meet the needs of any particular pur- pose, it will make gas fuel much more val- uable and will broaden its field of appli- * eation. ; With has been atmospheric gas these facts in view the Bureau conducting experiments on atmospheric burners both with natural and artificial and the results will be reported in subsequent papers. £as

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10 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Hydraulic Laboratory JANUARY, 1922 \ Prime Aid in Helping Us to Make the Most of Our Waterpower Resources S. G. Roberts By

yl ! ‘ etu n ervice on \ } V\ tota 0 MMMM ? rsepowe hich is develope b ‘ pulse f ing waters In he near future a number f hvadroele t jiects will be tuken in hand wil A plify this block of energ\ ! pproximately 2 OOO.O000 lhorse powel and to accomplish this wi Cul for the expenditure of substantially $2,000 000.000 We ure it last awake to the fact that fuel is costly and the price disturbingly variable, while Nature's run ning waters can be made reasonably uni form in their flow, are inexhaustible, and ire free the sume volume being available d re for successive users provided the he: mains high enough The conception of the evolution that the public at large has an imperfect has been building The differ ent apparatus from the water-wheel which taking place since we began of hydroelectric power stations modern water turbine is a radically for a long time served to furnish motive energy. Thanks to the cunning coordination of practice and theory much has been done in the direction of betterment, and performances now ure vast! superior to those but two decades back in this particu

lur realm of mechanics As recently as 1900. the efficiency of stundard types of water turbines did not exceed 78 per cent when operating at 100 per cent of their rated power, and at ha load their efficiency dropped to something like 48 per cent Poday, there are tur bine at work that have an efficienc nging from 9) to 98 per cent when turning over if speeds capable of pre ducing anywhere from 50 to 100 per cel of their rated power That is to say, the units are able to perform admirably when carrying only a part of their maximum position. designed loads This is matter of im pertance in meeting changing demands fo! electrical energ No small share of this advance in the art is due to the aid of the research laboratory where the diversified problems of the iter turbine have been studied under conditions which have clarified many pu ng questions ind revealed phenomena that were undre ed of o only suspected rhis line of investigation has expanded from yeur to year; and in pace with it have been pro render it feusible the vided and facilities which to duplicate on a equipment but suituble seale essent Sinai complete and big commercial hydro- features of a electric installation Much experimenting has been done by power com- surmounts the driving shaft. Beneath the turbine is the recently developed spreading draft tube Cross-section of a 55,000-horsepower turbine designed to operate under a head of 305 feet and to run at a speed of 187.5 revolutions per minute. The generator At the lower left is seen a penstock valve in which exhausts into the tailrace at the extreme right Island has obviated the inconvenience of shipping to to be Holyoke the equipment required for numerous separate imposed by tests, and it has enabled the Philadelphia firm to carry To satisfy out ts research on complete turbines, including the guarantees turbine runner and draft tube passages leading there- power companies, from This has latterly been found to be of vital depend upon Linportance, It has for sometime been realized by of their products; hydraulic engineers that the greatest development in chasers not altered Nature und the physical laws that prevail. which rule-of-thumb methods power by employing single-runner, direct. connected turbines making the highest pog. number of revolutions per minute Machines of this character cost less te build, permit the of cheaper gene rators, and render it feasible to utilite low-head sites. These were the desiderata that induced the Philadelphia company te erect its hydraulic laboratory. To the popular mind the impulsive force of water driving a hydraulic turbine en- tails nothing more complex than directing the flowing water to the wheel blades and then providing a passage by which it can escape into the tailrace and thence into a nearby stream. As a matter of fact the efficient utilization of the water’s pent-up energy or momentum is nothing like go simple; and the function of the hydraulie laboratory is to enable the technicist te analyze and to evaluate the divers vari- ables in advance of constructing the power units of hydroelectric stations. The day was not so long ago when the sible use turbine manufacturer had “stock” or so called “standard” designs which he wag ready to turn out on demand for any power site, and, needless to remark, some of these performed fairly well while others were decidedly indifferent in their The hydraulic engineer now knows that change of head and numerous other physical circumstances exert more or less marked influences upon the characteristics of the machine which upon to function to the best advantage. In the western sections of the United States or wherever the pre cipitous drop of the waterway affords a efficiencies. every ean be counted high head, turbines of lower specific speed are more suitable; while in the easter portion of the country low heads pre dominate, and for these turbines must be differently modeled so that they will run at higher specific speeds In each case the components of the installation have to harmonize with the circumstances and to live up to the manufacturers have to make to the builders of turbines can no longer they must be sure and to encourage them in this pur offer for these condit ions, infrequently tempting bonuses bit of increased efficiency over that called for by water turbines is likely to lie in increased specific every speed of the runners or wheels, as they are popularly contract. It is no unusual thing for a premium of a termed. That is to say, where a given amount of power thousand dollars to be paid for each per cent over may be generated under a fixed head of water, future and above the efficiency stipulated in the agreement; success will hinge upon the ability to obtain this and when this applies to the several turbines in a large installation the reward is well worth every reasonable

panies and turbine manufacturers at the Holyoke Test ing Flume, Holyoke, Muassu chusetts, and runners have _ been tried out there on a steadily increasing scale. The results, while often extreme ly good, were not subsequent- | ly reproduced so satisfactori iv when the were placed turbines as in their ultimate This fact, and the additional con whole positions sideration that the “waiting list’ at the Holyoke Flume was generally a long one, led one of the_ participants in the Holyoke project to branch out, and establish its own hydraulic laboratory at Petty’s Island in the Dela River. The plant has amply compensated for the outlay, and been instru- mental in questions ware has unraveling and in bringing some ibout certain notable’ im- provements in water tur- bines and their associate features

A group of runners or water-wheels for turbines of different power. The one at the left is for a 10,800-horse- power unit; the little fellow at the extreme right is one of the models used in the hydraulic laboratory

effort to win. Success soon justifies the outlay for the laboratory and the mode tests. The research work at Petty’s Island, Pennsylvania, has enabled the operating company to fabricate turbine runners having an increased specific speed of about 100

per cent. In other words, painstaking investigation has enabled that firm in certail instances to offer quotations on turbines patterned that they would run at twice the speed previously deemed practicable —thus bringing about marked initial and operative economics. It seems that high speed is @ more important factor thal high power in cutting down first cost, because high speed permits a reduction in the size of the turbine and the generator and rei so

electric

The laboratory at Petty’s JAN’ ders the ‘ espec place ation: plain. Af to ob rator give effects dynan necess runne! havin; ners | single six se tercon four < a corT othe Apart to th operat risk of speed avoide vertica simple for les predece A co vance rendere compan five un years | cided t new aj in first showed modern older tv The | essentin underst. in a ste: fuel mu hand, v bother ; scribed national treaties be diver itisa 1 shall be of motiy electric or wher to be a turbines The h. in the e ability. characte to be ce these be involves by any ‘ there is example, power ur rate of $ were out represent is to be design ai that it w Teassem)b| The dr: through 1 its way t portant p pent-up e give laboratory the Mood. advance | Wherever By means lust below fain, in e Water wh the wheel.

Page 11

» 1922 direct. est pos. minute less to r gene utilise siderata pany te ve force ine en- irecting les and . it can ce into ‘act the pent-up like so draulie icist to 'S vari- » power 1en the or SO- he was or any x, some while n their pr now id and stances ‘Ss upon which to the ections he pre ords a : speed susterm is pre iust be ill run h case 1 have stunces revail. to the ike to longer e sure is pur- es for for by n of a t over ‘ment; i large ird is onable is soon or the model rk @ lvania, rating urbine reased ut 100 words, ion has -ertain tations terned t twice leemed ‘jnging 1 and It dis a r than down speed in the rd the 1 re

JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 11

ders it feasible to simplify the design of the turbine, especially when it is to be placed in low-head install- ations. Let us make this plain. A few years back, in order to obtain reasonable gene- rator speeds which would give the best. electrical

effects with a given type of dynamo, it was at necessary to resort to multi- turbines — machines times runner having aS many as six run- water-wheels on a This called for in- ners or single shaft. six sets of guide vanes, terconne: ted operating gear, bearings, and four or more a corresponding increase in

‘i 4 Bais

necessary to provide rather costly low-speed electrical equipment. The laboratory on Petty’s Island has a concrete head- race, tailrace, and return tanks. The water is lifted by means of motor-driven centrifugal pumps into the headrace tank, where the model turbine to be tested is placed. Model runners 16 inches in diameter may be tried out under heads up to 12 feet and in conjunction with various types of in- takes, castings, and draft tubes, The water, after it has gone through the turbine, the draft tube, and into the tailrace, next flows

features. ether associate Apart from adding greatly to the original cost and operating expense, the multiplicity of parts invited more risk of breakdown. With the development of the high- speed runner many of these complications have been avoided, and a single water-wheel, combined with vertical shaft units of relatively few parts, and these simple and rugged in getup, can now be constructed for less money and yet perform far-better than their predecessors. A concrete example of the gains derived by this ad- yance in the art will help us to appreciate the aid rendered by the hydraulic laboratory. <A certain power company in Pennsylvania equipped a plant in 1910 with five units of the two-runner, vertical-shaft type. Four years later, when more power was desired, it was de cided to adopt a single-runner, high-speed design. The was secured at a considerable saving cost: and made after the installation maximum efficiency of 93 per cent for the with 83 per cent for the new apparatus in first showed a modern unit as older two-runner turbines. The man inthe street may not grasp off-hand just how essential it is for a turbine to be notably efficient. He understands, of course, that careful utilization of coal ina steam power plant is extremely desirable, for that To him, on the other tests compared fuel must be bought and handled. hand, water is in a sense free and, therefore, why bother about the measure used in developing the pre- scribed horsepower? The answer is: Where inter- national streams, for instance, are concerned and treaties set the exact amount of water which can be diverted from these rivers for industrial purposes, itis a matter of moment that the permissible volume shall be made to yield the largest practicable percentage of motive Similarly, where water for hydro- dectric stations is purchased or where its use is in any way to be a proportionate gain through turbines of marked efficiency. The hydraulic laboratory is in the evolution of water turbines of conspicuous reli- ability. While it is true that this factor should characterize any type of machinery still it is especially hydroelectric plants—particularly if A shut-down for inspection or repairs which cannot be offset On the other hand Suppose, for energy. from irrigation projects restricted there is sure the adoption of proving a valuable aid to be desired in these be large. involves a loss in power output by any “saving in the coal pile.” there is a direct sacrifice in revenue. example, that the station is equipped with 30,000 horse- power units, and that the sales price of energy is at the tate of $15 per horse-power year. If one of these units Were out of commission for twenty-four hours it would represent a loss in income of $1,200! Accordingly, much isto be gained through strength and ruggedness of design and the adoption of a model of such simplicity that it will facilitate rapid dismantling, repairing, and reassembling when necessary. The draft tube of a turbine installation is the passage through which the water on leaving the runner makes its way to the tailrace, and this conduit plays an im- portant part in the turbine’s effective utilization of the pent-up energy in the impulse water. Much study has been given to this feature; and at the Petty’s Island laboratory there has been perfected what is known as the Moody spreading draft-tube. This tube is a great idvance in the art, and is an indispensable feature Wherever turbine runners of high speed are employed. By means of it it is possible to increase the vacuum Ist below the turbine runner, and in this way to re- fiin, in effect, a large per cent of the energy in the Water which lost after leaving the whee! would otherwise be View of the recording station showing the dynamometer and scales for measuring the power developed by the model turbines, and the speed counter As a reflex of the turbine investigations at the Petty’s Island laboratory there has been developed the so-called Moody spiral pump. This pump marks the same prog- ress in this particular field that is exemplified by the evolution of the high-speed turbine runners; and the

The water passing over the weir. In the back- ground can be seen the stilling racks for ironing out ripples and surges, so that the water shall run smoothly and quietly over the weir improved pump admits of the use of electric motors that can be run at twice the velocity permissible before. As a consequence, pumping outfits manufactured and installed at greatly reduced expense. This is very desirable where large quantities of water Previously it was complete can be are to be pumped under low heads.

Penstock valve for a 55,000-horsepower turbine. Valves of this sort are employed to regulate the volume of water passing on to the turbine into the tailrace tank and then over a weir where it is carefully measured by the From the weir it passes back by the return tank to the suction of the pumps. This completes the cycle. The effective head on the turbine under test is registered by differential gages attached to the headrace and the tailrace tanks; and the power developed is indicated by an Alden dynamometer upon direct-reading scales. All readings are taken simultaneously at half-minute intervals agreeably to a signal bell controlled by a master clock. In this laboratory it has been found practicable to make comparative tests of the same runner or turbine when associated with different forms of draft tubes, all other conditions being the same, and by this means to arrive at an exact comparison of the effective value of the various types of draft tubes used. It was in this way that the 10-per-cent increased efficiency of the Moody design was indisputably estab- lished. It is out volumetric method. of the question to discuss the numerous other factors that affect the working of a hydraulic turbine and which are studied at the laboratory in order that the force of falling water can be converted into mechanical power and then into electrical energy for transmission near and far. But it is well to emphasize that the steam turbine is no more highly specialized in its technical requirements than the water turbine, Finally, it should be kept in mind that the hydraulic engineer is today employing heads of water ranging from 10 feet or so up to 680 feet in water-power plants built or building in this country, and he is cunningly controlling these columns of water in operating turbines varying from a few hundred to 55,000 horsepower per unit. These installations would not be feasible, safe, efficient, and dependable but for the the momentous aid of the labora- tory revelations and The Effects of Thirst NVESTIGATING the effects of thirst on young albino rats, Tokuyasu Kudo, of the Institute of Anatomy, University of Minnesota, finds in the Journal of EBa- perimental Geology for July, 1921, that albino rats about one month old may be held at constant body weight for several weeks by restricted amounts of liquid (milk) in a diet otherwise adequate for growth. The rats show a progressive tolerance of thirst, so that less liquid milk is daily required for maintenance as the experiment The tail becomes elongated while the body length remains constant. There is in general a marked increase in weight of the skeleton and a slight increase in the visceral group. The mus- culature remains nearly constant in weight. There is a slight decrease in the integument and a marked loss in the “reminder.” Of the individual viscera, the hypo- kidneys, suprarenals, spinal cord, skeleton, sciatic nerves, pancreas, stomach-intestines, liver, and uterus show a definite increase in weight. The heart, brain, and lungs remain nearly constant in weight. The thymus, ovaries, parotid and submaxillary glands, spleen, testes, epididymides, and thyroid suffer more or less well marked decrease in weight. The growth tendencies of the various organs in the young rats during the thirst experiments correspond in general proceeds, physis, eyeballs, to those found in rats of similar age during under- feeding, although certain exceptions occur (testes and kidneys). Likewise, the results of the thirst tests (also those of the inanition experiments) show a general. resemblance to those of similar character in adults. There are certain differences according to age, however, as well as according to the type of inanition employed.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1929 ls “thirty :"’ one of the very finest of counterfeits in mere reproduction of the design. A genuine Baden local stamp, worth a dditior faf e postma The first two stamps of Reunion, of which only a few genuine copies exist. “Tete beche” pair of @ the block upside down. Two stamps of Naples, liest Swiss stamps One « used provisionally for a short time during the stirring days of 1860. The “‘doubk @ f the first issue of Moldavia, predecessor of Roumania. A group of counterfeits of standard rarities, which would be worth something like $5000 if they were genuine Stamp Frauds and Their Detection . Some of the Means Adopted to Protect the Collector from Forgeries ihe and at k r 1 " the t i t ( ‘ ‘ FHVHE bulk of the stamps which the non-collector sees | have no intrinsic value The retail for a cent or two aplece, but this merely covers the cost of handling them There are perhaps 25,000 varieties from all over the world that have a true market value based on rarity and demand Those costing less than a dollar are apt to be neglected as trash and as we ipproa h the hun- dred-dellar class the market is, of course, limited Nevertheless the real rarities, of which the known copies are numbered, come as high as five and ten thousand dollars, with plenty of buyers to absorb the limited offerings, With such values and a free market, fraud is bound to be attempted. Most counterfeits are made of whole cloth But whether the design be reproduced with the aid of a camera or by hand-engraving, it will not cor- respond exactly with the original. With hand-engraved counterfeits, the expert examines the details of the stump for points of divergence from the known genuine design. The photographic reproduction is more faithful in these matters, but usually differs from its original in the general effect of tone and shading, and often in SIZe The expert has seen a number of counterfeits of any given stamp, and often has a reference collection con taining many of these, If the specimen under examina- tion fails to identify itself with any familiar counter- feit it must either identify itself with the genuine stamp or display divergence that marks it as a “new” counterfeit, The examination is conducted under a glass that magnifies two or three diameters. The ex- perienced philatelist knows what sort of mistake the counterfeiter most easily makes, and what sort he can himself best see: so he knows just about what to look for and what parts of the specimen to examine most carefully. His work is quickly completed, especially when curried on in the presence of a genuine copy. There are numerous exceptions to this statement. Many stamps of the '40s and '50s were printed in sheets of forty or thereabouts, each “cliché” being separately type-set or engraved by hand instead of impressed or electrotyped from a single original die as is done today. The various stamps on the sheet are then no more iden- tical than an original and 39 counterfeits. The expert now has to decide, not whether the questioned specimen is like a single original, but whether it is identical with By the Philatelic Member of the Staff any one of a large number of originals. This multiplies enormously the difficulty of finding material for com- parison, It usually means that complete material can be had only in the form of a photograph of a recon- structed plate, which is, of course, not an absolutely faithful standard. And it means that portions of orig- inals or suspected copies that are veiled by cancellations cun not be directly compared. This makes contributory testimony from other quar- A rare stamp is rare because there are and while early inks were not con- ters of value. not many of them; stant, it is eusy to establish that certain shades are right and others not. Again, one of the most dangerous counterfeits known, so far as surface externals go (the fumous Sweden error illustrated), is printed on a paper totally unlike that of the original stamp, in color, tex- ture and thickness. Paper and color, seldom used as an absolute test, are of great value in attracting suspicion to a counterfeit of good surface appearance, and again in helping to swing the verdict in a doubtful case. Then there is the watermark which appears on many oe 3 stm tea. stamps. This is a thin spot in the paper, introduce during manufacture, which transmits more light tha the rest of the stamp and is visible under conditiox bringing out this property. The faker can print an im tution watermark on the back in greasy ink, or he ca} scrape out a thin place of the desired pattern. Neithe! of these expedients defies detection for a minute, how ever; so of late years another and a better trick ha been introduced. By chemical process the design is washed off a comy mon stamp of the same size and the same watermany us the one it is desired to imitate. One faker made bad guess and printed an excellent forgery on papey got by cleaning a stamp with much too fine a tl EATEN. ate See i oe ene Ek omnis tion. But barring some such fauzr pas, paper thay secured is bound to be right. When the trick was newy many such fakes passed a hasty inspection on th® ground that the watermark was so obviously good tha ; the stamp must be right. Now the watermark is mereya contributory evidence. q Philately’s most interesting—and most puzzling-§ derelicts are the stamps that are partly genuine anij partly false. This apparent anomaly may arise in} various ways. When an entire series appears in ident) cal design, the labels of value alone differing, the valwj may be erased from the commoner stamps of the #@ und a substitute painted or printed in, converting t& stamp into a rarity. Such work is done with amazig skill; and its greatest menace lies in the fact that ®& general appearance of the altered stamp is altogethe that of a genuine copy. : Then there are surcharged stamps. The desire to us up old and obsolete issues, the sudden necessity fj stamps that have not been delivered, guovernment#) changes, and numerous other circumstances, give ris to stamps which bear an overprint, in ordinary type, a new value, a validating word of some sort, ete., &% Perhaps one-tenth of all collectible varieties are of tht { character; and usually the overprinted stamp is valt | able out of all proportion to its worth in unsurcharge condition. ; This is the faker’s paradise. When the false ove® print is hand-stamped detection is, of course, eas) When a press is used, with studied care in duplicatiig the type of the genuine surcharge, an almost mich scopic measurement of the surcharge is usually necty wales tal, Ay _— = — Left: Showing the use of the benzene cup to bring the watermark to visibility. teeth, and the gage of the perforation is then read off the side of the card. civ Right: The perforation gage: the specimen is slid along the card until the diverging lines just coincide with successif Above: The philatelist surrounded by his tools: magnifying glasses (one of larger power and smaller field than the otheth lividers, benzene cup and supply of benzene, and tongs with which the stamp is being handled Some of the tools of the stamp collector, and the manner of their use sury sam in t' seal Whe ferr ulou the betr: expe insti use | ful | go n AD year sevel Swit: this stam cella howe puts genui In is th task overp refer stam] duty, oblite pract! mark cance ora] a ver the si depre: remoy substi things Mos a mar of use instan prefer specin take ; an ine many after are a cancel from worth dreds | used s length lations presen. stamp more t of can exact | where, re— The fir values | & fair |

Page 13

worth pair of @ xe ‘double ap, itroducel ight thay ‘on dition it an im) or he cay Neithe! ute, how? trick ha : ff a come aterman? r made i on pag | perfore per tho | was new,” 1 on th rood that 4 is merely uzzling- ] uine anil arise in? in ident? i the valu f the # rting th amazing? that they ‘ltogethe? rmment give ris® y type, & etc., ef re of tht » is valee ircharge” ilse Ove: ‘se, easy iplicating st mice lly neces fatinceis AIT emetg ea successive re otherh JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN At the extreme right is shown a study of the inscriptions and frames will show. Ten different counterfeits of the same thing, and an original. sury. Ifa same overprint on a different base, one of these is cut in two through the surcharge and we have an automatic measure the suspected copy. scale against which to When this is not possible, measurements must be trans- ferred from genuine to questioned overprint by metic- ulous use of the dividers. Less frequently the ink or the tone of the impression betrays the fraud. And sometimes the expert is blessed with pure luck. If, for instance, a French stamp overprinted for use in Madagascar appears with a beautt- ful Paris cancellation, examination need go no further. An interesting development of recent years is a series of counterfeits, including several thousands of varieties, put out in Switzerland. The surcharged members of this family do not on genuine stamps. The entire piece—stamp, can- cellation and surcharge—is forged. This, however, is exceptional; the average faker appear puts out his fraudulent overprints on genuine stamps. In rare cases the unsurcharged stamp is the rare variety; the counterfeiter’s task is then the removal of the offending overprint. A similar situation exists with reference to numerous British colonial stamps which were available for revenue duty, and when so used bear pen-stroke obliterations. In this condition they are practically without value; the pen- mark is removed, and gum or a “phony” cancellation applied to create an unused or a postally used copy. When viewed at a very slight angle, almost parallel with the surface, these items always show the depression from which the mark has been removed. Moreover, original gum and substituted gum are two entirely different things. Most fakes—especially those which bear a mark that it is desired to conceal—are of used stamps. One reason we have this instant suggested. Another is the present SO preference of most collectors for used specimens, Likewise, many collectors take a cancellation to be, within limits, an indication of genuineness. Again, in many cases unused “remainders” sold after demonetization by the post office are available for almost nothing, while cancelled copies can be manufactured from these which, if genuine, would be worth dollars, and in extreme cases hun- dreds of dollars. Finally, the cult of the used stamp has gone of late years to the length of collecting many special cancel- lations for their own sakes alone. The presence of such a postmark may raise the value of a Stamp from a few cents to ten or twenty dollars—far The close study of cancellations which results from this tendency, the exact knowledge of what obliterations were used and where, defeats the faker in his efforts to apply false more than the cost of unused copies. renuine copy of the 10-centesimi value. variety of little value exists presenting the Presumably the entire series exists in each style of fake, since changing the numeral for the cancellations, and when he tries to imitate the cancella- in tion for its own sake, Occasionally it even aids in the detection of ordinary counterfeits to which “cancella- tions” have been applied to promote salability. An amusing case recently occurred in connection with a large consignment of stamps sent here from Germany. stamp have lacked been Roman » z f § > oy 6 th A page of early Hawaiians from a reference collection of counterfeits. If they were genuine, their value would be in the neighborhood of $13,000 The lot included a certain Providence local stamp on original cover. Unused, the stamp is worth a couple of dollars, while a genuine cover would be worth whatever you want to pay for it—surely a couple of hundred, and maybe more, Under the scrutiny of American experts it developed: (1) that the pen-mark appearing on the addition rather favorable bit of atmosphere—was made with a steel pen and not with the quill of 1846; (2) that the postmark showing a The other ten specimens are counterfeits of various denominations of the same series, all of them being different, as a careful several printings would be simple enough The stamps are ‘of Parma, one of the Italian duchies before the unification to the postmarks—in this case a numeral “5” in a circle should the circle; (3) that the “5” should have rather than Italic; (4) that the Provi- dence postmark was dated three months after the stamp ceased to be available for postage. Aside from these trifling dis- crepancies, the cover was entirely gén- uine! Among the actual tools of the philatel- ist and dividers and magnifying glass have been mentioned. Perforation gages are the most distinctive philatelic specialty. The size of the perforation fre- quently distinguishes between two vari- eties of the same stamp, and is of value scales in discriminating between genuine and counterfeit as well. The perforation is named according to the number of holes that appear in a space of two centimeters. Counting holes along the edges of many stamps becomes laborious, so gages which enable the perforation to be mechanically fitted against measuring lines or dots are substituted for counting. But after all the philatelist’s chief tool is the benzene cup. The stamp, ordinarily quite opaque, becomes semi-transparent when wet with this liquid. The stamp is somewhat transparent against the light when dry, so here the difference ts not pronounced. But if we lay the dry stamp down on a black surface, what light passes through is completely absorbed by the black pigment. If, however, we then pour benzene over it, more light passes, and is now reflected back through the stamp from the film of benzene beneath it. This twice-transmitted light gives a remarkable picture of the internal condition of the paper. Watermarks, which are ordinarily difficult to pick out when held against the light, by reason of the confusion created by the design of the stamp showing through, show up like a sore thumb in benzene. Also, though the story is too long to tell here, the benzene cup gives the most satisfactory guard against the wiles of the stamp repairer. Modern philately makes a distinction between fine condition and poor which was unknown a generation ago, and has little use for a damaged specimen. The things that a skilled repair man with a bit of the ar- tistic temperament can do to a_ soiled, crumpled, creased, torn, and thin-spotted wreck of a valuable stamp are almost past belief. But the consistency and the thick- ness of a repaired stamp are ordinarily sufficiently non- uniform to show up in the benzene. The counterfeits used to illustrate this article are from the reference collection of Mr. Percy G. Doane, whose kindness in tuke this opportunity of acknowledging. loaning them for the purpose we The first six items show counterfeit surcharges on genuine stamps. The inverted “2” is noteworthy. The 1, 2 and 8 centavo values are stamps that actually exist genuinely; the 12 and 18 are further values added to the set by the faker’s imagination. The two Post-Office Mauritius stamps are probably the best known of the standard rarities: there are about ten of each value known to exist, and a fair price for the pair in fine condition would be $15,000 or more. imitates is worth three cents in genuine copies. Of such counterfeits thousands may, with good fortune, be sold before it occurs te any buye A final array of album weeds of more than ordinary interest Beside them is shown the cheapest counterfeit in the collection from which the pictures were made. The Uruguay stamp which it r to examine them for genuineness

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MONG the ! not ‘ geen in the SK ire tie t ors known 4a come I Speu i et but this is only relatively correct These bodies irel have their habitat in the sur rounding universe nd there is ne very substant i re on to suppose the ire ple get out of range of the grav itational spheres of the great mass of the vi le nd in visible irs Comets con into visibilit for the in habitants of the earth and pass out of it again They ceyme into view suddenly nd without announcement And they never remain, So, afte all, there is some justice in the term wristilor Some comets, however, re turn with ore r le ‘ 7 arity. » Perhaps st notable example of a periodl comet is the ne ene! known as Halle rhis comet has been i n ble } or ne one in the | the most remarkab the time of the No about The Layeux l ipestry depict periodi comets ha while others occupy a great pleting a circull Hall of about three-quarters formation obtainable with respect is involved in a mensure ¢ cause of One of the most remarkable the presence of a tail Not POSSeSS sut h appen lages displays. However, the tail affair somehow due to the sun A periodic comet which tail at one apparition may this character upon another occasion As a typical comet swings the tail seems to swing a stretches from the comet in a direction away from the sun As the tail may be many millions of miles in length an explanation is needed to cover the question as to how it is possible in a few days te swing the tail through an are of 180 deg. Some comets are extraordinarily apid movers as they round the sun Thus the periodic comet of 18438 reached, in its swing round, the wonderful velocity of 300 miles per second Hiowever, it is more particularly the rapid angu lar swing of the tail that needs explanation If the tail is precisely the same object throughout, a 72-hour swing of a hundred million miles of tail through two right angles would mean that the terminal particles covered an are considerably over 150,000,000 miles long at the rate of some 600 miles per second llowever, the tail may have a constant general appearance and yet at no two moments consist of precisely the same aggre- gate of particles Examples of such objects are rivers, the flame of a gas jet, ete. It has been conceived that SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Comets That Have Lost Their Tails Curious Irregularities Revealed by the Camera in These Attenuated Streamers By J. F. Springer Halley’s comet, difficulties of identifi and round June 6, 1910, showing the discarded portion of the tail drifting away really consist of very minute particles of inating on the comet nd swept e pressure action of light The ure seems to be admitted, and its ileulated And light pressure may come ore intense effect than does the bodies. Bodies on the earth are Light pressure exerts itself only, and in fact only upon the fravity deals with every contained the pressure of light upon a stone is insignificant compared with the force of gravi- if the ball or stone be reduced a time will come when, because of the thin- pressure of light will equal the have now only to continue the pressure from light much greater on, Particles on an ordinary cometary body ‘avitative line of force is especially Eri but because it operates within the body as form, continuity Borrelly’s comet, July 24, 1903, showing transverse division of the tail. The long exposure (2 hours 37 minutes) results in unusually long star-tracks JANUARY, 1929 not too near the sun woul) feel but a slight gravitatiy pull as compared with th® centrifugal thrust of light Under the favorable cop ditions of the presence quantities of very _ fine) ‘omminuted matter, a not te massive comet at a proper distance from the sun, ané continued access of the sun's light to the material, #7 seems not at all impossibk that the sun should drip off the particles in the form of a continuous jet, and tha the tail so far from being @ object perpetually identica with itself might really cop sist of minute particles m ceding at tremendous rat of speed centrifugally fro the sun. The tail wouk thus consist of a jet of par ticles, the jet being perpets ally renewed at the come and perpetually dissipated a the far extremity. Such: tail could, if the rate of m cession of the particles i sulliciently swift, swing even if the length of tail bh However, the material for the tail must be conting supplied from the body of the comet, which woul diminution of its mass. Out hd space, the particles coming away from the tail woul) seem to be forever under the influence of the centr fugal thrust of light from the sun, the only chance of escupe being the advent of a shadow or approach ofa§ gravitative force. But the flame-like tail is not always constant in it direction. A very recent comet, its tail suddenly and started a new omm place about October 22, 19% when the comet was some 6 days beyond the time of it sun. This comet is realy discovered by Brorsen in th 1847. It was rediscovered i comet is accordingly period taken as about 72 years i length. It is classed as be longing to the Neptune group of comets, althoug this most distant planet @ our solar system may a have been the cause of th closing of the orbital pathy of the members of the groupe Halley's comet also has we orbit whose aphelion fay in the region traversed } Neptune. In 1847, the Bry sen-Metcalf comet seems # have remained a_ strichy telescopic object. In 1988 the apparition made its #% peal, though a very moderate one, to the naked eye. Dire covered in August, it becar® distinctly visible to the #® aided eye at or before BF middle of September. a considerable — visibility cote tinued until a few days afe® perihelion, At about # middle of its five weeks @& visibility, it attained a may nitude of 4% (Harvamy seale). 4 Even in September, phott™ graphic reproductions of ®@ object disclosed the prese of a tail. On the 22n6% measured 3 deg. in lengey The small stump show? %@ U photographs of nearly same date may very 4 an A ae RNS St Sea he J. ni gr ta th dc gr lol wa ed Ra pa wi pa! he: fre old nei wil mil it. the abl pro pri low sta’ of t ma} be stag pre’ con was an and two rate will of O is sl It for of a pher shay one bein, ever to h acco Borr new appe at t upon the Bart the | ates part: brea! from porti was a direc next ras heave comet were non s the separ was | secon. Mr. | Same one | close¢ featu: stage graph of thi nothir what « Was 9 ation.

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in would ‘avitative With the of light ble con sence @ y finely a not te a proper Sun, an the sun’ erial, npossibk ld driv the forn and that being an identiea “ally con ticles tf OuS Tat lly fro il woul of par perpeti ie come ipated g Such te of re ticles i Swing f tail b conting h wouk Out b il wouk e centr hance of ach of ag nt in it t come lew One 22, 1919 ne of it Ss reall 1 in th vered i periodi vears d as le ‘ptune althoug lanet @ nay Be e of th al path ie grow has @ on fal rsed } he Brot eems strictly In 19% > its & noderat ve, Dit | becca the @ fore Tr. Ip ity @ Lys afte out & veeks ! ia ma Harvar r, phot s of present 20nd, © lengt own Ni irly & 22 JANUARY, 192 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 15 nave been due to photo- graphic conditions, On Oct. 8, there was again a 3-deg. tail. On the 6th and 7th, this length more than doubled; so that the photo- graphs show tails 7 deg. long. The longest tail dis- closed by the photographs obtained by Prof. E. E. Bar- nard with the Bruce photo- graphic telescope was the one possessed at perihelion. It was 8% dcg. long. On October 22, the tail was photographically observ- ed as being in two parts. Rather, there was an old part no longer connected with the head and a new part extending from the head in direction 12 deg. from that of the old. The old tail at its point ot nearest apparent contact with the head was still 51 min. (or nearly 1 deg.) from it. It is possible that part of the foregoing is not verifi- able from the half-tone re productions from paper however, fol Barnard’s own statements. The separation prints. I am, lowing Prof. of about 15 deg. with the radius vector. Is this to be taken as indicative of an ex- pulsive force emanating from the comet itself and compe tent to modify the general law to the effect that the tail extends along the radius vector? Morehouse’s comet belongs to the year 1908. Upon the night of September 30, a fan like tail was discovered by a Yerkes photograph taken early in the evening. Later on during the same night, a photograph shows the tail with a very narrow con nection with the head. The tail itself “appeared cyclonic in form and structure.” By the following night, the ap- pearance had undergone a very remarkable change. There was a mass of cloud like material at a consider able distance from the head, and next the head a number of rays. short, but extend out as far as the cloud-like mass. Apparently, what has taken place in the interval between the belonging to the two nights Some of these are others perhaps views of the old tail from the head may, Prof. Barnard thinks, be disclosed in an earlier stage in the photographs of October 20—about 48 hours that date, the tail “On proper seemed dis previous : connected from the head. The rearward portion, which was sharply pointed, was 9’.6 from the head, while a new and widening tail filled the space between it and the head. If these parts were the same on the recession otf day. two dates, the the particles was at the rate of 21 min, a Photographs made elsewhere will probably decide this question. On the photograph of October 20, a brighter condensation about 2 deg. long is shown in the tail 2 deg. 30 min. back from the head.” It is possible that one should have been prepared and the generation for the loss of its tail by a comet of a new one in a somewhat different direction by the phenomenon observed long ago of the display of fan- shaped tails. If a considerable are can be filled at step to conceive of the are How- appear one time, it is not a great being supplied in two or more parts successively. ever, the actual loss of an entire tail does not to have been noted prior to 1903, unless one is to take Gale’s comet of 1894. On July 24, 1903, account of The Brorsen-Metcalf comet, October 22, 1919, showing unusual diffusion of the tail will be of interest: The earlier photograph showed a tail next the head 2 deg. 51 min. long: while the later one disclosed this same member as 4 deg. 7 min. long. As the interval between exposures, center to center, was hrs. 59 min., that length of time for the increase in length. Upon this basis, one puts the growth at about 25 min. per hour. one allows The reces- sion of the discarded tail is in contrast with this. The earlier photograph showed an interval between head and lost tail of 2 deg. 14 min.; while the later view disclosed the same interval as one of 2 deg. 48 min. The recession is, then, to be taken as about 12 min. per hour—or approximately one half the rate of the growth of tail. Brook’s comet of 1893 is notable as one which dis- closed a variation in the direction of the tail of 15 deg. in the course of 24 See ScrenTiIFIC AMERICAN, August 8, 1908, for views of this comet. On one night, the general direction of the tail pretty closely with that of a radius vector centering in the sun and passing through the comet. On the following night, the tail had apparently shifted, as it was now at an angle hours. agreed was the loss of the tail and the generation of a new The cloud-like mass is to be considered the tail of the one night before that was seen with only a narrow con nection, It would seem as if we must reckon More house’s comet (1908) as one that lost its tail. Halley’s comet in its visit of 1910 disclosed upon the night of June 6 some remarkable features. Upon this night, a photographic observation discloses that a secondary head was to be about 1.°#1 back from the comet proper. This head had its own tail, only its direction from the main tail belonging to the itself was at an angle of about 15 deg. This tail was traced on the plate made by Dr. H. D. Curtis at Lick Observatory as extending to a point 16 from the nucleus. On a view taken on the night of June 5, there is to be seen a small streamer near the nucleus, which Dr. Curtis thought might have been the source of what was disclosed the following night. All in all, the phenomena attendant upon cometary tails are perhaps becoming better understood because of the precision and sensitiveness of photographic methods; but at the same time new phenomena are brought to our attention by these same methods, Con- sequently, the problem is seen comet deg. torrelly’s comet lost its tail and forthwith started a new one. Two photographs appear to have been taken at the Yerkes Observatory upon the eventful night. In the earlier, taken by Prof. Barnard, there is a split in the appendage which separ ates the whole into two parts. That is, there is a break some 2 or 3 deg. bach from the head and the portion from this point on was shifted to one side to & position parallel to the direction of the short part next the head. As the shift was on the side of the heavens from which the comet and its appendage were moving, the phenome- non suggested the idea that the old tail had become separated from the head and was being left behind. The second photograph, taken by Mr. R. J. Wallace on the Same night as the former one by Prof. Barnard, dis closed the same _ general features, only in a further Stage of development. Photo graphs taken on the nights of the 28rd and 25th show nothing unusual; so_ that what occurred in the interval never solved. The Proportion of the Various Elements of Our Globe pee new data have re- \J cently been published by Mr. F. W. Clarke, under the auspices of the United States Survey, with re the elements of our globe consists so Geological gard to which far as they are known to us. Oxygen constitutes nearly half (47 cent) of the lithosphere, i.e., the crust of the earth for a depth of 15 to 20 kilometers, and than 85 per cent of the hy- drosphere, i.e., the per more ocean Next to this is silicon which is the solid element most widely found. Taking the three spheres together (air, water, and earth) oxygen represents about 50 per cent of them and silicon 25 per cent, Next in are aluminum (7 per cent), iron (4 per cent), calcium (3 per cent), magnesium, sodium, and potassium (a little more than 2 per cent and order each} was an event of short dur- ation. The following details Morehouse’s comet, October 15, 1908. Here, as in every comet picture, the telescope, set to follow the comet, is in motion with respect to the stars, which make short tracks across the photographic plate hydrogen (less than 1 per cent).

Page 16

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN A Catapult and Turntable for Airplanes The Navy's Device for Launching Airplanes Into the Wind, Without Changing the Course of t JANUARY, 1922 he Ship E | N addition to Tyin iircraft on sp. speed such that when the plane is released d clal vessels known as aircraft carriers from the car the wings will lift it into the at tl inticipated that fighting and spotting air and flight has begun. This requires Yale plunes may in future be rried on batth that the launching velocity shall be some- issue: hips and cruisers, althougl is clear what in excess of the minimum fying forer impossible to provide these ships with the speed of the plane. Second, it is necessary Sam’s flush deck in the cuse of the earriers while the plane is being brought up to this where To permit the launchin of iirplanes flying speed that the plane be held securely track from a battleship or other war vessel, the to the launching carriage in order that it upon itapult | been resorted to, and a spe will not leave the track too soon. Finally, being ial type of catapult has been developed it is necessary that the acceleration of that t the Philadelphia Navy Yard which has launching shall not be so great or so vio- gases been designated a turntable catapult be ——— = — a lent as to injure the pilot, who must ride are 0 use the catapult mechan! proper is Launching a float type of seaplane by means of the new catapult and turntable /" the plane and preserve all his senses bogie mounted on turntable so that it can be device ” alert in order to take charge as soon as he the h pointed into the wind when launching a is released at the end of the run. under; petaume One catapult of this type could be installed on were not needed aboard these cruisers for this The development of a successful catapult to accom- Thr every battleship and could launch when needed a fight and the ecatapults were removed After the plish these desired things is believed to mark an im- the ve ing airplane, so that a fleet of battleships would be able the catapult probler wis again taken up pertant step in providing our fleet with aircraft, and as fa upon the approach of hostile bombing airplanes to send a catapult, similar to the “North Carolina” design, with these turntable catapults, which are relatively was € into the air instantly a large number of fighting planes been in use at Pensacola for training avia- small and compact, it is possible to provide the indi- certail to shoot them down before the bombing attack could be iors mounted on a coal barge, was brought to vidual vessels of the fleet either with airplanes which posith developed This is the real answer to the threat of the Washington and further tests and investigations made. can be launched from catapults when desired, but cars ; | bombing plane, which was demonstrated in so spectac The result of this investigation led to the design of the which will land upon an aireraft carrier when their exhau: ilar a manner by the recent bombing from the air of present turntable type of catapult which has now been mission is completed or, alternatively, the warship may minati the ex-German warships completed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard and mounted carry seaplanes which can be launched from the cata- and hi In the bombing attacks of these ex-German warships on the water front for practical testing with aircraft. pult in a similar manner, but which will land upon the bends, if is Shown that bombs dropped from the air could The old catapults, such as were used on the “North surface of the sea and be hoisted aboard like a ship's made lo material damage to warships which did not defend . * consisted of a track along which a carriage boat. Until such time as the Navy is provided with a trucks themselves, Obviously a warship can defend itself by wi propelled by a compressed air cylinder. The air- suitable number of aircraft carriers it will be necessary esses _ inti-aireraft gunfire, but better by attack in the air } Was mounted on this carriage, and as the carriage to use seaplanes for work with the fleet. Under many — Phe weapons of offense and defense in the history of it released the airplane at the end of its conditions the seaplane in its present state of develop- withou Naval Warfare have always developed step by step and ! allowing it to fly into the air. The track for this ment is entirely practical, although in very rough that tl the development of the heavy bombing airplane is being catapult was mounted along the center-line of the ship, weather a landing upon the sea is likely to mean the exhaus met by this development of a catapult which will shoot was necessary to launch the airplane direct damage if not loss of the seaplane, although it is to be tual oj fast combat planes from the decks of battleships into into the relative wind, it was necessary for the ship to expected that the aviator can be rescued. The condi- these the air to repel bombing attacks t on such a course that the wind blew in the tions of the weather, however, are not believed to offer of carl stituen The catapult of this particular new, but the Navy type is elements are the result of catapult development initiated in 1911 by Captain Washington I. Chambers aut that time in charge of Naval Aviation experiments The first filght was made November 12, 1912, by Con mander, then Lieutenant, T. G. Ellyson in a Curtiss seuplane from a catapult This early catapult was highly experimental, and while the first flights were successful the device was not entirely satisfactory 1915 when the development point that desirable to take The matter was resumed in of Naval seaplanes had proceeded to such a Navy it new would be catapult, it was clear to the aireraft to sea A design of based on experience with the first one, was installed on the stern and successful installation of the armored cruiser “North Carolina,” flights were made. The “North Carolina” proved so reliable that similar catapults were installed “Seattle” and “Huntington,” and during the early 1916 successful flights were made from these cruisers. At the time the United States entered the war the principal Naval effort was anti-submarine in its object and the convoy of shipping. cruisers winter of on the armored direction ent formation, prove sidered impossible to require the ship to leave formation t plane, the turntable catapult, which ceed 11 usual propelled by compressed air. feusible, or heading disadvantageous, is trained like a mounted on a This maneuver, while turning out oft which might a battleship it is con the catapult track. any inconve necessitated the ship pult, and ir some For upon course may be nience to launching by 1 time of war the con launch his planes in the air where they may accomplish their mission regardless of whether or not the planes salvaged intact upon their landing. means of the cata- : ie the v: umander-in-chief will ‘ per cen on leve average upon a course which is possibly of great trucks disadvantage only for the purpose of launching Discovery of Coal in Lorraine 1.3 per These considerations led to the development of MPORTANT coal deposits have been discovered in Thea permits the ship to pro- Lorraine, according to a news item recently pub- Coes its usual course in formation while the cata lished in France. These deposits represent extensions tor, vel turret into the relative wind. from the south-southeast of the Saar Basin and roughly per hot The turntable catapult consists of a bridge-like struc pass by the towns of Forbach, Pont-a-Mousson, Nancy, pute th turntable upon which there is the Luneville, and Mirecourt. In the first two districts that we which carries the airplane, and this car is 75,000 hectares (1 hectare — 2.47 acres) have been sur- anipnan Frequent tests have dem- veyed and have been found to contain a supply of coal = = onstrated that it is possible to launch by such a mechan- from which it is said that the French could extract — the types of airplane or seaplane which about 10,000,000 tons a vear. portion : that mz Ist would be carried The problem of launching an airplane in a short run by means of the catapult depends upon several factors. ‘The first and primary one is, of course, that at the end the run the catapult should have given the plane a ‘ a de | | upon a battleship. 536,130 Stocks of coal in France at the end of July were esti- mated at 4, the French mines, 269,179 tons in the Saar Basin mines, tons at with the railroads, 491,645 tons, there bei the French ports, any ha satisfac were di where | oxide ¢ parts of ng 1,350,350 tons at and 1,663,200 tons punt wy, ee Oe ms” be tained. tical ex gineers monoxic furnace: j tests we erected cost of § of supp flow of and ope The fi is now | oval tun ing simi the Huc feet, ha ¥alleries Sam. 1 wide an an air ¢ the floor Either ¢ for exh CTOSS-Sec the sma mobiles. The t Combination turntable and catapult device with float type of airplane in position, ready for launching. the course of the ship The seaplane can be launched into the wind withe ‘changing

Page 17

922 ised the ires me- sing ary this rely t it lly, of vio- ride 1ses s he Om- im- and rely 1di- Lich but ieir nay ita- the ip's ha ary iny Op- igh the be di- Ter ta- vill ish nes ub- ns nly cy, cts val ict sti- at es, ns eS rma, ls et en ee ae a0 eK ee JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 17 Vehicular Tunnel Ventilation Tests In An Old Coal Mine, with Regular Automobiles, Under Operating Conditions ventilation tests under the direction of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, conducted at the Illinois Engineering Experiment Station and Yale University, have been described fully in previous issues of ScrentiFic AMERICAN and have been. logical forerunners of the final tests now in progress at Uncle mine, Bruceton, Pennsylvania, tightly subterranean trackway 800 feet in diameter has been constructed upon which ordinary, average-sized automobiles are being operated in order to test out the proper dilutions that are essential to render the poisonous exhaust vases non-injurious to man. All these investigations are of basic importance as the results of these tests will be useful in selving the ventilation difficulties of the huge Hudson River vehicular tunnel, the largest underground passageway of its kind ever attempted. Three unusual problems were involved in planning the ventilation of this tunnel which were unprecedented te at tunnel experimental a circular and Sam’s where enclosed as far as engineering experimentation apparatus for measuring the temperature, humidity, quantity, velocity, and pressure of the air in various parts of the tunnel. A total of 48 air-sampling tubes is installed on eight cross-sections of the novel test tunnel, in order to obtain samples for chemical analysis, for determining the diffusion and concentration of ex- haust gases in various parts of the tunnel with differ- ent methods of ventilation. An important part of these experiments will be the comprehensive physiological und psychological observations made on the effects of temperature, humidity, rate of air flow, smoke and exhaust gases on the men driving the test cars. Ten small cars of a popular make and model are spaced 40 feet apart and are run at a speed of 10 miles an hour through the underground passage. Twenty-one thousand cubic feet of air per minute, sufficient to maintain a concentration of 4 parts carbon monoxide per 10,000 parts of air by volume are passed the tunnel during the The driver and across tests. the mine is about the same as that Hudson River. Means are provided humidifying the air to approximate may occur on the hottest summer temperature in underneath the for heating and the conditions that days. Tropical Geology and Engineering N an article on this subject, by Warren D. Smith, Acting Chief, Division of Mines, Bureau of Seience, Manila, in the Philippine Journal of Science, the.author discusses, first, the general geologic processes. as they are found at work in the tropics, contrasting their effects with the same processes in the temperate regions of the earth; and second, cites some examples showing their practical bearing upon the engineering preblems that arise in those regions, It is found that the geological agents at werk in tropical regions are the same as those found operating in temperate parts of the earth, with the difference that they are often greatly accelerated in was concerned. It was necessary to as- certain accurately the amount and com- position of exhaust gases from motor the dilution essential to render these exhaust harmless; and the deter- mination of the coefficients of air flow and horsepower required in model ducts, bends, and openings. Road were made on 101 different automobiles and trucks at the Pittsburgh Experiment Sta- the Bureau of Mines, ma- being taken from active service without any additional adjustments so that the amount and composition of the exhaust gases were representative of ac- tual operating conditions. The results of showed that the percentage (the poisonous ears ; guses tests tion of these chines these tests of carbon monoxide stituent of automobile exhaust gases) for the various varied from 0.5 to 14 per cent; passenger cars and speed trucks con- ears on level grades at 15 to 20 miles per hour averaged 7 per cent and 1% to 5 ton trucks at 10 miles per hour averaged 7.3 per cent carbon monoxide. These data combined with a_ traffic count of the approximate number of mo- tor vehicles which would use the tunnel per hour enabled the engineers to com- pute the total amount of exhaust that would be evolved in the underground automobile subway. Actual men and animals were then conducted at Yale University to determine the largest pro- portion of these exhaust gases in the air that man could breathe without suffering any harmful effects. It determined satisfactorily that when the exhaust gases were diluted with fresh air to the point where the concentration of carbon mon- oxide did not exceed 4 parts in 10,000 parts of air, no harmful results were ob- tained. results with prac- tical experiences of the government en- gineers with regard to the effect of carbon monoxide in mine gases, and around blast furnaces and gas producers. Subsequently tests were run in an experimental tunnel gases tests on was These agreed the former. In the Philippines structural conditions are of prime importance in en- gineering. Both major and minor faulting occur here which as yet have not caused trouble save in mining operations. In general it is found that in tropical countries like the Philippines both road location and maintenance are much more difficult than in the United States and Kurope, and that both dams and reservoirs should be avoided if possible. Weather- ing of the rocks in tropical regions is no table. The so-called laterite, in some places of considerable economic importance, is a product of weathering. It is character- istic of many tropical countries. The au- thor also finds that the geologic work of organisms is great in the tropics, though little studied, and that the work of trop- ical rain and running water is not appre- ciated as it should be. Handbooks and formule prepared by engineers acquainted only with conditions in temperate regions are worse than useless in the tropics. They are positively dangerous. engineers as a whole should, if possible, give more attention to the study of modern geology, which is no longer merely a de- scriptive subject, but is becoming more and more a close relative of engineering The Causes of Twins ie an interesting article, of considerable length, on the experimental production of twins and double-monsters, in the Journal of Experimental Zoology for July, 1921, Professor H. H. Newman, of the University of Chicago, says concerning the causes of human twinning: Davenport has recently published data that tend to show that monozygotic twin- ning is inherited strongly through the male parent. If this claim is valid, how could this fact be shown to accord with the general theory of twinning herewith expounded? If in human beings twinning be a result of temporary retardation fol lowed by recovery, how could the sperm erected at Illinois State University at a cost of $50,000 relating to the best method of supplying the fresh air and with reference to the flow of air in a concrete tunnel and its ducts, bends, and openings. The final check on the solution of all these problems 'S how under headway at Bruceton, Pennsylvania. An oval tunnel, or rather an underground oval track, hav- ing similar construction of ducts to those proposed in the Hudson River tunnel and an axial length of 400 feet, has been constructed through the channels and galleries of an experimental coal mine owned by Uncle Sam. The cross-section of this test tunnel is 9 feet wide and 8 feet high. Above the ceiling of the’ tunnel an air duct 3 feet high has been installed, and below the floor another air auct 2% feet high has been built. Either duct can be used for introducing fresh air or for exhausting the contaminated air. The tunnel ‘Toss-section is sufficiently large for accommodating the smaller types of moderate priced 5-passenger auto- mobiles, The tunnel is with sensitive completely equipped 800-foot test tunnel for automobile exhaust gases in abandoned coal mine observer in each car are subjected to examination by expert physicians and psychologists after each test. The amount of carbon monoxide absorbed by each per- son during the trials is ascertained by examining a few drops of blood drawn immediately after the test is concluded. Remarkably sensitive methods of exam- ining these blood samples have been perfected. The effect of smoke and temperature on the motor car drivers and observers are also carefully studied. The underground miniature tunnel in the coal mine is being used in these check experiments because it more accurately represents conditions which will pre- vail in the Hudson River tunnel when completed than could any above-ground model, no matter how pains- takingly constructed and designed. It is situated 130 feet below the surface of the ground and 1050 feet in from the pit mouth of the mine. The temperature within the mine is practically constant and is free from unavoidable leakages of air which invariably obtain in above-ground models. The average ground he responsible for retardation? It is evi- dently true that in human beings, as in other animals, there are varying degrees of compati- bility between the eggs of some females and the sperms of some males. Doubtless the eggs of some females are totally incapable of fertilization by the sperms of some males, while quite fertile to the sperm of others Doubtless there are many borderline that involve relative incompatibility and consequent dishar mony and retardation If retardation be sufficiently severe, physiological isolation might occur at a rela tively early period, which would likely result in com pletely separate twins; but if physiological isolation occurred relatively later, there would be a less complete separation of the twin and the resultant joined twins, cases of dicephaly, spina bifida, and othe: of teratological duplication common in human Thus twinning might be inherited through the also Cases bodies, con types fetuses, male line owing to some peculiarity of sperm in a given race that has a retarding effect upon the The entire subject is one richly deserving of further inves- CLE tigation, which will necessarily proceed slow|ly

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18 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 a ay General view of the Germantown dam from below, showing conduit openings and hydraulic jump How Nature’s Treatment 4 b-~ most important news of a year of progress on the history-making project in flood prevention at Dayton, Ohio, is that the hydraulic jump is a success. The hydraulic jump ts a device for removing from the waters impounded. behind the dams in time of flood their destructive energy as they rush through the two concrete conduits which are the only outlets. With- in the past year one of the five dams has been entirely completed, and this feature has been given a test more than half as severe as would be experienced in a repe- tition of the disastrous 1913 flood. In this test the per- formance of this hitherto untried device bore out the calculations of the engineers to a nicety. In many venture. The principle of the impounding dam is new in this country. Under this scheme the three river val leys which converge above Dayton are blocked by huge dams, provided through the dams of sufficient capacity to more than care for the llow of the Thus in normal times there is no water behind the dams. But when the waters reach a flood stage the conduits are no longer large enough to permit the full flow of the waters and the excess backs great respects the Dayton project is a pioneering Conerete conduits are rivers, up behind the dams, forming huge reservoirs. The waters in these reservoirs gradually flow off until the The capacity of these tlow dams is its banks. is so calculated that at river channel below river again is within the ca- not ex- maximum the cutlets pacity of the ceeded, In addition to the three dams above the city of Day- ton there are two smaller dams, one to protect the city of Piqua and the other the city of Hamilton. Germantown Dam the valley of Creeks, above the city of Hamilton, has been first pleted, and here a short time ago occurred the first real test of the “hydraulic jump.” It might first thought The so- Twin called across seem at that the “hydraulic The Hydraulic Jump of Rapids and Waterfalls Is Copied in Ohio’s Big doing a similar werk. We all familiar with the usual deep pool at the base of a falls or rapids, which receives and absorbs the impact of the rushing waters, with jagged rock bottoms to further impede the flow. The problem was to convert this simple mechanism to the mathematics of the engineer, in order to design for strength and the greatest efficiency. As finally worked out the outlet basin is built of con- crete and bedded on solid rock, as it needs must be to withstand the impact of such powerful masses of water. It consists in a widening and deepening of the conduits their outlet into a double concrete basin which opens downstream into the creek channel. Each conduit is thirteen feet wide, while the width of the double basin is 85 feet. The basin floor slopes down to an extreme depth of sixteen feet below the conduits. The bottom of the basin is built in irregular and obstructing walls are provided. Both in this pool and in brook rapids, where the swift current strikes the slower water of the pool below there is formed what is aptly called the “hydraulic jump.” In the case of the brook the “jump” is likely to be rather imperfect, whereas the jump in this basin takes the form of a straight stationary wave. The water from the conduits shoots into the base of this wave and by its momentum holds back the wall of water, which may be are below steps from six to ten feet high. The top of the wave con- stantly tumbles forward, giving the appearance of a great beach “comber,” excepting that the wave does not One of the difficult problems of design was to locate exactly the spot where this wave would oceur that the engineers could meet in design the tremendous pounding of the water at this point. There are three ways in which the “hydraulic jump” operates to destroy the velocity and kill the energy of the water as it issues from the conduits—by compelling it to work in lifting the mass of water below, by effect which move forward. so do be Impounding Dam During the recent small flood the flow through the conduits reached a speed of 29 feet per second. The combined effect was to reduce this to a speed of 5.5 feet per second in the creek below. The actual effect, however, of killing the destructive force of the water was greater than these figures indicate, due to the fact that the power of destruction varies as the square of the speed. Thus a train going at 50 miles an hour, if it struck another, would smash things up with 25 times the force exerted if the same train were wrecked while going at 10 miles an hour. If this law be applied to the results obtained in this test it will be seen that 26/27 of the total destructive power of the water was “killed,” and that only 1/27 remained. A novel feature of the operation of the conduits was the formation on the upstream side of the dam of a great whirlpool into which was sucked with irresistible force such objects as floated near it. Logs and great beams were seen to whirl about the edge of the mael- strom for a minute or two, then stand on end and dis- appear. Within a few seconds they were sucked into the conduits, traversed the 560 feet under the dam, and were shot out the downstream side. . Although the hydraulic jump formed the most novel and spectacular feature of the test, the general effect of the dam on the flood waters below it was recorded with no less interest. Although the storm was a small one, only 2.22 inches of rain falling on the Twin Creeks watershed, the water behind the dam rose to a height over half what would occur in a repetition of the 1913 flood, when twelve times as much water fell. This is because of the smaller area covered by the water during i small flood. Thus the flood was valuable as a test in a far greater degree than the amount of rainfall indicates. Measurements showed that the effect of the dam was to lower the flood crest 3.25 feet below what it would have been without the dam. On the other hand, the) jump” is u matter of only secondary importance, where- means of friction, and by an might us in fact it has been regarded as one of the most im- termed diluting the flow of speed by spreading it out waters remained high for a longer time than without? portant features of the dam design and has been given over a deeper and wider channel than it had in the con- the dam, due to the slow rate of release. The maiii® more thought than perhaps any other. A design was duits. The water is churned into foam, and these mil- point is that a high crest was avoided, and it is this} not finally adopted until after a year of research and lions of bubbles also exert a frictional retarding effect. feature of a flood which always causes great damage) experimentation with vari- to life and property. E ous designs of outlet basin. From these observation#) The importance of the it is calculated that the crest) problem may be realized Top of Upstream Head Wa/!-- Yop of Downstream ead Wal! of another 1913 flood wou from the fact that the water ange he yolk — be lowered by this dam bf pouring from the twin con- awesnae f 7 oie aie Top of Side Wall» 14 feet. Thus it is son © duits each minute at the cman the dam rapidly increases @ crest of a flood of the mag- il pot Partition Wall efficiency as the size of th nitude of that of 1913 equals Gi 77 2 cee flood increases. more than the combined en- t a Se The construction of the ergy of six fifty-car freight —— ia - dams and the channel work) trains going at 37.5 miles an —_ { on the project has no hour. Such tremendous de- Vertical Scale j+«—_Condy//____,| reached a stage where it is) structive energy, if un 9 ie 560-0 Long confidently stated that if checked, would do great Horizontal Scale Dayton escapes any serious” © 2 sore floods until this winter there harm below the dam The mechinism is a simple will never again be danger one—an adaptation of a de vice often seen in Nature Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the Germantown dam conduits, showing the hydraulic jump of a repetition of the 1918 disaster, one of the greatest JANU ever countt Wit dams ¢ of the above finishe a seco third © enougl eare | flood The p! ing make P-shap a som of wa the d: flood, peril t fore c the da its ma great « poured blockin excepti At the tensive finishec over $5 1 [* th: sale tative, tance— their re howeve accord essentis the org So il drawn and dir porting unawar foreign in forel laws lot foreign And ta volved equipme fronted been, w' Now | had to now an of clain then he utable a tion, an exasper: ——__——_—

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the The 5.5 ect, iter fact of , if nes hile to hat vas JANuARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 19 ever to oceur in this country. With one of the minor dams completed, another of the important dams above Dayton will be finished by winter, and a second by spring. The third will then be near completion to eare for a very large flood without danger. The plan has been, dur- ing construction, to make a great concrete p-shaped outlet to allow a somewhat free flow of water from behind the dams in case of flood, so as not to im- peril the structures be- fore completion. When the dam is brought to its maximum height a great concrete wedge is enough -#. rm +. oF $ af ‘ hata a Set — and several nonpractic- ing international jurists have law libraries of their own which include foreign law works. But the great body of the le- gal profession has no aec- cess to a complete li- brary of foreign codes; has no worldwide net- work of legal coworkers abroad on the basis of any permanent mutual arrangement; and most lawyers are entirely at sea when their clients bring before them legal problems abroad for ad- vice and attention, The political and eco- nomic disturbances in the wake of the war have multiplied the le gal difficulties of foreign poured in this outlet, blocking it completely, excepting for the two conduits left through the base. At the same time the dams are nearing completion, ex- tensive changes in the river channels are also being finished. It is expected that the job, at a total cost of over $50,000,000, will be completed by January, 1923. The Legal Adviser in Foreign Trade N the general scheme of foreign-trade promotion the | sales manager, the credit man, the foreign represen- tative, and a score of other factors of varying impor- tance—from the banker to the freight broker—have their recognized place and activity. It is only of late, however, that the business world has commenced to accord a growing recognition to the legal adviser as an essential, and occasionally the most essential, link in the organization of international trading. So imperceptibly have the events of recent drawn the lawyer into the councils of those who plan and direct foreign trade that the legal advisers of ex- porting merchants and manufacturers are frequently unaware of cheir own importance in the economy of foreign trade. Merchants and manufacturers engaged in foreign business had been seeking light on foreign laws long before their legal advisers thought enough of foreign trade to make it a subject of special study. And taking into consideration the vast interests in- volved in American trade with foreign countries, the equipment of the average American attorney when con- fronted with the legal problems of foreign trade has been, with a few exceptions, inadequate. Now and then, in former days, the exporter’s counsel had to prepare a power of attorney for use abroad; how and then he was called upon to present the proofs of claim in the case of a foreign bankruptcy; now and then he had occasion to make inquiries for some rep- utable attorney in a foreign land to take care of litiga- tion, and the mysteries of foreign laws generally proved exasperatingly baffling. years The average lawyer, enjoying the confidence of his clients because of his familiarity with domestic law, was at sea when facing the laws of other lands. Even if he could lay his hands on foreign codes, frequently he could neither read nor apply them. with any degree of assurance. He was like a conscientious general practitioner called upon to treat ailments which require the skill and the experience of a specialist. Foreign laws, he soon discovered, are largely the field of spe- cialists. And such specialists until recent days, if not until the present day, have been very few. Here and there a farseeing and daring American studied law abroad and sought admission to the bar of some foreign land. Such lawyers have established themselves in France, England, Italy, and Germany, in Brazil, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, and a few other coun- tries. Here and there foreign barristers associated themselves with American attorneys, and a bare hand- ful of international commercial law firms sprang into existence, chiefly in New York City, and in a few for- eign cities American lawyers associated themselves with native practitioners in a similar way. The few world- famed jurists specializing in international law in col- leges or in diplomatic service, of course, are not avail- able to commerce. A considerable number of American attorneys, in- cluding the law departments of prominent corporations, have established working arrangements with legal con- freres abroad selected with more or less discrimination and good luck. A still larger number rely on the un- satisfactory medium of printed lists of foreign attor- neys. The vast majority have no foreign connections, With regard to library equipment, one or two great law schools have excellent collections of foreign codes; one or two libraries of national fame have foreign law books on their shelves——but without any attempt at be- ing either complete or fully up to date; a few law firms have built up libraries covering one or more countries; trading. The business > ea P . men of America have de- Close view of hydraulic jump, showing the action of the water manded more informa- tion on the subject of foreign commercial laws, and this need has been recognized in the creation of a Division of Commercial Laws in the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce which aims to compile taws, to collect codes, to edit them for use in Commerce Reports and eventually in special pamphlets, to collect foreign decisions of interest to American commerce, and to list reputable legal practitioners abroad. It can not, of course, undertake to render legal opinions or to pre- pare briefs—this is the province of the practicing law- yer. Much of this information is of technical character and requires the attention of the legal adviser, even as credit matters naturally come before the credit man and sales opportunities before the sales manager. It is the legal adviser who prepares the power of attorney for the foreign representative; who draws up the incorporation papers when it is decided to form a branch or a subsidiary company abroad; who plans the entire policy of a firm before a new field of operations is invaded; who is consulted in the case of legal Qiffi- culties abroad; wha studies the legal aspects and the meaning of letters of credit and of contracts of sale or of agency in foreign commerce. Not only the merchant and the manufacturer, but the bank, the insurance com- pany, the freight forwarder, the shipping company find it indispensable to obtain legal advice on every phase of foreign business before they commit themselves. Se the legal adviser of an American organization engaged either in active trading or in any of the auxiliary activ- ities of commerce must study foreign trade in all of its uspects. The American Bar is beginning to realize the poten- tialities of efficient service in the newly created Divi- sion of Commercial Laws, and many letters have been received from the leaders of the legal profession ex- pressing interest in its work.—By A. J. Wolfe, Chief, Division of Commercial Laws, U. 8S. Department of Commerce, Driveway over the top of the big impounding dam, with a partial view of the surrounding country

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 REVIEW OF THE YEAR 1921 Civil Engineering GREAT part of the work of the civil engineer is devoted to overcoming obstructions which Nature has placed in the way of easy trans portation of passengers and freight. Two notable ex amples of this are to be found at New York and San Francisco At the former city the 30-year-old project for crossing the Hudson River by a great bridge has moved during the year into its preliminary stage of survey, design and organization. When this has been passed, construction will begin; and five years will suf fice for erection What the Hudson River, as an ob struction, has been to New York, San Francisco Bay San Francisco and the great suburbs of Alameda Here it is eonsisting of a been to and bas proposed to cross Oukland the Bay by a 6t4-mile structure great fill, shoaler portions of the Bay railroad followed by steel bridge across the subway extend belov these engineering and by a Francisco the main Kach of will be unprecedented in magnitude 3240 ing from the bridge to San channel of the harbor works the Hudson River having a central span of feet, which is the bridge nearly twice length of any existing span, and the San Francisco Bay crossing being from two to three times the length of any crossing of the same general character considerable the bridge of the magnitude of A matter of importance to engineer the United States Bureau of Public wis report Roads on the the impacts of the which has a Too road surface, a the wheels upon question serious bearing on design of bridges much in the past have designers been content to determine merely the static stresses, giving little attention to the question of the hammer blow of.heavy and swiftly moving locomotives and cars. The most interesting event in tunnel construction was the commencement of work on the great vehicular tunnel beneath the Hudson River between New York and Jersey City. Thanks to an unusually elaborat series of experiments undertaken by various technical bodies, it has been demonstrated that the carbon mon oxide content in this tunnel can be kept at a safe low point by a properly designed system of ventilation There has been a fair amount of activity in hydraulic engineering and in the construction of dams and res ervoirs Work on the great Muscle Shoals Dam has been discontinued on the score of expense, and al though an industrial magnate has offered to take the work over and complete it, we believe that the project is still in abeyance. The importance of this scheme may be judged from the fact that the dam will equal the Assuan Dam on the Nile in height and exceed it in masonry content. The most important proposed waterway is the Great Lakes-to-the-sea canal by way of the St. up a channel, sufficiently deep for ocean-going vessels, from Lake Erie to Montreal and to impound sufficient water to provide an enormous addition to the available hydroelectric péwer of this country and Can- The canal would cost several hundred millions of dollars. It has been urged, and justly so, that the effort of the people of New York State should be de- voted to the upbuilding of the traffic of their own State after Lawrence. Its promoters aim, first, to open second, ada. Barge Canal before lending assistance to what is, all, a rival project Railroad and Automobile Although little glance at the map of the world shows that its civilized this railroad building is being done, a so badly supplied with form of United portions are not transportation. In the States alone there are 256,572 miles of track, over which 1% billions of pas sengers and 2% billions of tons of freight are trans ported annually, the cost of this great system being The railway mileage of all the 720.000 Effort during the year has been directed to repairing the dam some 21 billion dollars. world is estimated to be about miles, Our Point of V ages and making good the neglect of the war period. The the United engines larger cars. Weights and capacities are The tons tendency in States is toward heavier and enormous. most powerful passenger locomotive 280 is capable of hauling twelve to the level: and and weighs sixteen Pullmans at 60 miles an hour on the largest freight engine weighs 450 tons, and has actually drawn, of course at a moderate speed, a load of 17,000 tons on an up grade of two tenths of one per cent. Increasing attention is being paid to the improve- ment of terminal and station yard facilities, with a view to increasing the average speed of freight move- ment. Port and terminal congestion has reduced the average speed of movement of a car of freight to the low figure of 20 miles per day. Having reached the limit of size, improvement in the locomotive must be looked for in the direction of improved efficiency, a problem to which increasing attention has been directed during the year. There is a tendency to increase the One hundred pounds is standard, and many 130-pound laitl One leading authority claims that there would be a distinct weights of rails. miles of rails have been in the use of 200-pound rails for the container economy A development full of ical handling of freight is promise safe and econom- which is and ear, meeting with increased favor both in this country proposal, which should meet with the broad There is a every encouragement, to utilize container car in conjunction with the motor truck by building the cars in such units as will match the dimensions of both freight car and motor truck. There is great promise of saving of both time and money in the prosecution of this method. The development of the motor truck goes on apace, and it is significant that the two greatest engineering projects for facilitating transportation, the Hudson River Bridge and the San Francisco Bay cross- ing, have received their greatest stimulus from the enormous development of automobile travel and motor- truck transportation of freight. The electrification of steam raiJroads where special conditions call for it has endorsement from the operation during the year of the electrified mountain Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad received additional successful sections of the Chicago, system. Naval and Military A review of matters naval and military must start with the greatest event of the year—the calling of the conference in Washington by President Harding to coh- The President is well placed tu ascertain the sentiment both sider the question of the limitation of armaments. of the United States and of the great outside world on big question such as this; and the hearty response to his invitation shows that all classes and conditions of men, political, naval, military, and lay alike, realize the folly and futility of overblown armaments and wish limits. any During the year we have completed the “Tennessee,” the last of our 14- inch-gun ships, and also the “Maryland,” the first Amer- The close of the the to reduce them to reasonable ican battleship to carry a 16-inch gun. finds fleet unbalanced. We powerful navy in respect to battleships and destroyers ; year our have most and we are relatively Expression of opinion as to the propriety of remedying this lack of but we have no battle cruisers, weak in our submarine and scouting forces. balance, or suggestion of means for such remedy, are of course out of order while the possibility exists that the matter will be disposed of on other grounds than but we can at least suggest toward the development those of naval expediency ; that greater effort of our submarine and airplane service. The the the public series of bombing experi- should go event of least in mind, the ments, when the ex-German warships were sunk off the The event was spectacular; and that was all. No new facts were developed. We knew, from land experiments, that bombs could be dropped so as to outstanding year, ‘at was creat Virginia Capes. Henee it was no surprise to see bombing machines hit a sta. hit a stationary target, traced out on the ground. tionary moored on the water. Again, we knew that a heavy charge of TNT exploded below the surface target in contact with a ship's bottom (the mine) would greatly injure, if it did not sink the ship. So, also, we knew that such a charge, exploded below the surface and near a ship's bottom (the depth charge) would damage or sink her. Hence the sinking of the battle ship “Ostfriesland” by detonation of 2000-pound bombs below the surface and a few feet from her hull, taught us nothing new. Had the ship been moving at anti-aircraft gun trained on the bombing had the “Ostfriesland” been e- shrouded in a smokescreen, made by friendly destroyers; had the bombers been subject to the disturbing elements and weather—well, that would have been an- other story. In brief, nothing happened off the Virginia Capes to “sound the knell of the battleship.” the 1S knots, with every machines ; of wind Aeronautics The outstanding fact in American aeronautics is that the United States is still awaiting the passage of @ Federal law for the licensing of pilots, the inspection and the general and con trol of the industry. As matters stand, any man is at liberty build an inferior machine, take up passengers at so much a head, and kill both them and himself (as not infrequently happens) without a word Thus, the art is discredited and the public discouraged. illegal, it is non-lawful and will remain so until Cong While foreign governments are encour of machines, encouragement to buy or of official protest. If aeronautics is not at best does its duty. aging aviation, commercial progress in the United States is due entirely to the unaided efforts of the manufacturer and the individual inventor. All honor to them. Some truly remarkable records have marked the et forts of the past year. In France, Sadi Leconte, if training for the Deutsch Cup contests, achieved a speed of 20614 miles an hour in a biplane, and came pretty that the race itself. This was fora distance, straightaway. The 150- mile circuit was gained in the Pulitzer trophy by Bert Acosta in a Curtis Navy racer, when he cor ered the distance at an average speed of 176.7 miles per hour. Another startling feat was that of Lieutenant John A. Macready, who on September 28th, rising from McCook Feld, Dayton, Ohio, attained a height of 40,008 feet. He used electrically heated clothing, the oxyg@ tank, and the gas turbine supercharger. His LaPer biplane was the same in which Schroeder climbed 38,180 feet in the preceding year. The all-metal monoplane continues to gain favor, and its performance is characterized by a remarkably low close to mark in short record over a closed gas consumption, due of course largely to its excellent motor. There has been a remarkable revival of interest in the monoplane as a good type for moderate speeds The thickness of wing which is necessitated by internal bracing is unsuitable for the highest speeds. Leconte used a biplane with the characteristic thin wings of the modern racing machine. Multiple engines, so coupled up as to be capable of being run independently, ar growing in favor. Martin and Gallaudet, among Amer ican designers, have secured excellent results with this arrangement. Regular airplane passenger service, ru ning on schedule, has made progress, slow, it may Be but encouraging. Abroad, the French and British am still maintaining their London-Paris reutes; other se vices in Europe have been running consistently, and new routes have been established during the year. On this side of the water we have seen the inauguration of the Key West to Havana and other passenger-carrying se vices. The Air Mail has functioned with a regularity which should encourage Congress greatly to enlarge its scope. Mention should be made of the Petroczy helf- copter, which, in tests, lifted itself to a height of 160 feet. It weighs 2909 pounds and is held captive for JANI observ balloo! The vice h: offer ¢ of six compa: latest | the off was tc by the Failure under weak | tant cé test at table, launch the shi Teles tions 0 always reacts the on imports of suct scientis nomica! Alwa sizes of that he in the d times t naked ¢ through which | ever be mere po the phy without mously larger a even be tical ast showed some at inferent of dista: vas like of meas would, « sort of basis of of the st the very for the « odds the astronon these fig tained a utmost i the studs There spective velopmen beneath | ment of nificant rather to to pass \ astronom tween th dent of s Whose bi Scribe an to throry

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lence | Sta- knew rface vould », We rface vould ittle ound hull, ig at i the en- "ers; ents | an- zinia and low lent nal mnte a6 its 160 JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Our Point of View ——_———— balloon. vice have undoubtedly been set back somewhat by the offer of the British Government to give away its fleet of six dirigibles, coupled with the failure of any private company to accept the gift, and by the tragic loss of the latest ship “ZR-2.” As we anticipated in these columns, the official report indicates that the frame of the ship was too weak to stand the bending moment developed by the sudden throwing over of the vertical rudder. Failure came in the frame longitudinals while they were Always, this has been the An impor- under compressive stress. weak point in the rigid type of construction. tant contribution to naval aviation was the successful test at Philadelphia Navy Yard of a catapult, turn- table, launching platform, by which a plane may be launched into the wind without altering the course of the ship. Pure Science Telescope and spectroscope have often made revela- tions of a more or less sensational nature. It is not always that the announcement to which the lay mind reacts in a manner justifying the use of this term is the one which impresses the scientist as of extreme importance. Once in a while, however, an advance is of such nature as to appeal strongly to layman and scientist alike. Such a one is the outstanding astro- nomical development of the year 1921. Always astronomers have speculated as to the actual sizes of the stars, and always they have had to confess that here was one subject on which they were as much in the dark as the man in the street. From the earliest times to the present day; whether viewed with the naked eye, with the most powerful modern telescope, through the eye of the camera, or by any other means which ingenuity had apparently would ever be able to conceive, the stars showed themselves as mere points of light—the nearest approach we know in the physical world to the mathematician’s ideal point, without actual dimension, That the stars must be enor- mously remote to preserve this aspect in the face of larger and ever larger telescopes was sufficiently obvious even before the present generation of brilliant statis- tical astronomers began the analysis of the skies which showed figures on this matter of star distances. That some at least of them must be enormously massive and, inferentially, enormously bulky to give the combination of distance and brightness which observation revealed was likewise pretty plain. But that any direct means of measuring star diameters would ever be provided would, even two years ago, have seemed the wildest sort of a dream. Yet today it is brought down to a basis of cold fact; it has been applied to at least two of the stars which we had reason to believe were among the very largest; and the figures which it has revealed for the diameters of Betelguese and Antares are by all odds the most amazing which have ever come from the astronomer’s workshop. Best of all, as suggested above, these figures and the procedure by which they are ob- tained and the knowledge which they give are of the utmost import rather than of mere casual interest to the student of the universe about us. There is no obligation upon him who casts a retro- spective eye over the past year to seek out further de- velopments in astronomy to place beside or immediately beneath the extraordinary achievement of the measure- ment of star diameters. Nevertheless, there is one sig- nificant tendency of the present era which has come rather to a head during 1921 and which we do not wish to pass without a word. This is the alliance between conceived or astronomy and sub-atomic chemistry and physics—be- tween the macrocosmie and the microcosmic. The stu- dent of suns and universes has discovered that the man whose business it is to look inside the atom and de Scribe and explain what goes on there is in a position to thro-v great light upon the making and unmaking of observation purposes, taking the place of the vulnerable The prospects of successful dirigible passenger ser- stars and stellar systems. Specifically, his own hy- potheses of the past two decades, as to what the colors and brightnesses and spectral conditions of the stars mean in the story of their development, he finds more or less definitely confirmed by the study of atoms and electrons. The physicist and the chemist can now tell the astronomer that the sequence of growth and decay which he has pictured as taking place in the stars makes sense and is in harmony with the behavior of matter. And, while they can tell him nothing new in the mere technique of spectroscopic observation and spectroscopic analysis of distant stars, they are now able to tell him much that he has not known about the innermost whys of the spectral lines of absorption and emission; and what they tell him makes him the more secure in the conclusions that he is able to draw from his spectra. Another curious instance of the throwing of light by one science upon the outstanding puzzle of another lays us further in debt to the student of the atom and the electron. Many methods of estimating the age of the earth have been put forward—scarcely any respect- able geologist or physicist but has suggested one of these. They all depend upon mere arithmetic, to the extent that we observe some condition like the salinity of the ocean or the thickness of the rocks or the amount of erosion in some deep gorge, and calculate how long it would take this condition to be brought about. They all are weak to the extent that they assume this proc- ess, whatever it be, to have taken place in the past at the rate of its observed occurrence in the present. The student of radio-activity now puts forward a phe- nomenon which, in the very nature of things, must always have proceeded at the same rate, namely, the disintegration of radioactive elements into other ele- ments of lower atomic weight. On this basis an esti- mate of the world’s age has been made which seems to be far more rational than any ever made before, and which we can well afford to accept as marking an epoch in the discussion of this problem. The chemist and the physicist, too, are taking their cue from the student of the atom; so that it seems we may justly call this the age of such study. Realization of the extraordinary amount of power locked up in the atom has been with us for some years, But 1921 seems to have put upon a firmer basis of actual expectation the possibility that some day we may be able to put this power to work. The problem is being attacked, and the scientist of sufficient imagination to be interested in the big things of the future in preference to the little things under his nose feels no hesitation in predicting that the days of our dependence upon fuel and hydro- generated.power and the other clumsy expedients which separate us from barbarism are numbered. It would be out of place not to acknowledge the fact that much of the success with which we nowadays at- tack large problems like this one is due to the organi- zation of research and the great resources that are put behind such organization. Nowhere has this achieved a greater measure of proved success than in the field of medicine, hygiene and biology. Our study of the phenomena of life itself is advancing to a point where we can take living tissue from a living animal and, long after the death of the animal from which it has come, keep it alive. Without any wish to minimize the great gulf that lies between a small piece of comparatively homoge- neous tissue and the complex organism of the higher animals, the importance of this achievement is such as to make it rank high among the year’s announcements, Then there is that thing that has, through judicious advertising, taken such a hold of the popular imagina- tion—the possibility that the recognition and study of vitamines will at last tell us why some foods are suf- ficient to maintain life and others are not. While still unisolated and therefore of quite unknown chemical constituency, vitamines seem to have come to stay; and although much of the work leading up to the present knowledge has been done in past years, 1921 must be recognized as a year of climax and, above all, a year of publication and application of results on a wide scale. A review of the year’s developments in the field of pure science would be incomplete without a word about the post-war revival of archrology. This is now in full swing, particularly in Egypt, but in lesser degree in Mesopotamia, the Americas, Greece, Italy, and else- where. Electrical Progress The past twelve months have been truly fruitful with respect to electrical progress. On the one hand the year 1921 saw several large projects completed, and on the other the discovery or rediscovery of electrical prin- ciples of far-reaching importance. Among the large projects realized during the past year have been the numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the world. In our country we have done very well indeed; the truth of the matter is that we are fast harnessing our last water-power resources of the first order. Very seon our engineers will have to turn to the more difficult and less profitable water pow- ers, whose value is not quite so obvious to the present generation, pampered as it is through an abundance of natural resources. Aside from hydroelectric developments on a vast scale, there have been numerous new power houses con- structed. Owing to the high cost of coal and other fuels, these power houses are models of efficiency ana® present an interesting forward step over the practice of but a few years back. Still another phase of regent electric power development is the placing of the gen- erating units close to the supply of fuel—at the mine, in a word. Thus we have seen the Germans build large power plants at the very edge of their brown coal de- posits, for the good reason that the low-grade fuel could not be shipped any reasonable distance without costing more in transportation than it is actually worth in heating efficiency. In the United States we have also begun this practice of building our power plants at the mines, and transmitting electric power, instead . of coal, to the power consumer. It has been a rich twelve-month period for radio communication. The huge Radio Central, some seventy miles out of New York City, was little more than an idea at the close of 1920. The end of 1921 saw this station taking very definite shape, with twelve of the seventy-two towers in actual operation. The Radio Central, focusing the radio communications of a large number of European and South American countries on New York City, marks a vast stride forward in radio. Lesser developments, but none the less interesting and significant, have been the increased number of broad casting radio telephone stations and the new appeal of radio to business men, farmers, professional men, and even our good wives who, heretofore, found no interest in the meaningless and monotonous dots and dashes. But now, with the radio telephone transmitters in ever- increasing numbers, a radio receiving set becomes noth- ing less than a listening-in post on a mighty interesting party line. We have followed the promising work of Edouard Belin, the French inventor, dealing with transmission of photographs and drawings over wires. In October of 1920, M. Belin gave his demonstration between St. Louis and New York. But during the past twelve months he has extended his work to wireless, and suc- ceeded in transmitting drawings from Annapolis to Malmaison, outside of Paris, and from Bordeaux to Otter Cliffs, Maine. Other developments have been the interesting 1,000, 000-volt transmission experiments of the General Blec- tric Company's Lynn laboratory, the work of the two Danish inventors on a principle first discovered by Edison several decades ago, improvements in electric furnaces, and so on,

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 From Steamer to Sailing Ship A Plea for the Tw6 Hundred Wooden Steamers Built by the United States Shipping Board YHIS articlk is a brief for the fleet of wooden ‘| steumers which were built for the United States Shipping Board to assist in meeting the urgent demands of the late war It is written in the belief that the action of the Board in ordering these vessels, to say nothing of the ships themselves, has been the subject of much unfair criticism and misrepresentation. So far as the action of the Board is concerned, we must remember that when the ships were ordered the sub- marine campeign was at its worst, and the call had come from our Allies across the water for “ships, ships, and yet more ships.” They asked us to place at their disposal, and to build to the very limit of our capacity, anything and everything that could carry food, muni tions, and men across the western ocean We answered that we would: and set about the task at once with all our might. It was an emergency call; we adopted emergency measures, to the ultimate limit of wood construction; for the exigencies of the war demanded that the design should be carried to the very limit in size. With care they would have carried on throngheut the war; but they were never intended for continuous service as merchant steamers in after-war times. So far as the use of green timber is concerned, our correspondent says that he knows of no large vessel that has been built of kiln-dried wood. Kiln-drying would have added some ten years to the life of these vessels; but the conditions were such that it could not be done. Our readers will remember that we published pictures of five-masted steam schooners of 3000 tons dead-weight, designed by Mr. Cox, formerly of the Con- struction Corps of the Navy. Although these vessels, forty in all, were built of green lumber, they were no better constructed than the Shipping Board vessels. They have given good service and proved to be well How They Could Be Refitted It would be a matter of straight shipbuilding work to remove the midship deck structures, leaving the fo’castle and poop. The vessels would be amply strong to curry a five-masted rig. With the boilers and engines removed, they could stow 3500 tons of cargo. Boomg and mast could be utilized on the sailing rig, and part of the cargo winches could be retained and a smal boiler installed to run them. If the vessel's bottom were given a good coat of boiling-hot brown tar and pitch and a layer of felt and composition covering they would be perfectly serviceable as sailing vessels. The Compromise Rig It is proposed to give the ships a compromise rig, providing a full fore-and-aft sailspread for windward work and providing a full suit of square sails on the second and fourth masts. Such a ship would be well suited for the North and South Atlantie Why the Wooden Ships Were Built Many responsible critics have asked why in the world, with our vast steel works and our capacity to turn out ship shapes and plates in vast quantities, we should have put so much of our effort into build- ing such out-of-date vessels as wooden steamships. The answer is that this fleet of ships was additional to the program for steel ships, and that their construction could be done rapidly and without hinder ing the larger program of construction. The vessels were built for a special pur- pose and to assist in meeting a great crisis. No one knew better than the naval architects who designed them that wooden ships of 3500 tons carrying capacity, if they were driven at 10 to 11 knots by steam power, could. have only a limited life; but they knew also that these ships would be serviceable for the longest period of time that the war was likely to last. They were well designed for their pur- pose; but if there had been more time available they would have been built with the use of a considerable weight of steel strapping to increase their longitudinal strength. Green Timber Not a Fatal Objection Much has been made by the critics of these ships of the fact that they were built of green timber. Well, that was the only earthly way in which they could have been built in the limited time: avail- able. Moreover, construction of drying kilns capable of handling great timbers that were 12 inches square and from 40 to 60 feet in length would have been a task only less than that of building the ships themselves. The cost, furthermore, would have been prohibitive. On this subject and others connected with the construction and the present and ee U.S. SHIPPING BOARD 3500 Ton D.W.S.S. trade winds. Going to windward, she could lie up much closer than a square rigged ship, and down the wind she could show a sail area of 46,000 square feet, as against 32,000 square feet when close hauled. Standard Specifications for Large Incandescent Electric Lamps NOR about 14 years electric lamps have been purchased by the Federal Gov ernment under specifications published in Circular 13 of the Bureau of Standards Progress in the art of lamp manufactur has been so rapid that this circular has had to be revised eight times in order to keep the specifications abreast with cur rent developments. The 9th edition of this circular has just now been published and may be obtained at 5e per copy from the Superintendent of Documents. The original specifications covered only carbon filament lamps while in the later editions metallized carbon and tantalum lamps were introduced and then discarded as tungsten replaced them @ use. In connection with these radical changes in types of lamps, very great im provements were made in the efficieng and the life required, but no fundamental change was made in the form of the spee ifications or methods of testing. However, for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1921, new specifications have been adopted which include important changes in the test procedure for tungsten lamps. The most notable of these changes is the abat donment of the long-distance provisi@ that the life of test lamps shall be cor sidered as ended when the candlepower has fallen to 80 per cent of the initial value. Now the life is considered as the total life of the lamp since the efficienc of tungsten lamps drops but very little — to the point of burn-out. The performaneé future value of the vessels we have just received a very informative letter from a naval architect, Mr. Charles I. Nielsen, who assisted in the design of these ships and is tirmly ef the opinion that they have a life of usefulness before them as sailing vessels. The statements which follow are digested from his letter, and we have prepared drawings showing one of these 8500-ton vessels, with its engines and mid- ship deck structures removed and rigged as a five- masted compromise square-rigger and fore-and-aft schooner. Mr. Nielsen, who has had much experi- ence in the construction of both steel and wooden ships, stands behind the statement that 80 per cent of these vessels are “as staunchly built as wooden ships can be,” and that, if they are given the same care as other wooden vessels, they will be good for twenty years of service. He draws attention to the facts that the American Bureau of Shipping was responsible for their construction ; that they were designed by responsi- ble naval architects; and that the Bureau did every- thing in its power, within the limits of time available, to make these vessels as strong as possible for their work. A dead-weight carrying capacity of 3500 tons is very extreme for a wooden steamer, and the Bureau knew that for various reasons these ships could not last long as steamers. In the first place, they were designed Lowest drawing shows U. S. Shipping Board wooden steamer, of which some 200 are for sale. Two drawings above show steamer as changed to a five-masted schooner, the engines, boilers, and midship deckhouses being removed able to stand up to their trying, everyday work. In some respects the Shipping Board’s vessels have an advantage: for the steam schooners were built of fir, whereas the major part of the United States Ship- ping Board vessels were built of long-leaf, yellow pine, a stronger and more durable wood than fir. Long-Lived Wooden Vessels We are informed by Mr. Nielsen, who comes from Denmark, that there are vessels on the high seas today that were built of green fir in the Baltic over fifty years ago; and it seems that there are old-time war vessels at the navy yard in Denmark that are over 100 years old. These old craft make cruises every summer, and, according to our informant, ituey are good for another hundred years. Of course, the wooden ship has its limit in size, which is about 3000 tons; but by the use of diagonal steel strapping this may safely be raised on sailing vessels to 3500 tons, which is the size of the United States Shipping Board wooden vessels. Used as steamers, the ships would require a crew of 38 men; but if overhauled and rerigged, a crew of 16 would do. of a lamp throughout its life will also taken into account and tolerances are pre vided to care for possible variations 2 test results where only a small number samples of any one order are available. Tests under these new specifications are intended ®@ give a more complete indication of the performance @ lamps than was the case with the former specification and while prepared primarily for use by the depart ments of the government in purchasing incandescell lamps, it seems desirable on account of the thoroughnes with which the subject has been studied and discussed to make the specifications available for the general public. It is for this reason that they are being used as the 9th edition of Circular 13. Criticisms and suggestions concerning these specifier tions and lamp ratings are invited from both manufae turers and users and all such suggestions will be care fully considered in the event of a further revision @ the specifications. While dealing with the subject of incandescent lam? specifications it is perhaps wise to call attention to ti article prepared for this issue by Mr. Luckiesh, tt well-known authority on illumination, which appears @ page 27. Illuminating engineering has made ra strides in a remarkably short period. JAI was war. phen adva of pl of la scopi Mier micre mark ciety. paper tinall Roya We eal lish » ideal J. W. struct first form and i ing tl to th speci exact To SOD the fc or fra In ; the e} and fe altern statior simpli the ch all eas metho range! other mount media rotatil if higl the Nz object tates necess metho axis ¢ optical the i) studies “unive ation employ them |; gearin; the for rotatio possibl Wher are exa are apy tected | floor 1s Ther

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work g the strong igines ,00ms | part small ottom r and ; they e rig, ward n the § ' well lantie , She yuare could feet, close VR PE I et ET RCO N eR ET ty, ae arge | S have Gov ed in ards, § cture e r has | er to cur aa | just nined nt of tions while 1 and then m ip dical t im iency ental F spec- ever, 1921, »pted 1 the The iban- ision : con | ower ritial 3 the jency le up ance so be pro is ip er of 2 ae Coe f: SASSO NERS Nn | te “e of tions part cent ness ssedl eral used fica- ifac pare n of amp » the the s oD apid JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Left: Section of burnt file blank showing decarburization ; magnified three diameters. magnification, 15 Center: Chill crystals in small steel ingot, magnified two diameters. Right: Overheated mild steel in section; Three representative samples of British photomicrographic work of low magnification With Eye-Piece and Camera Recent British Developments in Petrological and Metallurgical Microscopy and Photography ered, because, owing to her insular position, England was obliged to depend on her own resources during the war. She had to develop her optical manufacture in a phenomenal way, and her scientists led in the great advance of microscopical technique and the technique of photo-micrography. At a symposium held in January of last year by the Faraday Society, the Royal Micro- scopical Society, the Optical Society and the Photo- Micrographic Society, the best minds of the world of microscopy and allied sciences came together in a re- markable meeting held at the rooms of the Royal So- ciety, Burlington House, London. Discussion of these papers took place in various parts of the country, and finally they were all republished in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society a few months ago. ow the present article British practice will be consid- The Petrological Microscope We shall not devote very much space to the petrologi- cal microscope, except to show a good example of Eng- lish make and to give a few generalities concerning the ideal petrological stands gleaned from the paper of Dr. J. W. Evans, F.R.S. structed to serve two purposes. first place, as an ordinary form and structure of the smaller and it is also used as an optical instrument for study- ing the action of minute crystals on light with a view to their identification. The latter function requires special features of greater or complexity. The exact nature of these arrangements depends, however, to some extent on whether the material is examined in the form of a thin section of rock or in minute grains or fragments. In all petrological microscopes provision is made for the examination of the object between crossed nicols, and for the rotation of these or of the stage, or of both alternatively. The advantage of a rotating stage and stationary nicols is so great from the point of view of simplicity of construction that it is always adopted in the cheaper instruments, and it is quite satisfactory in all cases where the work is confined to thin sections and involving certain accessories or ar- rangements are not required to be employed. On the other hand, for the examination of grains The petrological microscope is con- It is employed, in the microscope, to observe the features of rocks; less methods special By Albert A. Hopkins providing for the movement of the object in two direc- tions at right angles to each other and to the optical axis of the microscope, so that the position of the object may be varied while its orientation remains unaltered. These movements and the fine adjustment should be accurately graduated. Arrangements should also be made by which a nicol may be placed in a position above the eye-piece. At the same time a slot should be provided at the focus of the eye-piece, so that accessories, such as quartz wedges, may be inserted in focus. The upper nicol or analyzer, wherever placed, should be capable of rotation, either simultaneously with the lower nicol or polarizer or independently of it, and there should be special facilities for adjusting it at small angles of divergence from 3 to 6 degrees from the position of crossed nicols. This is useful in determining the exact position of extinction. Metallurgical Microscopes Now leaving the petrological microscope proper we come to the all-important question of the metallurgical microscope, and this subject was admirably treated in the paper by Prof. Desch of Glasgow, who stated that the use of the microscope in the examination of metals, first introduced by Sorby more than 50 years ago, has become so widespread that a microscope is now an in- dispensable item in the equipment of a metallurgical works, whilst the recognition of its importance to engi- neering works and other places in which metals are employed for constructional purposes is rapidly extend- ing. It is therefore essential to the conduct of these industries that instruments should be available which will allow of the rapid and convenient examination of present themselves in the course of routine testing, whilst it is obviously desirable that elaborate and detailed investigation of specimens of special interest should be possible, It is quite true that any ordinary microscope of good construction may be used for metallographic work, provided the higher power objectives are duly corrected for uncovered ob- jects; but the increased convenience of a properly de- signed instrument is so great as to justify its use, even for routine work. There are now on the market metal- lurgical microscopes of many patterns. Racks should such metals as be cut in hard, incorrodible metals or alloys instead of in soft brass, whilst the pinions might also be of much harder metal than is usually the case. It is probable that manufacturers have been too much guided by tra dition in the choice of the metals to be used in the construction of scientific instruments: witness the tendency, only now disappearing, to use highly polished brass for heavy portions where cast iron would serve the purpose equally well. There is no reason why the shape of the medical or biological microscope should be slavishly followed, espe- cially when the question of photography is considered. The tripod form of foot so convenient in work by trans- mitted light is awkwardly in the way when examining metals and having occasion to use the rackwork move- ment for raising and lowering the stage. The racks und pinion should be geometrically cut in metal of suffi- cient hardness to withstand prolonged usage without working loose. The body tube should be of wide diameter on account of photographic work. A _ plain stage of fairly large size is suitable for most ordinary work. It should be provided with a rackwork foerusing movement, but a fine adjustment is unnecessary. A cen- tral hole sufficiently large to allow an objective to pass through it permits the examination of heavy specimens resting on the foot, unless the support of the stage be arranged to swing aside entirely. Mechanical move- ments of the stage are essential for high-power work, and rotation is also a very great convenience, but when both are provided the rotation should be concentric. When a microscope is intended to be used in the hori- zontal position it is desirable to provide the mechanical movements with clamping screws, as otherwise a heavy specimen may cause a gradual downward slip during the exposure of a photograph plate, pulling down the rackwork by its own weight, particularly when photo- graphing at high magnifications. The rotating circle should have a clamping screw. The examination of fractures, large crystals in ingot sections and other things requiring very low powers and great distances is troublesome when an ordinary microscope is used,- and it is often preferable to employ a camera with a land- scape or copying lens instead of a microscope. Lllu- mination of the object has been given great attention in England and every metallurgist using the mounted in oil or other high-refracting media, the use of a stationary stage and rotating nicols is practically a necessity, if high powers are to be employed, unless the Nachet device iStadopted, by which the objective is attached to the stage and ro- tates with it. Rotating nicols are necessary for the more complex optical methods, especially those that require an axis of rotation at right angles to the optical axis of the microscope, as when the optical characters of crystals are Studied by means of the theodolite or “universal” stage. It deserves consider- ation whether, when rotating nicols are employed, a rigid connection between them should not be substituted for the gearing sometimes employed, even though the former is open to the objection that a rotation through a complete circle is not possible. also When crushed material or small grains are examined in oil or micro-chemical tests are applied the microscope should be pro- tected by a shallow glass bath with a plane floor large enough to hold the glass slip. microscope and every mannfacturer has his favorite. It is now very generally agreed that short mounts are to be pre- ferred for metallographic objects. A high numerical aperture is necessary for the highest powers. Oil immersion objectives are of course necessary for the highest magnifications. Projection eye-pieces are to be preferred for photographic work. Through the courtesy of J. H. G. Mony- penny, Chief of the Research Laboratory of Brown Bayley’s Steel Works, Ltd., we are enabled to give our readers some ac- count of the latest advanced practice along this line. Mr. Monypenny justly says that while the technique of the pho- tomicrography of metals has advanced greatly during the last ten or twenty years there are still marked evidences that many who take up microscopic work in connection with metallurgy study the microscope itself either not at all or only to a very small extent, The consequence is that statements are made about the structures of various metals which are not correct; the presence ia appear to There should be a “mechanical stage” Horizontal metallurgical microscope, designed essentially for benchwork sections of minute particles or membranes

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24 of constituents, other than those stated to be there, has been missed simply because the operator did not know how to use his microscope properly Again, photo graphs are published which have only a slight resen blance to the structures photographed: in some cases the definition is so bad that the reproductions are not has only Iron worth the they re printed upon One look and Steel pauper through the journals of, for example, the Institute to see how true this is In his paper Mr. Monypenny has attempted to set out some of the conditions which appear to him to be neces sary to secure good photomicrographs of metals and the means he has devised from ‘time to time to fulfil these conditions The following are some of the points The lIiluminant and Condensing System with Metallurgical Werk SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN higher powers for vibration to have lie has, however, been able to over- swinging the It will he noticed that This position has sev- he case of the considerable effect. come this completely by whole photo- microscope on Springs as shown. the author’s camera is vertical. eral advantages from a works’ point of view; obviously t occupies less floor space than the horizontal pattern, ind is probably than the latter. It be mentioned that, with the system of suspension 1X) and 1500 diameters were taken, although the laboratory was within hammers, and lines running more easily swung ay used, photographs at successfully also ad- into the ) yards of four 8-ton steam joined three sets of railway works Low-Power Photography It is frequently desirable to be able to reproduce at areas under vertical illu low magnifications fairly large mination. With ordinary low-power objectives (e.g., 2 inches), it is possible to take photographs at, say, “0 or 30 diameters, but in general the field is only all, about one-eighth or one-tenth inch in diameter. If attempts are made to get a larger field, trouble is at nee experienced with the illumination, and often with ling off of definition. Frequently a very large field s required if the photegraph Is to serve its purpose, as, JANUARY, 1922 World-Wide Activity in Steam Railway Electrification I UE apparently to the marked increase in price of fuel which has taken place during the past few years, steam railroads all over the world are studying the possibilities of electrification as a means of lower- ing operating expenses, Most of the leading countries in Europe have an- nounced plans either to increase the present mileage of electrified steam railways or to carry out such work hitherto electrification was not regarded as economically feasible. In South America, Brazil and Chile either have work under construction or are about to let contracts for such projects. In Asia, Japan and India are both making investiga- tions with a view to electrifying certain suburban or heavy-traffic sections. In Australia, the suburban lines out of Melbourne have been in process of electrification for some years, and other projects in that country are under discussion. In Africa, the question of electrify- ing steam railways of the Union of South Africa has reached the stage where bids have been invited and are in the hands of the consulting engineers, who are ex- the initial where pected before long to place some part of construction contract. 4 : Frew who have had any experience in photomicrog raphy will disagree with the stutement that the ill mination of the specimen is of fundamental importance in the production of a good photomicrograph Ciood illumination should meet four conditions, Phe whole surface which is required to be reproduced should be evenly illuminated; the lighting should be such that the Whele aperture of the objective ma lv utilized th i ee — a no = Left \ works” metallurgical microscope, aft W t t wave-length of the light used should be that for which wave-length of the the and the the color of the objective is corrected: light } used should be suitable to speci men, Fortunately, in most metallurgical work the specimens definite color of light, and the last-named rarely call for the use of any hence the for complying condition advantage, as it enables one to adjust light to fulfil the preceding condition in connection with biology), under necessity with not, in general, arise. This is a great does the color of the In other branches of microscopic work (¢.9., that these the requirements and then the photomicrog it may easily occur two conditions are opposite rapher has either to use a color for which the objective is not adequately corrected or one which is not best suited to the specimen The illuminator hip of aperture and magnification, are all the Faraday relation fully Society color screens, the vertical very treated in the paper presented te but the means which Mr. Monypenny took to prevent vibration and ensure short exposure are worthy of more than passing mention Reducing Vibration for Photography comparatively plenty of time in Even when the exposure re short seconds), the still give (é.g., a few Photomicroscope arranged for high-power work, with spring suspension to prevent embarrassing condenser as arranged for low-power photography The tools of the British commercial photomicrographer with groups of flaws, very coarse struc- for example, and segregated areas, For the ordinary low-power objective is not suitable—its “field” is not big The lens Mr. Monypenny uses is the 35-mm. projection lens made by Zeiss, though probably equally good results could be obtained with some of the very short-focus photographic illuminator he tures such work enough. lenses made by various opticians. As uses a piece of microscopic cover glass 1% x 1% inches, mounted in a light frame which fits on to the The frame is pivoted, allowing the illumina- This disk is used be- brass objective. tion to be adjusted to a nicety. tween the objective and section. The illumination is similar in principle to that used in the enlarging or projection lantern, the condenser being close to the section and focusing the illuminant (after reflection at the cover glass) on to the objective. The condensers used are 24 inches in diameter, and it is possible to illuminate evenly a section about 1 inch in diameter. For very low powers (i.e., up to 7 or 8 diameters), a short focus photographic lens is used. It is obvious that these low powers are of special value where either the structure is very coarse or one wishes the variation in structure over a fairly large American work on metallography will be these columns by Mr. Monypenny shortly. to show area. An reviewed in vibration. Right: Microscope and In the past, whenever the question of electrification has been taken up, the matter of increasing the capacity of a section of steam railway has probably been the greater factor, rather than reduction in operating ex penses. It is interesting to note that in many of the larger countries abroad the heavy trunk-line electrification projects in the United States have been very carefully studied and are very frequently referred to by foreign consulting engineers in their reports, and that in several instances standard American plans have been adopted practically complete by engineers advising foreign gov- ernments on steam railway electrification. It is be lieved that the experience of American manufacturers in developing reliable heavy railroad equipment in this country will be of considerable help in negotiating a foreign contract. Paper Tile APER from strong fiber containing tannin is soaked in a solution of ammonium sulfate 30, zine chloride 6, sodium silicate 10, boric acid 10, and water 400, and dried, then painted with a mixture of asphalt 30, coal tar 40, drying oil 10, graphite powder 10, and asbestos powder 10, and finally with graphite powder. It is them rolled and dried. ORE Mo OE ee Se Wie EE PR ERAT Re Rae TET he par T ent has inte trer yea Jap tity lars tle, sucl the sim thor effes flag the the imp whe four war mid: and exce abre navi her fleet fact tical post. bee equi| In s« tain chine and abro: impo been Japa poses in re ing prog! inde] by tl that could from State comp her 0 were miral nouns tion none litera it ha thous engin land « ese hand, capite the would have denies The constr “Tsuk cruise in Ja launc! Nover Decen taken to b achiev 1912, the ki the la ful ba This ;

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1922 ce of few lying wer- / an- ze of work l as and bout tiga- n or lines ition are rify- has are ex- itial on ity »X- UNE rene EID a ee STEN es NR JANUARY, 1922 Naval Construction in Japan SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 25 Facts and Figures Regarding the Strength of the Japanese Navy Today and in 1927 By Hector C. Bywater beyond the “eight-eight” HE strength of the Jap- anese Navy, both at pres- | ent and in near future, has become a subject of deep interest to all who follow the trend of world affairs. Thirty years ago the Japan was a negligible quan- the sea power of tity. Her navy was scarcely large enough to merit the ti tle, and the fleet that won such a resounding victory at the Yalu River in 1894 was simply a cruiser squadron, though it contained all the effective ships then under the flag of the Rising Sun. But the success thus achieved by the young navy gave a great rye scheme, even though the Conference at Washington should prove abortive in re- gard to the restriction of armaments, Japan at the present mo- ment is by no means so strong in capital ships as seems to be popularly as- sumed. Her dreadnought battle squadron comprises only seven ships—‘‘Settsu,” “Fu-so,” “Yamashiro,” “Ise,” “Hiuga,” “Nagato,” and “Mutsu”—and it is doubtful whether the “Settsu,” armed only with 12-inch guns, cen — be considered a_ first-class unit. The six remaining impetus to expansion, and when, ten years later, Japan found herself on the verge of war with Russia, she was able to muster a truly for- midable fleet, including battleships, armored cruisers, and other vessels of the most powerful type. With few exceptions, however, these new ships had been built abroad, for Japan was not yet sufficiently versed in naval architecture to undertake heavy construction on In reviewing the development of her Russia the most interesting her own account. fleet since the war fact to be noted is that prac- with Battleship “Nagato,” also “Mutsu.” Displacement, 33,800 tons. Speed, 23 knots. Armament, eight 16-in.; twenty 5.5-in.; eight torpedo tubes led the world in respect of dimensions when she was completed in 1915, just as the later “Nagato,” commis- sioned in December, 1920, remains the heaviest battle- ship—as distinct from battle cruisers—which has been completed to date. By comparison with this rapid de- velopment of an industry that barely existed a genera- tion ago the growth of German shipbuilding, which used to be considered very remarkable, was a slow and ships are, however, equal in gun-power to any vessels afloat, and the “Nagato” and “Mutsu” remain for the time being the strongest representatives of their type in any of the world’s fleets. The only other al!-big-gun ships are the four battle cruisers “Kongo” “Hi-yei,” “Haruna,” and “Kirishima.” Powerful though they be, these ships date from the pre-Jutland era, and are espe- cially deficient in protection. They will lapse into obsolescence as soon as the new type of battle cruiser ticully all the ships which post-date that period have been built, armed, and equipped by native industry. In some cases, it is true, cer- tain structural parts, ma- chinery, guns, mountings, and armor were purchased abroad, but of late years the import of naval material has been very limited; and Japan, for all practical pur- poses, is now self-supporting in respect of naval shipbuild ing and equipment. Her progress to this position of independence was hastened by the World War, for while that struggle continued could obtain no supplies she now under design or con- struction in the United States, Great Britain, and Japan comes into service, It will be seen, therefore, that the Japanese Navy of today includes only eleven ships of the dreadnought type, and nearly half of these are, or shortly will be, of problem- atical fighting value. The real significance of Japan's naval policy lies not in the size of her existing fleet, but in the scope of her new pro- gram, which passed the Im- perial Diet in July, 1920. This measure covered appro- priations for no fewer than fourteen new capital ships, viz., six battleships and eight battle cruisers, all of which from Europe or the United States. She therefore upon was fall her own resources, and these were so enlarged during the period of the war that Ad- Battleship “Ise,” compelled to back miral Kato, the Minister of Marine, was able to an- nounce last year that the whole of the naval construc- tion then in hand would be built and equipped with none but Japanese labor and Japanese material. The literal accuracy of this statement is open to doubt, for that for several few submarine it has since been ascertained orders thousand tons of armor and a sets of also “Hiuga.” Displacement, 31,260 tons. Twelve 14-in.; twenty 5.5-in.; six torpedo tubes laborious There are now half a dozen ship- yards in Japan which could, if necessary, build war- Given the necessary pre CESS, ships of the largest dimensions. funds and an adequate supply of material, Japan would therefore be in a position to reinforce her navy on a far larger scale than she has done up to now. But the program is already straining her finances to present and it improbable that she will go the utmost, is very Speed, 23 knots. are to be completed in 1927. Four of the ships included therein now on the stocks, leaving ten to be commenced between now and 1924 if the stipulated dates of completion are to be adhered to. The Japanese naval authorities are main- taining impenetrable secrecy as to the characteristics of all these vessels, but since they will be of consider- ably later design than any warship now constructing in the United States or elsewhere, they may possibly prove to be unique in size and gun-power. If no new American construction is au- Armament, engines were placed in Eng- land on behalf of the Japan- ese Navy. On the other hand, reports that certain eapital ships and cruisers of the “eight-eight” program would be built in England have been authoritatively denied. The first large vessel to be constructed in Japan was the “Tsukuba,” an armored cruiser of 13,750 tons. Begun in January, 1905, she was launched in the following November and completed in December, 1906, having thus taken than two to build—a very notable achievement. In March, 1912, we find Japan laying the keel of what was then less years thorized in the interval, the completion of the “eight- eight” program will put Japan on an equality as re- gards post-Jutland ships. In cruising vessels she will en- joy an absolute superiority Ten light cruisers of 25 knots and over have been completed, four are building, and twelve more have been authorized, giving a grand total of twenty-six. Provi- sion has been made also for an eventual establishment of at least 100 destroyers and from 110 to 120 submarines. The completion of this vast program will tax the Japan- ese shipbuilding, engineering, and armament industries to the utmost, and it yet re the largest and most power- ful battleship ever designed. This ship, the “Fu-so,” still Battleship “Yamashiro;” also “Fuso.” s l f Armament, Twelve 14-in.; sixteen 6-in.; six torpedo tubes Displacement, 30,600 tons. Speed, 22.5 knots. mains to be seen whether they are competent to under-

Page 26

26 take and complete so much j TT ~~ work during the Dext six | yeurs | Although no official figures | have ever been published, it is well known that shipbuild | ing in Japan is very expen si ve The battleships “Na se gato” and “Mutsu,” of 33,800 | e 5 | tons, are suid to have cost $35,000,000 $40,000,000 as a Taking very con auplece, servutive average for the fourteen capital ships yet to he SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 bet ST syne on NE — > . . mine of nitrogen which have a | deleterious effect on individ- uals breathing them for any length of time. Two that result from the firing of explosives are, because of their physi- ological effects, important in ventilation. They are carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. Other gases pro- duced at the same time, in- ~ cluding carbon dioxide, hy- drogen, methane, and nitro- | than mining produce oxides guses ——— be completed, the building of Submarine “No. 26.” 1100 tons. these vessels alone will in volve Japan in an expendi ture of $560,000,000;: and to this must be added the cost of all the new and auxiliaries. budget, which already total revenue, is expected to absorb as much as 40 per destroyers, submarines, that swallows up 35 per cent of the light No wonder cruisers the Japanese naval cent a few years hence. Warship construction in Japan has hitherto developed The latest battleships have an armament remarkably pewerful in proportion to their displacement. The “Ise” and “Hiuga,” of 31,260 tons, each carry twelve 14-inch guns in two-gun turrets ; 5.5-inch R.F. guns, and six submerged torpedo along fairly original lines. twenty tubes. 18 per cent more than that of the U.S.S. “New Mexico” (32.000 tons), whose twelve The total weight of this armament is said to be Class of eight built 1917 to 1921. which have to navigate have been a conspicuous success, for according to recent reports the native constructors have now adopted a de- under-water craft operating in the Far East The experiment does not appear to sign based upon that of the surrendered German U- boats. Among the submarines building in Japan are several very large boats, of 2000 tons or more, with an extensive cruising range and equipped with mine-laying published illustration of Submarine completed last above-water shown mounted—one on side of the superstructure. In the later boats, of which “No. 26” (completed last January and pictured above) is typical, all the tubes are submerged. greur. In the “No. 19,” tubes are year, torpedo each Displacement, surface, 800 tons; submerged, Details not available; believed to be generally similar to our own 800-ton boats in gen, are unimportant unless proportions sufficient to diminish appreciably the oxygen content of the mine air. Carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen usually occur together and are very harmful, even when inhaled in small quantities. About 0.01 or 0.02 per cent is the maximum quantity of carbon monoxide allowable con- tinuously in mine air without affecting the workmen harmfully, although as much as 0.04 per cent is harm- less for periods of time not exceeding one hour. Very little data are available on the maximum quantity of oxides of nitrogen that may be tolerated in mine air without danger to the men working therein. The gen- eral conclusions are that 0.01 and 0.02 per cent of oxides of nitrogen is dangerous and under no conditions should 0.05 per cent be reached. Carbon monoxide can be de- termined to an accuracy 14-inch triple turrets, while her secondary guns are in battery is very much lighter torpedo equipment More over, the “Ise” and “Hiuga” are 23-knot ships. On the other hand, their armor pro- light American con The “Nagato” superficially “Mary and her limited to two tubes. tection is compared with that of temporaries and “Mutsu” resemble the U.S.S. land” class, but they are 1200 tons larger and two knots faster. The “Kaga” and “Tosa,” laid down last year, are battleships of 39,000 tons, with a main armament of ten or twelve 16-inch guns, The battle cruisers “Amagi” and “Aka x Xs about 0.02 per cent by the usual Haldane analysis, but an accurate method of de- termining oxides of nitrogen at low concentrations has heretofore been impossible without using a large quan- tity of gas for a sample. A method was desired by which very small quantities of oxides of nitrogen could be determined from a min- imum quantity of gas, for samples of mine gases are tuken conveniently in vacuum bottles of about 250 c.c. capacity. The nitrom method used by Gutbier and Busch is difficult to perform most a ea and can not be used at such " Pater low concentrations as are —_ : ~ present in the usual mine- gi,” begun this year and due to be launched in the coming spring, 3,000 tons, with a main battery of eight inch armor belt, and a displace ibout 16-inch guns, a 12- designed knots. They will consequently be faster and heavily armed than the “Hood.” Two further battle cruisers, “Atago” and “Takao,” which are to be laid down next January or February, will represent an improved type, and may be the first ships in the world to carry a bat- tery of 18-inch cuns. It is evident from the public speeches of her Minister of Marine that Japan does not mean to be left behind in the race for speed and gunnery supremacy. An experimental 18-inch gun of 45 calibers was completed at the Muroran Iron Works last spring, the breech mechanism having been made at Kure. The data regarding this gun are not available. sy ed of 33 more Scout cruiser “Hirado;’ ’ also “Yahagi” and “Chikuma.” Armament, Eight 6-in.; three torpedo tubes The Determination of Oxides of Nitrogen rTuUE Bureau of Mines, in the course of its work look- | ing toward the minimizing of accidents in mining operations, has occasion to make analyses of gases in determining the ventilation conditions and the hazards that may develop from exposure of the workers to gases liberated in mines. Not only is it important to identify such gases as form explosive mixtures and are at times liberated in large quantities, but in addition it is neces- sury to determine what gases have harmful effects upon miners who are exposed to them while at work. In metal mines where much blasting is done, the shots are often prepared improperly, and some oxides of nitrogen may be formed after firing. Moreover, other industries Displacement, 49590 tons. air samples. To be of value in mine-gas analysis, a meth- od should be accurate to at least 10 parts per million, or 0.001 per cent. After ex- plosives have been fired, especially in ventilated work- ing faces, the products of the explosion are, of course, diluted with large quantities of air, and the amounts of oxides of nitrogen present will usually be lower than 100 parts per million (0.0L per cent). To determine these small quantities, a method was adapted from the usual procedure for the determination of the oxides of nitrogen in water analysis, applying the di-phenyl sulfonic acid method to give the total oxides of nitro- gen as nitrogen peroxide or as nitrates. By the use of the method evolved, 10 parts of oxides of nitrogen as nitrate could be detected in one million parts of the air oxides of nitrogen mixture with an accuracy of five or six parts per million. Speed, 26 knots. Japanese designers almost invariably aim at concentrat ing the maximum degree of fighting power in each vessel, whether battleship, cruiser, or destroyer. They are re- ported to have worked out some very novel plans for the new licht cruisers, in which a sea speed of 33% knots is to be combined with a battery of Sinch guns. Their latest destroyers of the first class are also larger and more gunned than foreign ships of corre- sponding date. Very little is known about the Japanese submarines. the foreign which Japanese constructors had been working were dis- heavily Some years ago designs from carded, and plans prepared New Argentine Float- ing Dock HE great variation in the height of the Parana River at different seasons of the year and the cost of keeping the port dredged of the quantities: of mud brought down caused the Public Works Department to favor floating docks for the smaller river ports, such as Bella Vista, Corrientes. A cross-section plan of the new floating dock at Bella Vista may be of interest to American construction com- panies, as it is typical of all those to be built on the Pa- rana River. The plan may of a submarine more adapted to the special conditions in Destroyer “Momi;” Armament, three 4.7-in.; four 21-in. torpedo tubes class of eight, built 1919-20. Displacement, 850 tons. be consulted in the Latin American Division, oe A SAR MO SE Poe ON BES Hn (METRE Py ye: FoR NRE * ARREST SPIE Pa NR = 1 MERIT eA ASNT ne JAN D' velop tailec conce many lights tensi' activ’ benef great prope In ing t mand type « in th is rei ment ean | facto! in thi ment ductil into | The much at a inert outwe The i fact t of the in th the si efficie great! It i of cal decre: the t pared cent il extinc great bon f very metal! It wil return light-] Eve made lamps extent the tu ciency tungst simila light light | Diffus reduce ments sories theate struct glass : used f Anoth the ga attent to its of foc filame: tion a sten f about sten f pictur spheri Inci rated per cé total « the we of wa

Page 27

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JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 27 Recent Advances in Lighting The Modern Illuminating Engineer: Artist, Electrician, Chemist and Psychologist URING the past few years the Great War has D had some influence upon lighting progress. De- along certain lines were necessarily cur- velopments tailed, for the facilities of laboratories were generally concentrated upon war-time problems. There were many developments such as signal lamps, search- lights, and other special devices which have less ex- tensive applications in peace time, although normal activities will profit by them. One of the greatest benefits that lighting received from the war was a greater appreciation of the value of adequate and proper lighting in increasing production. In a brief consideration of recent progress in light- ing the electric incandescent filament lamp still de- mands chief attention. The luminous efficiency of this type of light-source increases very rapidly with increase in the temperature of the filament and until the limit is reached there will be a diligent search for new fila- ment material or for ways in which older materials ean be operated at a higher temperature with satis- factory life. No new filament material has been used in this type of light-source since the practical develop- ment of the tungsten filament; however, by developing ductile tungsten it was possible to wind the filament into a very small helix with great practical results. The filament now possessed, in effect, a relatively much larger diameter which made it possible to operate at a much higher temperature by immersing it in an inert gas; and the resultant gain in luminous efficiency outweighed the due to the cooling by the gas. The increase in efliciency was due to the loss By M. Luckiesh Director of Applied Science, Nela Research Laboratory total output of light because the intensity was usually given in a single direction or as an average in a certain plane. This new method makes it much simpler to solve illumination problems because when the output of the light-sources is known it is only necessary to provide certain factors which represent the efficiency of the lighting unit and the utilization-factor for cer- tain combinations of systems of lighting and of reflec- tion-factors of surroundings. The are-lamp has practically disappeared from in- terior lighting, and with the exception of the mag- netite are is decreasing outdoors. The magnetite arc is now used in some places for high-intensity lighting in the more congested portions of cities. The arc-lamp of various special designs has gained ground in moving- picture studios. The Beck arc-lamp and modifications of it have greatly increased the beam candle-power of the large searchlights. In this type carbons are rela- tively small and a blast of alcohol vapor or of air is directed upon the are. This makes it possible to ob- tain a very small source of light of extremely high brilliancy. These two factors are necessary for ob- taining powerful beams of light by means of parabolic reflectors. The largest searchlight reflectors developed during the war were five feet in diameter. In recent years special flame carbons have been developed so that the are-lamp has found some further applications in photography, dye-testing, and other photo-chemical processes. The low vapor lamp has been candle-power neon to obtain higher luminous efficiency because the quartz withstood the higher temperatures of higher current densities. It has been difficult to seal the leading-in wires into the quartz, but recently a method of con- necting quartz through intermediate steps of glasses has been developed which makes better seals. Minor improvements have been made in gas-burners in recent years. Very little gas-lighting is entering new residence districts in this country as compared with electric lighting. Owing to economies forced upon different countries by the war there have been some gains and some losses in gas-lighting. Owing to the oil shortage some time ago, and to other causes, there was a tendency for some gas companies to produce gas of lower illuminating value. This led to the elim- ination of many open burners and to the substitution of mantles, It is surprising that in this age of adequate lighting so many open gas-flames were found. In recent years high-pressure gas-lighting has made some head- way, and considerable progress has been made in auto- matic gas-lighters and extinguishers and in the de- velopment of fixtures. Considering the greater diffi- culties inherent in the gas-burner the developments in gas-fixtures are worthy of commendation. As an example of the changes due to necessity may be mentioned the revival of the old lime-light in Ger- many. In that country, temporary restrictions having been placed upon the use of electricity, the lime-light has been used to some extent for cinema projection. The button of lime has been replaced by a disk of rare earths which is heated by an oxygen- acetylene flame. The acetylene is pro-

fact that the greatly reduced evaporation of the filament permitted a large increase in the filament-temperature. Thus with the same filament material the luminous efficiency of the tungsten lamp has been greatly increased in the past decade. It is interesting to note that the output of carbon-filament lamps in this country decreased in 1920 to only 4.3 per cent of the total number of lamps made as com- pared with 7 per cent in 1919 and 97 per cent in 1907. This lamp is now practically extinct in general lighting. However, great possibilities are inherent in the car- bon filament because carbon melts at a very much higher temperature than the metallic filaments which have replaced it. It will not be surprising to find carbon return some day to its old importance in light-production. Even after the great step had been made from vacuum to gas-filled tungsten lamps many minor improvements have

—and attempt to read by it. HEN the electric light was first being freely introduced into our homes and offices, it was such a startling contrast to the guttering oil lamp and the feeble open gas flame which had been in general use before it, that the public of the late 90's might well have been par- doned for supposing that the ultimate in artificial lighting had been achieved. But how mistaken they were will appear to the present gen- eration if we will but take one of the good old-fashioned carbon lamps with the simple looped filament—always supposing that we can find one In the light of present experience with the 50 and 75 and 100 candle-power bulbs that are seen on every lighting fixture of 1921, the “wonderful” 16-candle-power light of 1900 is altogether dim and ineffective; it is surpassed by fully as wide a margin as it in its heyday enjoyed. Unless we have actually made this com- parison we are apt not to realize what enormous strides the past decade has seen in the art of illuminating. Mr. Luckiesh, one of our foremost illuminating engineers, tells us in this article of what this advance has consisted and how it has been effected.—-THE EDITOR. duced from calcium carbide and the oxy- gen by gently heating a patented material sold in small metal tubes enclosed in the ordinary steel bottles. During the past few years the greatest developments in lighting have been tnmade in the ufilization rather than in the pro- duction of light. In fact, the interest dis- played in proper and adequate illumina- tion before the war increased greatly in such fields as manufacturing during the war. Now in this country the cause of good lighting is again progressing in all its phases. In the industries the tendency is toward higher intensities and toward proper reflectors which shade the lamps. Metal reflectors have been well standard- ized in design and leading manufacturers of such lighting equipment meet the speci- fications. For direct lighting it was also necessary in many cases to equip the bowl of the lamp with an opaque or dense

onal

diffusing-glass cap in order to eliminate

extended the fields and satisfactoriness of the tungsten lamp. By increasing the effi- ciency and providing a special dense blue glass the tungsten lamp has invaded the portrait studio. By a similar procedure an approximation of average day- light has resulted which makes this kind of artificial light more satisfactory where daylight quality is best. Diffusing glass and coatings have been developed to reduce the glare from bare filaments. Other develop- ments pertaining to colored bulbs, coatings and acces- sories are extending the applications of light in signs, theaters and elsewhere. By improvements in con- struction of filaments and by the adoption of a hard glass for bulbs the electric-filament lamp is now widely used for projecting moving-pictures and lantern slides. Another conspicuous improvement has been made in the gas-filled lamp for automobile headlights. Careful attention is given to the position of the filament and to its concentration, thereby increasing the accuracy of focusing. Extensive applications of the tungsten filament lamp have been made in a variety of projec- tion apparatus. The highest temperature of the tung- sten filament found in commercial lamps of to-day is about 3300 degrees. This is obtained in 900-watt tung- sten filament lamps developed for projecting moving- pictures. This filament operates at 0.46 watts per spherical candle-power. Incidentally electric filament lamps are now being rated in terms of lumens per watt instead of watts per candle. This is a great advantage because the total output of light can be determined by multiplying the watts by the luminous efficiency. The older method of watts per candle did not afford a measure of the introduced in England. In principle these are vacuum tubes, although the bulbs are generally spherical. The candle-power is relatively low for the 110-volt lamps. One neon lamp made in Germany is designed for use with alternating current at one ampere and 220 volts. In order to strike the are a vacuum interrupter is connected in parallel with the lamp, a small choking coil being inserted in the common portion of the cir- cuit. An inductive impulse set up by the automatic action of the interrupter by means of a magnetic coil causes a discharge through the lamp. This lamp is claimed to operate at 0.5 watt per candle-power, and can be started and stopped as often as 400 times a minute. The resistance of such lamps as determined by voltage and current is not fixed, but varies with the intensity of the discharge. A lamp for 20 milli- amperes direct current has about 10,000 ohms resist- ance. In general, a consumption of 4 or 5 watts is sufficient for many purposes. Quite a variety of these lamps has been placed on the market in Europe. Al- though this type of lamp is not yet of sufficiently high ‘andle-power to be used for general lighting, its use has been suggested for signs, for emergency lighting, in parallel with a fuse to detect and show burnout, as a position indicator for switches, as a distant indicator of the condition of a motor, and for many other pur- poses. Only the usual incidental improvements have been made in recent years on the mercury-vapor arcs. These have not been such as to open new fields for this lamp. The introduction of the quartz tube made it possible glare from it. To eliminate this acces- sory, leading lamp manufacturers have placed on the market a bowl-enamelled lamp. This is the first super- ficial coating to withstand the temperature of the bulb of the gas-filled lamp. In factories where an illumina- tion of one or two foot-candles has been common in the past, it is now not unusual to find intensities ten times “as great. For years lighting was based almost entirely upon the foot-candle intensity on a horizontal working-plane, but with the development of the science and art of lighting various other factors have been given atten- tion. Glare reduces the ability to see, thereby increas- ing spoilage, decreasing production, and increasing the accidents in the industries. The size, position, and number of light-sources determine the shadow effects which are now known to play a large part in visual discrimination. The lighting expert now studies the work to be illuminated and determines the desirable intensity of illumination, the character and brightness of the background, and also whether or not local light- sources are to be used supplementary to general light- ing. However, general lighting of fairly high intensity is the most desirable and general solution. It is now realized that the speed of visual discrimination de- pends upon the intensity of illumination. It is per- haps due partially to a general stimulation of alertness in the worker as well as to an increased ability to see. The expert also gives attention to the character of the surrounding surfaces, such as walls, desk-tops, ete., for if these are g!azed they operate to some degree 94 (Concluded on page 78)

Page 28

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922

Left Inside view of snowshed on Government railroad in Alaska. Right: Susitna River bridge, showing the steel span under construction Examples of the sort of work called for by railroad building in Alaska Government Railroad in Alaska Nearing Completion Connecting Seward, at the Head of Resurrection Bay, with Fairbanks by a 471-Mile Line fy Government Railroad in Alaska connecting Seward, at the head of Resurrection Bay, with Fair banks, is now The southern end consists of a line that had already been constructed. Kut the great part of the total main line of 471 the Government has had to build, The line on its Fairbanks crosses the great northern prolonga- There are many approaching completion miles, way to Alaskan Range, which is really a tion of the Rocky streams and valleys to pass on the southern and north Mountain System. ern flanks of the mighty ridge. Most of these are, nat urally, small streams After passing Anchorage and Matanuska, which are at the sea level and located, respectively, at distances of 115 and 150 miles north of Seward, the road finally abandons the coust and strikes into the rising country Naturally, the line seeks a pass through the mountains; but all the same the slopes go on up to noble heights The highest elevation reached in the Alaskan Range is Mount McKinley, whose cap ot eter il snow ind ice rises to a height of 20,404 feet Mount Foraker, a few miles to the southwest, reaches an elevation of 17,100 feet. These great peaks are no great distance from the railroad in nll the revion wher the line itself approaches its pass over and through the Range They lie to the left as the road proceeds north, with the Chulitna River be tween the The 1 iway tract follows the Susitna River, clinging to its eastern bank, from a point perhaps fifty miles beyond Matanuska northwards to the place where finally the river is crossed rhis point is some 205 miles northward from Seward The approach to Mounts McKinley and Foraker is here rather close, though the point of greatest nearness is perhaps a few miles further north Here, where the Susitna is crossed, is one of the principal features of construction That is to say, here is a total of a quarter-mile of track carried by bridge The principal section of structure is a 504-foot The and trestlework the supporting through-truss lies below While Alaska is where water to get the idea that wild where nothing grows have any joy in living. There is a section on third of where conditions are really span, main channel undoubtedly a land readily, we are not the country is a des and no This is freezes olate one can net at all the case the north—occupying perhaps a the total area forbidding; but the southern two-thirds is habitation and to agriculture. near the northern limit of this two-thirds. Norway and Sweden have many towns further north. The railway will pretty well cover the full north-and- breadth of the habitable and cul- Seward may be regarded suited to Fairbanks is south tivable section. as an all-year port, though this can hardly

water marks and also the ice-scorings on trees. In this way, the probable height of the river itself and the still higher level of the ice-jams could be estimated. WNat- urally, the engineers had to know what to expect and to locate and dimension the various parts of the crossing in accordance with what the winters and springs would probably This work in a new country, especially a new like Alaska, presents problems of some difficulty in engineering, because the engineer can hardly bring. district determine all the facts, and so has to make allowance for the unknown, The quarter-mile of crossing has been divided into seven distinct parts. First, there is, going from the south to the north, 302 feet of approach bridge spans of 70, Then, on the trestlework. This is succeeded by 121, 504, 121 and 70 feet north side comes a short 28 feet of trestle as the road On the right hand from the respectively. river onto the bank. Susitna passes from the side of the bridge, the approaches east; while, on the left, it proceeds in a generally southerly direction to the point where it debouches into Cook Inlet. There is, naturally, plenty of ice in Alaska, especially I the comes down the susitna winter time. And quite a lot and bridge It is said that the ice pusses the site of the occurs before the break-up in the spring ice has softened Great pieces of solid ice swing down the river, jamming themselves into islands, bars and shore as the stream makes its turns, The ice piles up and restrains the river The water level rises and this results in increased pressure against the ice jams. After a time, the ice may vield and then rush on to get into another jam farther downstream The ques- tion the engineers had to face was what would happen to bridge piers exposed to jams and rushes. They prob- ably gave but little attention to the possibility of using timber piers. Concrete, it seems, Was thought hardly certain to be equal to the job of withstanding perfectly the scouring action of an ice-jam against the pier. Such action would not be confined te points above the water but to points perhaps all the way down to river bottom, However, concrete piers were decided upon. By mak- ing them massive enough, they may be made equal to anything. Two spans for the main channel of 250 feet each were considered in competition with a single 504 foot span. The former would have required not only three piers, but one would have been near the center, Moreover, the cost was slightly less for the single span, This is an all-steel structure, and was completed in February, 1921. That is, the span was swung on the 2nd of that month and a train passed over on the 6th. But the whole bridge has not been constructed of steel. Timber been used on all approach spans, However, the main piers have been designed to sustain has 200-foot steel flanking piers, the idea being that in the future such piers could be installed in place of the twe combinations of a 121- and a 70-foot span of timber, The reason for the use of timber for truss spans was the high price of bridge steel at the time. In designing such a bridge, the engineers must take effects of the wind on the bridge and also on a train on the bridge. The stresses on parts of the bridge and on the piers themselves will be modified by a wind blowing a Such wind pressures as 40 pounds per square foot of exposed area into account the gainst train and bridge. are taken into consideration, It has now become approved practice for engineers to test soil and rock on which supporting

structures like bridge must rest. This is done before, and sometimes con- tinued during, actual construction. It en know in advance what is to be expected. A site thought to be very favorable for a pier might, upon carrying out a series of test borings, be found quite unsuitable. Borings cost a considerable amount, but they give @ certain guarantee against disagreeable and costly surprises that is deemed worth the price. Test borings put down 60 and 70 feet here in the bed of the Susitna River showed that the underlying strata consisted of compact sand, gravel and big boulders. The situation was judged of such a kind that the sinking of piles be neath the foundation layers of the piers would be unnecessary. Track construction had not yet reached the site of the bridge, but was still a score of miles to the south when, on May 22, 1920, the work on the piers was started. This was too early in the year to permit supplies to be brought over the interval by boat, so for a time dependence was put piers ables the engineers to

be said of Anchorage In preparing to design the bridge, it was found worth while to ascertain the high-

Constructing the snowshed: the bents are bolted together on the ground and hoisted in place with a crane upon sleds. When the river at last was free of ice, boats were employed over the

LS

JAN! wate! land. reach trans pier begur Sor was | permi side « then, was | Difi the fo apt t even under the pi ing tl round strean the s] less V By th leaks is car! of dr with 1 piles. diaph seems years. planks set ex displa: allel. and a such t new p tinuou less W: in con sheet | steel s to mu streng' ever, t ing in relativ may u so tha by the In <« from 1 to get by gra termin mixtur nothin gravel- there though natura theless piers d it app the pel The of the particl satisfa these ¢ cement cover t Where humus,

Page 29

1922 ; - ie l rob- J sing rdly ctly such ater ‘om, 1ak- 1 to feet 4. only iter, an, | in the he of ins, ain the two ber, Was ee RR ea Pag S a 5 Ge METIS AY ey YP SRA EIN SEED > ® = = ’ PBEM Ne i —— # ae eN JANUARY, 1922 water route (the Susitna itself) and wagons on the land. By September, however, the advancing track reached the immediate vicinity of the crossing, and transportation troubles sank to a minimum. The south pier had then been finished and the north pier was begun. Some hundred feet downstream, a temporary trestle was put across the river and track laid on it. This permitted the movement of freight not only to the south side of the river, but to the north side as well. So, then, while pier construction was going on, the track was pushed on north. Difficulties are often encountered in excavating for the foundations of large piers. The layers of earth are apt to be permeated with water under pressure and even the rock may contain fissures filled with water under a head. Besides, the river itself may flow over the pier site. There are a number of methods of attack- ing the problem. Sometimes a wall is constructed all round the site or so as to connect with the shore up- stream and downstream and thus effect an inclosure of the spot. This inclosing cofferdam is made more or less watertight and the contained water pumped out. By the use of pumps to keep the water entering through leaks and the like from giving trouble, the excavation is carried on and the pier constructed. This is a method of dry construction. It was employed in connection with the south pier. The wall consisted of Wakefield piles. These, when suitabiy driven, create a wooden diaphragm everywhere interlocked. The Wakefield pile seems to be an American invention dating back many A typical unit may be made by spiking three planks of equal width together. The outer planks are set exactly opposite each other, but the center one is displaced perhaps two or three inches, though kept par- allel. The unit will then have a tongue on one edge and a groove of identical size on the other. By driving such units one after the other, with the tongue of the new pile in the groove of the pile last driven, a con- tinuous wall may be created that is already more or less watertight. It is a very useful device, and has been in considerable use in the past. The interlocking steel sheet pile is now perhaps driving it out of service. The steel substitute can be made tighter and can be driven to much greater advantage because of its superior strength and the knife-like edge on the bottom. How- ever, the engineers used the Wakefield pile at this cross- ing in Alaska, possibly because timber was near and relatively cheap. On the other hand, steel sheet piles may usually be pulled out and used again and again; so that the actual expense on one job is much reduced years. by the salvage value, In concreting the piers, difficulty was experienced from more than one direction. Often, engineers seek to get the small rock used in concrete from some near- by gravel bank. Sometimes, the relative amount of in- termingled sand is just what is wanted for the concrete mixture. If there is no foreign matter present—that is, nothing but bare sand and pebbles—then the gravel-bank is a kind of treasure. At the bridge site, there was a gravel bank, with intermingled sand, though the sand was deficient in amount. This was naturally something that could be corrected. Never- theless, there occurred a partial failure of one of the piers during construction. The failure was due in part, it appears, to the presence of humus on and among the pebbles. The strength of concrete depends upon the cohesion of the constituent particles. Sand particles, cement particles, and pebbles, in themselves, are likely to have satisfactory cohesion; but where the joints among these occur are locations of possible weakness. The cement constitutes the only binding agent. It should cover the entire surfaces of sand particles and pebbles. Where it is absent, there a weak spot will occur. Loam, humus, or any material weak itself in cohesion would bare SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Rebuilding French homes with bricks of slag made on the spot be an injurious ingredient. Pockets and films of such material break up the continuity of the cohesion and thus tend to destroy the strength. At any rate, the partial failure in one of the piers was attributed to poor cement, humus and low temperature. The cofferdam was unwatered, which automatically put the bottom, consisting of porous material, under a 22-foot head of water. Apart from friction, this meant an upward pressure over the bottom of 914 pounds per square inch. It was found to be practically impossible to partition off the space and place concrete against the pressure. In November, the water was almost to the freezing point and the area to be covered was large. To use piping or buckets and place the concrete under water seemed out of the question. It was, accordingly, determined to deal in a special way with the conditions. That is, the space was housed in and, by means of steam coils, made warm. Even the sand and gravel were heated on platforms beneath which coils were placed ; and the water for mixing the concrete was also heated. Concrete was put in place under these condi- tions during a period when the outside air varied from 2 deg. below zero to 48 deg. above. At the north pier the temperature conditions were still more unfavorable, the readings varying from 12 deg. below to 34 deg. above. That Alaska is not necessarily an impossible place to live and work in during the winter may be illustrated from the fact that the 504-foot span was erected and swung in the period November 8, 1920—February 6, 1921. Riveting on one day was done when in the morning the temperature was 42 deg. below zero and 12 deg. below at quitting time. It is said that rivets driven during very severe weather were given a retesting a number of times later on when the weather became warmer. The timber work was all completed by February 16, 1921, and the whole made ready by that time for reg- ular service. It will be gathered perhaps from the foregoing that the Government is pushing its railroad on, seeing that winter did not interrupt work high up near the pass through the mountains. In fact, as it is stated un- der date of August 26, 1921, through traffic is now estab- lished from Seward, the southern tidewater terminal, to Hurricane Gulch at mile 284. Also, the branch line from Matanuska is now open to Chickaloon. There is still a gap on the main line between Hurricane Gulch and Healy—that is between miles 284 and 358. It is 29 hoped to close up this gap of 74 miles by spring, 1922. A steel arch which is to carry the line across Hurricane Gulch was already well advanced toward completion at the August date given. From mile 358 to Fairbanks, the road is completed with the exception of a long steel bridge which is to cross the Tanana River at Nenana (mile 411). In fact, this northern part of the main line is already in service, the passage over the Tanana River being made by ferry. In short, by the summer of 1922, it will probably be possible to travel over the entire line from Seward to Fairbanks, with the possible necessity of using a ferry at the Tanana River. The proper term to use in connection with the entire line, including its branches, is the Government Railroad in Alaska. Home-Made Bricks in Devastated France OR the construction of houses in the devastated re- gion of France, a material is required which shall give high economy. In high present favor at the mo- ment for this purpose is the agglomerate brick made on the spot. Slags and metal dross of all sorts are avail- able, and with any of these substances it is possible to make admirable bricks with the aid of heat. These materials are common enough, and are employed very largely in the manner shown; our photograph indi- cates the simplicity of the manufacture of this sort of brick. The prerequisites are a semi-plastic mortar of the proper proportions, the slag and a source of heat. Then the mixture is introduced into the mold, in several in- stallments, the pestle meanwhile being gently operated to pack the material well against the walls of the mold and insure properly formed sides, edges and corners in the finished brick. Once the mold is filled and well packed, the upper surface is evened off by scraping with a flat board. Then the brick is left to set, and is ready in a few hours to be removed from the mold. After removal, the brick is left in the open air until drying is completed, after which it is put in its final place in the wall without further ceremony. The houses constructed in this unusual fashion are reported to be standing up very well in use. Track Laid on Cables While Fill is Beipg Made NIQUE construction methods were found necessary in building the “toes” to the Taylorville Dam as part of the flood prevention work of the Miami Con- servancy District. Instead of spending considerable time and money in building a trestle to carry the tracks, it was decided to suspend the tracks on heavy wire rope. The river surface was about 20 feet below the high bank from which it was necessary to run the trains out. At the beginning of the work there was almost 10 feet of water in the river and 15 feet of mud before striking the gravel foundation. Four lengths of cables were used, each being 582 feet long. The two inner cables were placed three feet apart, the two outer cables 12 feet apart. Ties were placed on these cables, each third tie being long enough to catch the outer cables. The tracks were then laid on the ties. Each cable was fitted with special bridge socket and take-up for adjustment. The equipment was in use about one month, and during that time the take- up of the cable did not exceed 15 inches, Great care was taken in backing the loaded trains out on to the suspended track. As soon as a loaded car reached the edge of the embankment, it was dumped and then pushed on empty. This plan kept any exces- sive weight off of the suspended structure. The rock thus dumped displaced the mud and shut off the flow of water before the fill was half across the river. The cables stood the work so well that after the job yas finished they were put to use as swinging cables on steam shovels. In making this fill, the expense of a trestle was saved by running the tracks across on a pair of suspended cables

Page 30

30 How Various Realistic N Verdi's celebrated “Anvil Chorus,” we have an | imitation of the auditory effects produced by the When ap propriate standard instruments are used, many will doubtless have no difficulty in imagining that they blacksmith when he hammers on his anvil hear the hummer strike The composer, however, was limited by the fact that other things had to be cared for besides giving a suggestion of realism to his music Among the traps of the drum section of an orchestra is a little instrument which may be used to deal with the matter of imitation with a still closer approach to reality This is the “anvil,” and it consists of two parallel steel tubes of unequal length mounted on a small base The tubes are 1% inches in diameter, and give two notes, one from each tube Here the true ativil is imitated by an instrument of substantially the same material as the thing imitated. The form, though, is quite different How to imitate, simply and effectively, the many sounds suggested by activities represented in motion picture presentations, is a matter of interest The exhibitor knows that, if the vision of the prowling lion can be accompanied at critical moments with a realistic roar or two, the audience will be much better enter tained and thrilled than if the picture were allowed to pass silently The heroine is held by her enemies, but the rescuing hero is fast approaching on horse back If the regular thud, thud, of the coming horse can be rendered true to reality, then an added satis faction will be given to what the eye sees Such audible accompaniments have been successfully used upon the regular stage, so one need not wonder that moving picture people are following this lead. In fact, we may expect a greater development of the imitation of sounds on behalf of the “movies,” because such sounds are urgently needed to intensify the effects produced by the pictures The imitation of definite sounds—musical notes may be put upon a scientific basis. In the nineteenth century, prolonged investigution showed very conclu- sively that the quality of a sound, as distinguished from its pitch and intensity, is dependent upon the combination of simple sounds which go to make up a composite effect. A simple sound may be defined as one which can not be divided into others. It may be said to have no especial quality. The sound produced by the tuning fork may be classed as simple. Perhaps a musician specially trained may be able to detect in an ordinary musical note not only a predominant pitch, but one or more subordinate ones Ordinary people hear the note as a unit Nevertheless, ordinary people distinguish quality A cornet sounds B-flat in the octave above middle C. The ordinary person has, perhaps, no difficulty in distinguishing the quality of the note from the note of the same pitch made by the violin. There are, in both eases, subordinate notes which sound simultaneously with the B-flat. The quality of the composite tone will depend upon what these others are. Perhaps the musician specially trained may succeed in naming them; the ordinary person would certainly fail. But, it is possible to approach the matter differently; and give the ordinary listener a better opportunity. If, indeed, the generality of musical sounds are com- posites made up of combinations of simple ones, then it should be possible to synthesize simple sounds and get the composite effect The B-flat on the cornet should be producible by a proper assemblage of simple sounds of various pitches and perhaps of various in- tensities. This is just about what modern science claims. With so many sounds desired by the movies, it would be impracticable to produce the imitations in this way Greater simplicity is required. This is especially the case where the sound is not only composite at a given moment but variable from moment to moment. Advan- tage is accordingly taken of the circumstance that it is often possible to find a natural material which will produce when vibrated the composition of simple sounds desired. In some cases, the variation required in a prolonged and varying note or series of notes may be obtainable by manipulation of a source of sound But these methods of utilizing various sound-producing materials, while very valuable at times, do not always quite equal requirements. There tive here and there in the imitation. The scientific method of putting sounds together might be called in s something defec- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Noises for the Movies JANUARY, 1922 Sounds Are Produced by Means of Ingenious Drummer’s Traps By Albert A. Hopkins at this point and made to perform the service of deter- mining just what is lacking or just what is overdone. The procedure might be somewhat as follows: The instrument used to produce the lion’s roar may, perhaps, not quite do the trick at some portion of the rendition. The problem here may probably be solved by determining just what combinations of pitches and intensities produce, at this juncture, the perfect roar of the real lion. These could then be tabulated. Next, a determination would be made of the exact components of the defective sound, and these listed. A comparison if the two statements would then disclose the fault, If something addi- und possibly suggest its correction. tional is needed—say, a simple sound of such and such pitch—it may be supplied. If, however, the imi- tating sound contains too much, the problem would seem more difficult to solve. What I am suggesting is a scientific method of determining why an imitation is not quite successful. The whole sound may be built up by providing the proper composite of simple sounds ; or, sometimes more easily, by assembling together smaller groups. If the variations from instant to instant are net difficult to manage, the whole sound as, perhaps, a lion’s roar—may be rendered with some fidelity Thus, if the lion's roar were scientifically investigated and its components precisely determined und set down, one might perhaps see at once that certain notes of a pipe organ would give a very good rendition. Or, the simultaneous utterance of a certain note by this instrument of the orchestra, another certain note by that instrument, and so on However, the business of supplying instruments which may be used as sources of imitative sounds has been developing. The tubular substitute for the anvil has already been mentioned. A metallic sound is here imitated by a metallic sound produced by a similar metal. The lion’s roar is produced by an instrument on the market. This consists of a shell closed at one end and open at the other. Several hoops surround the shell, one of them securing the diaphragm closing the one end. This diaphragm is a membranous affair. It is set in motion by a string through the center. The shell is considerably smaller than an ordinary wooden water bucket. A smaller but somewhat similar affair produces a sound imitative of a dog’s bark. Note now this: These animal cries are produced by the vibration of animal material similarly to the anvil sounds by the metal tubes. Our previous discussion prepares us to understand what is probably a basic fact here. The tones and overtones of which the animal membrane is capable are doubtless similar to those which make up the lion’s roar and the dog’s bark. All that is needed may be the shells to inclose.a body of air that may be set in vibration. A small affair of a similar character, but with the string passed in and out again through two holes near the middle of the diaphragm to form a closed loop, constitutes an instru- ment with which the locust or the frog may be imitated. A stick is passed through the loop and the shell whirled round. <A steamboat whistle is reproduced by using a kind of triple whistle with the parts differing dis- cordantly from one another. A clog dance may be rendered so far as sound is concerned by operating two long handled mallets as if they were the feet of the dancer. A police rattle is really a kind of rattle. A wooden arm may be whirled round the end of a short handle held in the hand. A tongue of wood is secured near the outer end of the arm and projects back to a cog wheel on the end of the handle. The end of the tongue in passing round the cogs, as the instrument is whirled, produces a strong rattling noise. A steady beat of a horse’s hoofs upon a hard and sounding road may be imitated with a pair of cups which are struck, open end to open end. The dull, hollow-like sound gives the thud thud. Another instru- ment imitative of a horse’s hoofs consists of two pads or flat cushions which may be struck by two long sticks. A horse galloping over pavement or sod may have his foot falls imitated by strokes delivered on the pads, This same device may be used for a slap in the face, shots made by rifles, or pistols, surf effects, etc. By means of a toothed wheel arranged to turn and let a tongue fall from tooth to tooth as the wheel is rotated, the suggestion is made that a windlass, crane, derrick or the like, is being operated. Here, what we have is a partial duplication of some of the apparatus the sound of whose working is imitated. Another device

provided with a tongue permits one to imitate the click click of the typewriter or telegraph sender. 4 self-loading pop-gun enables the operator to imitate the popping of champagne corks. It will be noted, perhaps, that in some of the fore going causes the imitative device is really more or legg a duplication of the thing imitated. Another example is where an automobile horn is imitated by what ig essentially such a horn. As to the application of such devices as those under review, the moving pictures would seem to offer a wide field that has so far only been entered to a small extent, Apparently, we are still to await a successful com bination of the moving-picture machine and the phone graph—the talking movies. At the same time, some thing less is possible, and that is a well-developed and accurate reproduction of the proper sounds at all points where such sounds would increase the realism of the activities visually represented on the screen, Of course, the thing might be overdone, especially if the sounds are but crudely imitated or are exaggerated toe much. A good deal about the movies is already a joke. An addition will not help them. But an adequate, accurate study of the possibilities might tend to break the silence to better effect than the usual rendition of music through the performance. The phonograph is the great imitator of all kinds of sounds and it might enter into competition with the so-called “drummers’ traps.” But anything like hang. ing fire when the sounds are needed would result in ridicule. Piano, organ or grchestral music, if strictly appropriate and reasonably responsive to the changes in mood of the story being depicted, is by no means an ineffectual thing. First rate imitative devices— that is, high-class drummers’ traps—used at critical moments provide an additional feature tending to intensify interest. Large Diesel Engines NHE paper read by Sir James McKechnie before ‘I the Engineering Conference of the Institution of Civil Engineers serves to focus attention on the design of large marine Diesel engines of 1,000 b.h.p. per cyl inder and upwards. The problem is perhaps not 80 important as it is sometimes thought to be, for no fewer than 96 per cent of the ships afloat are equipped with machinery of less than 5,500 ikh.p. and a standardized twin-screw Diesel plant of this power is now constructed by many engine-builders. Neverthe less, the question of the production of six-cylinder oi- engines developing 6,000 b.h.p., or even 12,000 b.hp, will always attract designers, and Sir James McKechaie gave some details of the largest single-cylinder unit that has been built in Great Britain. It was built some time ago at Barrow as an experimental two-stroke model, with a bore of 30 in. and a stroke of 36 in., and under test a power of 1,042 b.h.p. was developed at 141 r.p.m. The fuel consumption was remarkably low, being under 0.40 Ib. per b.h.p. hour when using the Vickers system of solid injection. It was a single piston engine with scavenging valves—a design that would not be considered suitable at the present day for high powers since the opposed piston type and the em ployment of ports instead of valves have come into general favor. In this connection it may be noted that by the adop tion of opposed pistons much smaller cylinder diameters can be utilized to give the same output; for instanee, the 4,000 b.h.p. Camellaird Fullagar engine, with four cylinders, which is now under construction, has @ cylinder diameter of only 26 in. and a rotation speed of 90 r.p.m., against 141 r.p.m. of the Vickers engine It is, indeed, doubtful whether the double-acting twe diameters than those of the opposed piston type of equal power, either of the Camellaird Fullagar or Dox ford designs. It is worth nothing that the builders of the latter type hope shortly to be able to manufacture their engines to develop 6,000 ih.p. (or over 5,000 b.h.p.) in four cylinders. In Germany double-acting two-stroke Diesel engines are now being built for insta lation in mereantile ships developing more than 1,000 b.h.p. per cylinder, so that before long some interesting developments may be anticipated in oil engines for passenger liners.

JAD "|

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1922 » the . £ e the | fore. less mple at is inder © wide ‘tent, com. hono- Ome- and t all lism reen, f the 1 too ly a uate, reak ‘ition el into i dop- eters ance, four is a speed gine. twe inder e of Dox- rs of cture 5,000 cting istal- 1,000 sting for

Se ROE n= ee eee AF NON Oe la ce NEB WR a PR Te EP FR JANvuARY, 1922

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Courtesy of Mr. H. Gerson 1. Slap pad, which imitates the galloping of horses on sod and pavement, ri 2. The bark of a dog is here produced by jerking the little pad along the string. anchor, and ferryboat entering slip. 4. Self-cocking pop gun, which supplies the “pop” for champagne bottles of the screen. 5. Double hammer for hitting plate shown below at or bear growl. 7. Clog mallets with jingles and flexible handles. 8. Whistle of changing notes to imitate certain birds. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. Whistles of various kinds to imitate barnyard noises and birds. 14. Locomotive bell. 15. Pad which is pulled along rope to operate skin of bucket that produces lion’s roar. 16, Slap stick. 17. Rattle for all manner of sounds. 18. Hammer for the anvil. 19, 20, 21, 22. Bell plate and one of the hammers. The other hammer appears above, at 5. 23. Whistle that imitates bird calls, and pair of “cocoanuts”, which imitate horse-hoof sounds, 24. Imi- tation of steam locomotive. 25. “Squawker”, which serves for many purposes, such as tearing of cloth. 26. Locust or frog. A collection of the leading devices employed by the ingenious trap drummers who

also surf effects and all others that are done with a sand board. sounds as the action of a windlass, crane, derrick, heaving the 22. 6. Lion roar fle shooting, pistol shooting, slap in the face, and so on, 3. Turning this toothed wheel produces such supply realistic sounds for our motion pictures

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JAI 32 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 Bo Reading Between the Lines Q

Methods of Invisible Writing Employed During the War, and Their Detection nt mac By Jacques Boyer pan bee! THLE art of secret cor- [ order to yield a liquid in 1 | respondence under capable of being used ag tent went singular improve an invisible ink. The viot ment during the wal developer capable of re- for Correspondingly, too, the vealing texts written in mec chemists connected this manner was finally so 6 with the Bureau of discovered by electro- Ir Judicial Identit chemical methods, the Paris to whom the study If infinitesimal invis- own of this subject was con ible traces of certain The fided were obliged to metals be deposited up- plac make extensive and as on the surface of an in- it fi siduous rese h in or sulating material—e.g., cent der to become a sheet of paper—and if are quainted with the astute this then be placed ina the methods of concealment medium containing a in ‘ practiced | German nascent metal, the latter vari spies. But these French will be deposited by plac suvants went even fur means of electrolysis adjt ther by wa f foiling upon the previously de- the the enemy, for they su posited metal traces will ceeded in devising an (which are more or less siph absolutel nviolable good conductors), and tral code for the use of our will render them visible, — own spy syste! The easiest type of such Swit At the beginning of ; a developer to make use bott hostilities our enemies , : ° of is nascent _ silver in t made use of ordinary SS ~~ (which is produced — and well-known inks in — — — - — when silver nitrate and ; Tr writing their despatches Making use of chemical reagents in the deciphering of secret writing; the concealed message appears, between the a reducing agent are - a Their agents made use lines of the apparent letter, on application of the appropriate reagent placed together). This me ! of all sorts of colorless reagent is effective even reo liquids—materials as commonplace as onion juice or cyanide and toilet waters containing lead acetate, and in the case of script written with such enormously arra lemon juice or even saliva or urine It is commonly with these as a clue our laboratories were quickly able dilute solutions as those containing only 1/100,000 of = ° known that these so-called sympathetic, mysterious, or to decipher suspected documents and a number of spies the active agent, and so far no substance has been arm! magic inks modify the surface of the paper in a manner _— suffered condign punishment. found capable of affording protection against this de a bo which is rather physical than chemical; they are easiby As a result of this the Teutonic technologists made a veloper. " “ revealed by very simple methods—either by placing in fresh change in their methods. The liquids designed to But it was not very long after the discovery of this = 7 dilute dyes or coloring matters, such as ordinary black be used in secret writing were made extremely dilute, ingenious developer that it became known that in spite a ink, or by exposure to the vapors of iodine. The method the ¢oncentration in some cases being not more than of it German agents were conducting secret corre , cont: in which all these developers operate is identical, 1.e., 1/50,000 or even 1/500,000. In the first samples of these spondence across our territory. Just at this time M. they attack those portions of the paper which the writ- new inks which came under our observation was de- Priolet of the Police Department, who was in charge of © ing has altered physically with more energy than they tected the presence of organic compounds of silver of of the Bureau of Counter-Espionage, was notified by App do the unaltered portions. the so-called protargol type. Chemical analysis is of his inspectors that the baggage of certain persons of t But later on the technique of the German spy system no avail with respect to this sort of ink, since the metal equivocal antecedents contained articles of lingerie, became more scientific in character and the French com- is protected from ordinary developers, not merely by especially handkerchiefs, concerning which they be missions, whose function it was to censor the mail, reason of its extreme dilution, but also by the very trayed exaggerated anxiety. q iy found that true chemical inks were making their ap- nature of the molecuie of which it forms a part. Accordingly one of these handkerchiefs was seized | pearance. The secret text upon the documents seized The German spies hid these inks in their shoestrings and sent to M. Bayle. After three months of pains- pots was written with a solution of some chemical salt or socks, which were impregnated with a very small taking research this able chemist identified not only ment either metallic or organic, and protected against iodine quantity of the substance in question. A sock, for ex- the active substance with which the handkerchief had heat and other ordinary developers by the simple method ample, containing only a few milligrams of the active been treated, though the bit of linen contained only poy of immersion either In pure water or in water to which substance needs only to be soaked in a glass of water in a fraction of a milligram of the chemical, but what elimi was far more important, o—

had been added a little - 5 he discovered the spe- ammonia or a trace of ii hyposulfite. Text treated be. Fe ic : Mic f igi cific developer required aot , % ; to make it give up its leat in this manner is af s fected only by certain : ; : ce ‘ secrets. In this ease a room definite reagents or a : [Loh { Nice a a Oe catalytic operation is not agel ‘ * éte 2 *t>. elt. Coxorpes pe peo: 7 = . given group of chemical > - -* concerned which is 80 effect meta compounds. In order to exquisitely sensitive as ot + ag” « 4 get at the secret in a ~omee, tr —— nn i o~ a © oe an to furnish a_ reaction temp volved in such a piece ; even in the case of solu- the d tions so tenuous as t of ca of writing the expert chemists in charge of . a oy ae is pe ~ Cawwieo contain only 1/100,000- aroul the matter must apply 000 of the active sub ment in the proper succession stance! The spy needed curre all of the analytic re only to dip his handker- Ty agents But they can chief into a glass of wa- a obtain the desired result ter to obtain the invisi- ing il only after lengthy ble ink he needed. melt manipulation and at the Finally, for the safety tempx expense of the neatness of our own secret corre tin, si of the document. On the spondence M. Bayle in- type whole, however, inks of vented a special process ture this sort, composed of communicated to the << liquids having a 10 per War Department May 6, <9 po cent concentration if 1918. for its sole use. tempe rent fer but precarious pr In this method four dif- ‘ OT an tection for secrets. It is ; - : ferent reagents must be , a long road te at ; employed and in a given Sizes : is an

perhaps iy ceecelitine dent te be q Ro, Aone, » the é order. Texts prepared slate none the less a. sure ae Sree Cat Rte ef, Tree las— by this method have re one, During this period 2 a heen subjected to scru- sheet there was discovered in oo tiny by control commit- The ¢ the baggage of suspected Left: Before treatment the lett ears as an ordinary business document. Right: When given the correct treatment the real message tees. who have not suc provi German spies soaps con appears, between the lines of the apparent one ceeded in diciphering whicl taining potassium ferro- Letter of a spy, seized in course of transmission them.

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1922 liquid ed as The if re. en in nally »ctro- invis- rtain 1 up- n in- —C.9. nd if ina g a utter by lysis de- “aces less and sible, such > use ilver uced and are This PVvel usly ) of een de- this pite rre- M. irge by ; of rie, be- zed ins- mily had nly hat int, spe- red its ea is so as ion lu- ),- ub- led er- va- isi- ety in- PSS the 6, lif- en ive fu- it- ng DPOMEEN DOA ELA A ARS OA — REPRE NIELSEN ELL SNE PE PIGEON POEL OP JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Bottling and Labeling Machine for Small Scale Operations UITE distinct from the large and Q elaborate bottling equipment found in big bottling establishments is the small at the left of the accom- machine shown This machine has panying illustration, peen invented by a Frenchman who had in mind a small equipment especially in- tended for the small wine merchant. Ob- viously, the same machine can be used for bottling other liquids, such as oils, medicinal preparations, thin paints, and so on. In brief, this filling machine depends on the fact that liquids always seek their own level, and on the use of the siphon. The wine or other liquid to be bottled is placed in the top container, from which it flows down by gravity into a large basin centrally located. Leading from this basin are a number of radially arranged siphons, the free end of each siphon being placed in the neck of a bottle, as shown. The yarious bottles, it will be noted, are placed on individual stands that can be adjusted to any height. In this manner the bottles can be so arranged that they will fill to any desired height automatically, since the siphon will stop delivering when the level of the cen- tral basin is attained. In this manner the operator can place the bottles one by one on the stands, and swing the machine around so as to remove the filled bottles and put empty ones tion. inner container. may be substituted. The bench type of pot is practically the same as the The heat units are welded to the bottom of the Four feet of cord and a snap switch are provided for manual operation, or automatic control Aids for the small bottler: Bottle filling machine at left, and labeling machine at right 33 melted down with extreme expedition. The automatic control equipment con- sists of a dynamic thermometer and a suitable control panel. The bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the metal and the operating coil, acting through the con- trol panel, automatically opens or closes the heating circuit as the metal temper- ature rises or falls the very few degrees necessary to actuate the coil contact lever. Standard Radio Wavemeter HE Radio Section of the Bureau of Standards tests for government agen- cies, commercial and university laborato,; ries, and others, a great variety of radio material, especially wavemeters. Not only in connection with radio communication, but also in a wide and growing field of electrical research, there is an insistent demand for accurate measurement of the wave length or frequency of rapidly alter- nating currents. In the standard wave- meter most recently designed by the Bu- reau, careful attention has been given to the electrical and mechanical considera- tions which make for accuracy, especially rigidity of construction, and precision of set and reading. This wavemeter, when calibrated, will be capable of measuring wave lengths from 65 to 85,000 meters, or in terms of frequency from 3500 to 4,600,000 cycles per second, A typewritten description of this wavemeter has been prepared and is available for distribution to interested persons, who may apply to in their place in a continu- ous operation. The second machine shown in the illustration is a label- ing machine, Labels are au- tomatically picked up by an arrangement of rollers, giv- en a layer of mucilage, and firmly and neatly applied on a bottle, can or other form of container. The machine is hand driven, and the ar- rangement of rollers is such that any size or shape of container can be taken care of by simple adjustments. Applying Electricity to the Metal-Melting Pot LECTRICALLY- heated metal - melting pots are a decided improve- ment over gas and gasoline heated pots not only on ac- the Bureau. Weights Constructed of Magnetic Material FEW months ago ina in- vestigating three im- ported sets -of analytical weights, it was found that the weights from .5 to .05 of a gram were made of a de- cidedly magnetic material. During the past month a sim- ilar set, several years old, was likewise found to have magnetic weights which caused great irregularities when an attempt to calibrate them was made, Weights of this character can be readily detected by using a small magnet, and it is well for purchasers of analytical weights to be on their guard against them as under some circumstances serious errors may be introduced by using count of their cleanliness, elimination of open flame and other obvious features, but also because they are more efficient and much more readily controlled. In the electrically-heated pot, the heat is generated and applied where needed. Work- rooms are not overheated due to waste heat; the air is not vitiated. Electrically-heated furthermore, effect a big saving in time and labor. The pots, smaller portable pots, except that the heater units are Small bench type and 100-pound type of electrically heated metal-melting pots for shop use Seeing Old Paintings as They Were . the flat, seamless steel type, and are immersed directly in the metal, with the lead arm coming out over the With this construction all of the heat generated is transmitted directly to the metal, which is rim of the pot. metal is kept at exactly the right temperature, and the pot does away with the dangerous and unsatisfactory practice of carrying small quantities of hot metal around in a ladle or bucket. The equip- ment can be installed wherever electric current is available. Typical of the present electrical melting pots is the tvpe shown in the accompany- ing illustration. This type is designed to melt down and maintain at the proper temperature all soft metals such as leads, tin, solder, babbitt, and so on. Pots of this type are limited to a maximum tempera- ture of 550 degrees Fahrenheit. The first pot shown is made in 10 and 25 pound sizes, with a maximum content temperature of 440 degrees. Having cur- rent requirements well within the rating of an ordinary lighting circuit, these two sizes can be used in any room where there is an electric light socket. The pot con- sists of two containers, made of strong sheet metal, placed one within the other. The ample space between the containers is provided with a packing of heat insulation Apparatus devised by a French scientist for the purpose of ex- amining old paintings under polar- ized light and with the aid of the Nicol prism, in order to suppress superficial reflections which prevents loss of heat through radia- Copyright, Kadel & Herbert such weights. Originally Painted HERE has long existed the belief that the darken- ing of pigments which occurs in the course of hun- dreds of years enhances the beauty, and therefore the value, of old and rare oil paintings. However, it has remained for a French scientist, M. Pierre Lambert, to reveal any old oil painting in its original colors so that a comparison of the original color values and these bestowed upon the can- vas by the lapse of years may be made. First of all, M. Lambert illuminates the old oil painting by means of a pewerful are or gas-filled incandescent lamp and a novel optical system. The rays from the illuminant are passed through a condenser, followed by a lens and a polarizing device known as the Nicol prism, and again a lens which spreads or diverges the rays, so as to illuminate the entire area of the painting. The observer, looking through the Nicol prism, manipulates the prism until he finds a position in which super- ficial reflections are entirely suppressed. It is said that old dull pictures then be- come quite distinct, the colors are intensi- fied, and details that have long been lost to the naked eye are revealed in their original form. Aside from its pure art value, the instrument should be of great use in detecting forgeries on which the marks of age have been artificially laid.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Design Patents JANUARY, 1922 What They Are, and the Rules Governing Recovery for Infringement of Them JATENTS for designs secure to the owners thereof the right to exclude all others from manufacturing, using, and an infringing desicn articles of manufacture embodying Thus the owner of a design patent selling is entitled to an injunction to restrain not only the un authorized manufacture of articles embodying an in fringing design, but also the unauthorized use and the unauthorized saie of such articles of manufacture In addition to this injunctive relief the owner of a design patent which has been infringed is entitled to recover from one who has manufactured and sold articles of manufacture embodying an infringing design, all the profits which have accrued from such manufacture and sale, and if profits, or the amount thereof is less than would have been made by the owner of the patent had he sold the same number of articles, then he may recover a sum equaling what he would have he would have manu- there be no such made, under the assumption that factured and sold such articles if the infringer had not done so, Of course, the right to recover presupposes the validity of the design patent, and that the owner there- of has of his by affixing to the articles of manufacture embodying the design, the word “Patented,” with the date of the has given actual notice to the infringer trial he must not only prove such notice but riven notice patent together patent, or in which latter case at the must further prove that after the recetpt of such notice the infringer continued his infringing acts Damages can only be recovered when the statutory notice has been given. (R. S. See. 4900.) The law relating to design patents contains a provi- sion specifying a minimum sum which may be recovered for the infringement This is contained in the Act of February 4, 1887 thereof which reads as follows: By T. Hart Anderson of the New York Bar has no license; if he has a license it is for him to prove the fact. But how about a retailer? He may know of the existence of the patent from the statutory notice applied by the owner to the articles which the owner makes and but how can a dealer possibly know unless specifi- cally advised that manufacture offered to him by other manufacturers embodying the same design have had the patented design applied thereto without the owner of the patent? Retailers are offered the article by different manufacturers. They are not supposed to inquire when they are solicited to purchase articles for whether such articles are patented or not, or whether any particular design has been applied thereto with the license of the owner of a design patent. A retailer, therefore, who sells or offers for manufacture to which has heen applied an infringing design is not liable for the penalty of $250 unless it is proved that he knew of the patent, and that before he offered the same for sule or sold the same he knew that the design had heen applied to such articles without the license of the owner of the patent. This does not mean, however, that he is not liable at all, for if he has sold an infringing article he may be sued under proper conditions precedent, such as notice of the patent for the purpose of recovering the profit which he has made by the sale of the infring- sells : articles of the license of same resale sale articles of also ing articles, which may not exceed the sum of $250; but the owner of the patent has no right to de- mand the penalty in the absence of proof of knowledge on the part of the retailer before he sold the article, not only that the design is patented, but that it has been applied to such article without the license of the owner of the patent. Should a retailer get notice that an article offered for sale and sold by him constitutes an may or larly in the lighting fixture trade, whereby certain owners of design patents have proceeded against manv- facturers of infringing articles, and when they have been so fortunate as to have had their patents sustaine@ against the manufacturers they thereafter proceed against retailers who have sold articles purchased from such manufacturers, and such retailers have been led to believe that the owner of the patent is also entitled to collect the penalty of $250 from the retailer who offers for sale and sells such infringing articles, and in instances—sometimes where the retailers have only two or three specimens of the infringing articles—they have been induced to pay this $250 rather than stand the expense of a suit. In all such cases the owner of the patent was not entitled to recover the penalty unless he could show that the retailer not only knew of the patent, but also knew when he offered the infringing articles for sale and sold the same that the design had been applied thereto without the license of the owner of the patent. It is believed that in many of these cases the retailers have been absolutely without this knowledge. They may have known of the patent, but it is doubtful whether they knew or took the trouble to find out—and they are not obliged to take the trouble to find out—that the design had been applied to such articles without the license of the owner of the patent, In no event can the owner of a design patent recover the penalty of $250 from a dealer unless in addition to the notice of the patent the dealer is notified that the design has been applied thereto without the license of the owner of the patent, and after the receipt of such a notice offers for sale or sells such infringing articles, In order to render a dealer liable for the penalty the notice must be specific—not only that the design is patented, but that those articles offered for sale by him have had the design applied thereto with- out the license of the owner of the patent. many sold “Act of February 4, 1887: “Be it enacted, ete That hereafter, during the term of letters patents for a design, it shall be unlawful for any per son other than the owner of said letters license of such owner, patent, without the to apply the design secured by such let ters patent, or any codlorable imitation thereof, to any article of manufacture for the purpose of sale, or to se ll or expose for sale any article of manufacture to which such design or colorable imitation page. shall, without the license of the owner have been applied, knowing that the same has been so applied Any person violat ing the provisions, or either of them, of HERE appears to be a good deal of doubt and misunderstanding in the mind of inventors as to just what ground is covered by a design patent. Al the same time it is not altogether clear to the retail mer- chant just what protection he has against penalties for unintentional and unknowing infringement of a design patent. /t is to clarify this matter that we have asked Mr. Anderson to prepare the article that appears on this the We believe he makes it entirely clear that a design patent is on substantially the same footing as a patent of the more usual variety, while at the same time the innocent third party to an infringement is amply protec ted. THE Epiror. If after the receipt of such a notice the dealer at once ceases the sale of such in- fringing articles he can not be held liable for the penalty. Design patents should be respected quite as much as structural pat- ents, and when one knowingly in- fringed he should be made to answer to owner; but the penalty is only in- curred under the circumstances here noted. has Facts of Importance in Regard to Relief of Eye Fatigue in Industry NSUFFICIENT illumination represents an abuse of the and a careful eyes, liable in the amount dollars: and in him from the manufacture this section shall be of two hundred and fifty case the total profit made by irticles to which as aforesaid, of the article or colorable imitation thereof, has been ip- or sale, the design, or plied, exceeds the sum of two hundred and fifty dollars, he shall be further liable for the excess of such profit two hundred and fifty dol may be re over and above the sum of lars; and the full amount of such liability covered by the owner of the letters patent, to his own use, in any cireuit court of the United States having jurisdiction of the parties, either by action at law or upon a bill in equity for an injunction to restrain such infringement.’ It will be noted that it is unlawful for anyone, other than the owner, without the license of the owner, to apply the design to an article of manufacture for the purpose of sale, or to sell or expose for sale such an article knowing that the design so applied. It is further provided in this section that anyone violat has been ing these provisions shall be liable in the sum of $250, or if the total profit arising from such infringing acts exceeds the sum of $250, he shall be liable for the excess over and above that sum. How shall a dealer know that been applied to an article of manufacture “without the a patented design has license of such owner’? Obviously, in the case of an infringing manufacturer mere knowledge of the exist- ence of the patent of another is sufficient, for if he knows of the existence of the patent and have the license of the owner of that patent, he knows that he is infringing article, without the consent of so far as the manufacturer is concerned it is only neces- wary to prove that the owner of the patent has given to the infringing manufacturer statutory notice as herein- before set forth. It is not necessary to prove that he he does not manufacturing for the purpose of sale an to which the design has been applied the owner of the patent, so that will be sufficient for the penalty of wnt of a design patent it him in order to avoid the payment of $250 to at once take the infringing article off sale and to notify the owner of the patent of that fact. If after the receipt of such notice he makes a sale of an infring- inftringer ing article, even of a single specimen, or offers the same for sale, he will be liable for the penalty. This question came up and was decided by the Circuit Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, in a very able opinion written by Judge Acheson in the case of Gimbel vs. Hogg, 97 Fed. Rep., page 791, wherein the court states: “By the plain terms of the statute, the penalty is in- curred by the seller of an article to which a patented design has been applied without license, only where he sells ‘knowing that the same has been so applied.’ The statutory punishment is for infringing knowingly. Clearly it was not intended to subject to a penalty a vendor acting in good faith and selling in entire igno- rance of any infringement perpetrated by the manufac- turer. For the infliction of the penalty the statute contemplates and requires knowledge by the seller of the unauthorized use of the design by the manufacturer. Such knowledge is not to be imputed to the seller from the ‘notice to the public’ by the marking required of the patentee by Section 4900 of the Revised Statutes.” In the same decision it was held that such notice was sufficient against the manufacturer who applied the design because he must know, if he knew of the patent, that he did not have a license thereunder. The court further stated in that decision: “But the public notice by marking, under Section 4900, gives no information whatever to a seller of an infringe- ment committed by the manufacturer, and that section has no such purpose.” There has been a campaign in recent years, particu- regulation of the illumination in our fae- tories, offices, homes, ete.. should be observed in order to support our eyes in their functioning, says Electrical Review. How ean this best be accomplished? The answer must be: “Study Daylight Effect.” The following specific points are cited: (1) Dark corners should be illuminated with diffused indirect sufficient intensity to prevent excess of con- all illuminated objects in areas surrounding (2) The eyes should not be exposed to direct light sources of any kind. (3) The excess of the yellow light from most of our artificial light sources should be neutralized by blue filters of suitable tint in order to approach daylight color. It is not necessary to ob- tain absolute standard daylight quality as determined spectroscopically, since our light sense overcomes a con- siderable variation of color combinations in the light source without experiencing fatigue. (4) When work is to be done on bright light-reflecting surfaces the illumination should be as much as possible of a grazing incident so that the light rays may not reflect direct into the eyes of the worker. (5) Cheerful surroundings, well illuminated, add a great deal to the comfort of the individual—remember that seeing is a nerve action. (6) Attractive soft color schemes of variety in work- rooms will prove to be refreshing to the eye; monotony in color should be avoided. (7) Neither red walls nor pure white walls are inviting; the former tend to fatigue, the latter glare and tire the eye. Neutral gray as a base color is restful to our eyes, while bright mul- tiple color effects are exciting. (8) Fine detail work does not demand brilliant illumination; a soft velvety light of moderate intensity will prove far more satis factory in order to prevent eye fatigue. For extremely fine detail work optical appliances should be made use of in order to magnify the images of such objects 0B the retina; illumination alone will not suffice. light of trast of them. er ey — JAN! aHL i HIS HOd GALLIAGU NAAM SVH HOIHA dIHS DNVIVAS NVIDAMUON V .LSaANDd., r. Ne NOILIGSdXA OLLOUVINVY MAN S.NOLATMOVHS LSANY oney Layla @2u)l TO anrme nar — "p00 9U] SB NOGD aut

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN January, 1922 2

ae) 3 \, hee PY “Quest” is the ship of the Shackleton Rowett Oceanvgraphical and Antarctic Expedi- tion, led by Sir Ernest Shackleton, and financed by She recently sailed from 30,000 miles, ex One of the unidentified useful as whaling, Others are e on a voyage of ipy two or three years,

objects is to find various doubtful or islands which might be couling, to make a hydro- ocean Sol and for the Air Ministry, or Wireless stations ‘al survey, to obtain ings

meteorological information THE “QUEST,” A NORWEGIAN SEALING SHIP WHICH HAS BEEN REFITTED FOR SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON’S NEW

which provided instruments, balloons, and kites. long, and of about 200 tons. She carries 120 tons The equipment of this little ship is unusually of coal, and has a steaming radius of 9000 miles. complete and should afford the maximum comfort The central drawing shows the details of the ship, to the men engaged in a most interesting work. A und the numbered portions (1 to 10) are illustrated Baby Avro seaplane is carried, as shown in the on a larger scale in the margin with numbers cor- drawing for which we are indebted to the Jllus responding No. 3 (the bathroom) does not appear trated London News. The “Quest” was built in on the central drawing, as it is on the starboard Norway in 1917 for sealing in the White Sea. side. In Sir Ernest Shackleton’s quarters may be Her hull is of stout oak and pine specially de noted a box marked “Open on Christmas Day.” In signed for withstanding ice pressure, and the bows front of the bridge is a brass plate inscribed with are strengthened with steel. She is only 111 feet three verses of Kipling’s poem, “If.” The Sperry \-

hay -s ~ 5

ale ¢ | Eethceetar’ ; a oO oe Body of Avre aeroplane stowed on deck under b (Wings ek slowed on starboard side)

gyro-compass (No. 4) depends for its action on the h’s rotation and the force of gr y It is non-magnetic, and always shows the tru raph- ical north and south. Of the two sounding ma- the Lueas (near the fore mast) is for sta-

ea

chines, tionary deep-sea and hydrographic work, and the Kelvite for “flying” or navigational soundings with the ship in motion. The radio equipment hi range of 1500 miles by day and 3000 miles at night. wings of the air are stowed on the star- board side of the same deck as the body. ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION

en ee a ee ee ee ee |

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JROFESSOR F. H. MARSHALL, of ‘ Lomion, has recently given us than one hundred pages, which will undoubtedly to the general readers * Nearly something of the progfess « Greek lands, and through the University Press we have been en: the pictures from Professor Marshali'’s book. The ¢ xplorations since 1S87¢ naturally fall into well-de fined geographical groups The first group, Northern Greece, begins in 1871 and includes the quarter of Athens near the Diplon gate These excavations were car ried on for twenty years The remains belong to the later prehistoric period, or about 1000-700 EB. C In 873-4 the world was startled because of the striking beau ty of the finds at Tanagra, where an unrivalled series of terra-cotta statuettes was found, for the most part women in their picturesque costumes, Systematic exca vations of the tombs showed that the graves were of sev eral forms. Sometimes rock hewn, sometimes built up of stone slabs; the dead were frequently buried in sarcoph agi, in which the figurines were found with other ob jects. Some of the statu ettes were archaic, but the bulk are of the fourth cen tury B.C. In 1875 we have excavations at Dodona, and in 1892 the Delphi sanctuary in the northern part of Greece both devoted to ora cles. From 1880 to 1886, Dr Henry Schliemann carried on excavations at Orchomenos, and discovered in the latter year a remarkable beehive tomb, Between 1882 and 1887 the Greek Archeological Society completely cleared the temple site at Eleusis, the great center of the mys teries of Demeter and Per- sephone, These excavations have given us some extreme- ly valuable remains A sanctuary oracle of minor importance was that of Am phiaraos which lies among hills near Oropos ; it was ex- cavated between 1884 and ISS7. Part of the temple plan, a long colonnade in which patients probably slept when awaiting the dream- revelations, and a small theater were uncovered. Some of the most impor- tant excavations ever made on the mainland of Greece were those of 1884 upon the Acropolis of Athens. The excavations were begun at the Propylaea and continued round the Acropolis, result- ing in the discovery of a very early “Pelasgic”’ wall To the south of the Erech- theum the remains of an early sixth-century temple, the “Hekatompedon,” or temple one hundred feet in length, came to light. Very important sculptures in soft stone belonging to this early temple were found; these were originally colored, a device which would go far * wants to know and ze tached In Baeotia, Recent Discovery in Greek Lands A Sketch of the Principal Excavations and Discoveries of the Last Fifty Years tT concen site Wus Boeotia on the right temple in 1887-8.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Inscriptions throw temple had the was excavated

Thermos 2S ees

MegylopolL® 7 - ykosurs

ae ~ << Sik you Cana ay oY ‘Arya 2 "aly aN NE )

Deine "or . Na, li aS. Lek Maotnes Pdare = “08 : 4 Neaes Co \ Fe — s } °Oy, spanTa 9 Ayer cad _Kardy: Pearnsseet

principal sites of discoveries in Greek lands, after Marshall

Theater at Pergamon, seen from the north structed, Was in existence from early Greek to Roman It is of peculiar structure, having four interna} normal three. The’ Kabeirj seem to have been deities of a subterranean character, P goblins, whose worship flourished in the island of seotia. At Thebes they are found in the relationship of father and son, as may be objects excavated from the temple, show grotesque scenes and parodies, while several votive objects, such as bells, wheels, figures of bulls, and terra. cotta models of tops, are in- scribed with dedications to the two deities. The most famous oracle of Greece was at Delphi, situ- ated amid rugged mountain scenery in Phokis. Various preliminary excavations were carried out in 1840, 1860-1, 1880-7, but the main excava- tions were conducted by the French School under M. Ho- molle from 1892 to 1903. We first enter the sacred pre. cinct at the southeastern corner of the sacred way, Here on either side were the various offerings made by the different states, such as the bronze bull dedicated by the Coreyrzeans, and the 388 bronze statues erected by the Spartans in commemo- ration of their victory at “Zgospotami. Next came the various “treasuries,” small shrines dedicated by the va- rious cities of the Greek world. Most of these treas- uries are situated near the bend of the sacred way to ward the north. Strabo attributes the great- ness of Delphi to these treas- uries “which peoples and kings founded, and __ into which they placed their ded- icated wealth, and the works of the greatest artists.” True to this description, the treas- ure houses have furnished some interesting sculptures. That of the Sikyonians, built about 580 B. C., has a score of metopes, the sub jects of which are identified by inscriptions—Europa car- ried off by the bull, Helle on the ram, the hunt of the Kalydonian boar, ete. The most striking series is, how- ever, that furnished by the treasury of the Knidians, built about 510 B. C., the facade of which, as restored in the Museum of Delphi, is shown on p. 37. The friez represents on the left an a* sembly of the gods, on the right a combat between the Homeric heroes and Aineas on the Trojan side and Me nelaos and Meryon on the Greek side. They are fight ing over the body of Euphor- bos. In the pediment or tr angular gable is a group representing the legendary struggle of Apollo and Hera kles for the Delphian tripod. The foreground in the illu® tration is occupied by the colossal figure of a seated sphinx, a an offering of the Naxians made in the first half of the sixth ce tury, B. C. It originally stood on a column south

JANUARY, 1922 TESA ATG ar 2 SPER EEE eg t reper’ — Pa, Fe RRP eee

JAN the ! main: Pythi for i Midd Ext 1899 sonia. Ha to th The 1 at My of M Myce! Agam and wealt situa’ from nine consi: —a h and a olis, ' of th vated 1876. to th lies t ne. 1000 closed most this « tombs been | of the side. Oly centel in Eli site f sons, as su many jestic cinct, a bro rivers was € man 1875 ¢ Temp! viousl Frenc Oth -arrie in ch follow Tiryn: Vaphi Corint autho! and w detail. discov list Vv 1892, Ameri older so fa poems We tant 1 on an Ameri in 18% Athen: succee the m ery is ancien Christ. was di “an be walls facade L£rottoe colum! Leay coverie partict also y Troy, as pla and I

Page 37

oman ernal ibeiri icter, nd of y are ly be inple, and Otive eels, erra- e in- IS to ‘le of situ- itain rious were 60-1, "ava- ' the Ho- We pre- tern way. the by 1 as 1 by » 38 by mo- at the pall va- eek -aS- the to- at as- ind nto

January, 1922 the retaining wall of the temple of Apollo. The re- mains of this famous temple of Apollo, in which the Pythia gave the inspired oracles of the god, are scanty, S rifled for building material in the for it was much Middle Ages. : " a : ’ Excavations were made in 1897-1905 at Thermos, in 1899 at Megara, in 1901 at #gina and 1907-8 at Rhit- sonia. Having now finished with Northern Greece, we come to the long list of explorations in the Peloponnesos, The work of the greatest interest is undoubtedly that at Mycenze (1874-6) and Olympia (1875-8). The center of Mycenzan civilization seems clearly to have been Mycenz, famed in the Homeric poems as the home of Agamemnon, who led the great expedition against Troy, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Schliemann and Dérpfeld are too well known to do more than refer to. The excavations at Pergamon are less well known. This city has been compared in its general situation with Edinburgh. The acropolis, which rises nearly a thousand feet, corresponds to Edinburgh Castle; the Hellenistic town at its foot to the Mediaeval part of the Scottish capital, and the Roman city on the outskirts to Edinburgh New Town. The excavation of the acropolis was begun by the Germans in 1878, and the first and most striking discovery was that .of the sculptured slabs of the Great Altar of Zeus. Another structure belonging to this city, the theater, presents a remarkable appearance when viewed from above, and is a good instance of the way in which the Greeks took advantage of a natural slope for theater construction. 37 The Strength of Papers ie a new publication of the Bureau of Standards, Technological Paper No, 194, entitled, “A Prelimin- ary Study of Tearing Instruments—Tearing Test Methods for Paper Testing,” a study is made of the relative effect of different sizes of test samples on the tearing strength of paper. Data are presented to show that the larger the test samples, the greater are the values of tearing strength. There is also taken up a study of two types of tearing instruments on the market, The degree of accuracy of each instrument is determined, and the errors are plotted in the form of curves. In the conclusions, the good and bad qualities of these instruments are discussed at length. This publication is now ready for distribution and anyone interested may ob-

and famed, too, for its wealth in gold. Mycenz is situated on hills which rise from the Argive Plain, some nine miles from the sea. It consists of two distinct parts —a high town, or acropolis, and a lower town. The acrop- olis, Which is the older part of the city, exca- vated by Dr. Schliemann in 1876. Beneath the acropolis to the west and southwest lies the lower city of Myce- ne. Here an area of some 1000 by 275 yards was en- within walls. The most important remains of this city are the “beehive tombs, two of which have been found within the walls of the lower town, five out- was first closed side. Olympia was the great center of Greek athletic life in Elis in the Peloponnese, a site famous for many rea- sons, but perhaps not least : as supplying the theme of many of Pindar’s most ma- jestic odes. The sacred pre- cinct, or Altis, which lies in a broad plain between the rivers Cladeus and Alpheus, was excavated by the Ger- ne

man Government between rae ones a. “# 1875 and 1881, although the er: m™ , iat ee Temple of Zeus had pre- a ETN viously been explored by a French expedition in 1829.

Other excavations were carried on from 1880 to 1909 % in chronological order, as Ae *% y follows: Tegea, Epidauros, ae Tiryns, Mantinea, Lykosura, Vaphio, Megalopolis, Argos, Corinth and Sparta. The author describes each site and what was found there in detail. The most interesting discoveries, perhaps, in this list were those at Argos, 1892, carried out by the American School and the older excavations of Tiryns, : so famous in Homerie pe poems, We find that very impor- tant light has been thrown on ancient Corinth by the American excavations begun

v oh a . ’ " 4 ed t NPG 5 i at ey p ; i <r 7 $ a q vie 7 i &) % ‘s sf tain a copy by addressing a request to the Bureau of Standards until the free stock is exhausted, The Mount Everest Reconnaissance . _ . accounts have come through of the July-August activities of the scientists investing Nature’s mightiest fortress in the hope of taking it by esca- lade. A month was spent in trying the northern and western approaches, eniy to end in the conviction that both faces present insuper- able difficulties to any mate- rial advance. The south side also presented only unclimb able precipices, and the re- maining hopes centered on the east and northeast faces. Breaking camp at Tingri, the adventurers had, in crossing a spur from Chhoe- buk to Rebu, a magnificent view of the northern face of Everest almost encircled by great bands of perpendicu- lar black rock that seem ab- solutely unscalable. Press- ing forward, some fine scen- ery was opened up with a background of = glaciated peaks 23,000 to 24,000 feet high. Two miles down the - ny Arun valley, one of Ever- : j est’s big glacier streams was encountered. Here, on an old river terrace, the new base camp was pitched at more than 12,000 feet. Col. Howard-Bury gives piquant thumb-nail sketches of ¢ neighboring high-level valley with 14 lakes varying from ‘3 black-green to turquoise 4 blue; the ground was car- a peted with many varieties of gentians, with embossed designs in rhododendrons and deep-claret meconopses. On August 2nd Messrs. Bullock and Mallory started to explore the eastern ap- proaches; up to this time photographic surveys and maps had been made cover- ing more than 9000 square miles of new country. The

in 1896 by their school at Athens, and continued in Succeeding years. Perhaps the most interesting discov- ery is that of the famous fountain of Peirene, which an ancient traveler, Pausanias, in the second century, after Christ, described. In 1898 the facade of this Shing was discovered, and the different stages of its building can be traced from the first simple grottoes, with cross walls to support the roof, to the elaborately veneered facade of Roman times, which has in front of the grottoes with Dorie and Ionic half- columns. Leaving the mainland our author deals with the dis- coveries of extraordinary interest made in the islands, particularly Delos, Melos, Crete, and Cyprus. He deals also with the discoveries in Asia Minor at Ephesus, Troy, Pergamon, Priene, Miletus and Sardes, as well 4s places in Syria and Egypt, such as Sidon, Naukratis and Daphne. The excavations of Troy by Drs. arches decorated Naxian sphinx, and restored facade of the Knidian treasury at The location of the various sites will be readily found from the excellent map which accompanies Prof. Mar- shall’s book. He arranges his facts as to discoveries in chapters dealing with the great periods—the earlier prehistoric, the later prehistoric, the earlier historic and the later historic period. There are also chapters on temple sites, and some isolated discoveries. There is also a select bibliography which covers the ground admirably and a chronological list of excavations which we have used as a guide for our all too brief notice, using it to hark back to Prof. Marshall’s text. The book gives in condensed form what the average reader wants to know with all the unnecessary details elim- inated. Other books on archeology so admirably abridged in the treatment of interminable non-essen- tials would be very welcome, explorers were striking for a valley that apparently led direct to Everest; they passed prosperous villages and monasteries that scanned a majestic panorama from Langmala (18,000 feet). Four thousand feet below them lay three giant glaciers, one of which came from Everest. Descending, they pushed forward in the face of great difficulties; ascending again, they found them- selves on a spur immediately opposite Mt. Everest, the ° air filled with the thunder of falling ice as huge masses broke away from the suspended glaciers and plunged into the Kangshung glacier below. The climbers were attempting to discover into which of two valleys the glaciers came down. As to the main issue, the disap- pointing conclusion was reached that the eastern face of Everest afforded no possible means of reaching the summit. The return journey, by another route, led - across the Field of Marigolds, opposite Makalu peaks, Delphi

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certain ned ‘ na ir municipal es toward Promised Land, where bawe | ! mater would «e ‘ b ere ‘ es tl mu be dispose of at large expense, but would be mad wie ible lucts which would | for their dispos ‘ might even show a |! ‘ n the profit de of the ledger Now it appears that what we thought was the Prom ised Land just ahead wus pert ps only a — _ mirage, for an economic condition has if irisen which apparently makes the plan | impossible of success and all of the prog | ress of nearly a half a century along this | line may be wiped out Where is the | mon, or where is the idea, that can save in garbage reduc the $7,500,000 invested operating, which embody Ameri confronted tion plants still the best thought could offer to problem of garbage engineers with a un those disposal? In brief, the present day system of gar- bage reduction (the only system which seeks to turn to economical use the con stituents of garbage) is founded on the thought that some of the contents of garbage are valuable. Destroy this value and the whole system falls. That is what has happened, Garbage ought to be regarded as a liability and not an asset. The problem primarily is to be rid of the garbage as cheaply as possible in an inoffensive man | bones reduction process meets . “ these requirments perfectly, and, as well, \ \ ner. Normally the salvages the useful material present _—_— The principal material salvageable from garbage is grease For the ten yeurs prior to the war this grease found a ready market among soap and candle makers The value of garbage grease reached a peak during the War and it seemed as if the success of the scheme was certain. But since the signing of the armistice this country has been flooded with millions of pounds of oils from the Orient, Must We Solve Anew SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN A Garbage Crisis By Harry A. Mount ‘ mas to whether reduction is the best method of rt buge dispos But the idea has been steadily gain- ound in the past few years and with improvement n machinery and methods it has shown steadily better esults rhe system as it is usually carried out con- sists in “digesting the garbage by steam cooking un- er pressure in large tanks This breaks down the terials so that the greuse can be extracted. The solids which re e partially dehydrated and sold s “tunkuge” for use as fertilizer. the Problem of the Disposition of Domestic Wastes ? in addition to the grease, 60,000 tons of fertilizer, suf. ficient to grow a 3,000,000 bushel wheat crop.” W. J. Springborn, a noted authority on garbage dig. posal, estimates that under normally favorable condi- tions, the reduction system might be expanded to ee nomically care for the garbage from all American Cities of more thi 100,000) population. From there could be about 135,000,000 pounds of grease and 265,300 tons of fertilizer, the combined value of which would be nearly $11,000,000. The railroads would receive nearly $2,000,000 for haul- in these recovered \ early ing the grease and fertilizer and another $725,000 for freight on and other supplies needed by the plants. As a matter of fact, during the war even better results than were ob- tained from our army cantonments. The situation most here, how- ever, the collection, etc., of the garbage could be most closely controlled. In spite of the fact that wher. ever a good dumping place could be found (as a large body of water) no attempt was made at reduction, the sale of the camp wastes developed a revenue of more than $1,000,000 a year. At this writing twenty-four large gar- bage reduction plants are still in opera- tion in this country, many others having shut down. Of these plants, fourteen are owned by municipalities, as follows: Chi- cago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Indianapo- coal these was favorable, because separation, lis, Washington, Rochester, Columbus, Syracuse, Dayton, Bridgeport, New Bed- ford, Wilmington, Del., Reading, and Schenectady. The remaining ten are Top view of garbage digesters The optimism with which the process was generally from the following para- 1919 by the Depart- regarded may be surmised graph from a bulletin issued in ment of Agriculture: “Several important sources of recoverable fats and oils are still Dverlooked in this country. One of the promising of these is city garbage. Some idea of the total amount of grease that might be recovered from our domestic wastes may be gained from the actual yield of 4,000,000 pounds from the reduction plant operated by the city of Chicago. Armour & Company operated as private enterprises and dis- pose of the garbage of one or more cities each on a contract basis. In addition to numerous plants have closed down all over the country. A great plant on Staten Island, constructed by private enterprise at a cost of more than $3,000,000, to dispose of the garbage from these, New York City, has recently been sold as junk for $225,000. The immediate prospect is most uninviting. What is to be done? Cities must continue to dispose of their garbage in as nearly as possible an inoffensive manner regardless of the merits of the several systems of disposal or the economic situation. It would seem at first thought that great and tallow from South America, produced in these countries so cheaply that competition.with them is impossible These products have the additional ad- vantage that they are cleaner than garbage grease and therefore do not have to be so thor oughly processed by the soap or candle maker. The South American tallow sup- plies candle makers with a first-rate product at a minimum of cost and the soap maker has his choice of such Ori- ental products as soy bean oil, non-edible fish oils, and wool grease. These come chiefly from China, Japan, Korea, Man- ehuria, and India. In the ten years from 1905 to 1914, in- clusive, garbage reduction plants had no difficulty in disposing of their garbage grease at an average price of 44%4c a pound, During the war, two or three times that much could be had and the demand greatly exceeded the supply. Now the best price obtainable is from 14% c to 2c a pound (dependent on qu ility and distance it: must be hauled), and there is httle or no market at any price. This fact, coupled with other unfavorable made it impossible to reduction plant except circumstances, has operate a garbage hog farms might solve the garbage prob- lem for large cities. It is pretty generally a practise among smaller American cities to feed the garbage to hogs. Rudolph Her- ring, a New York engineer, who has been the most prolific writer on the subject of garbage disposal, has this to say of hog feeding in a book just off the press: “The method of disposal by feeding to hogs has spread to many cities. With pork at present prices, garbage will pro- duce from $7 to $8 in value per ton. Thus for communities where the garbage can be properly collected and controlled, no other method shows equally high returns.” It ought to be noted that the last quali- fying sentence almost always limits the usefulness of hog feeding to small cities because it is impossible to control and col- lect properly the garbage in large cities, or at least because only part of such gar- bage is useful for hog feeding. Further- more, it has been pretty definitely proven that garbage is not the best food for hogs under any circumstances and that garbage at a large loss. This means that all of the privately owned plants which have not already shut down will soon have to do so, and sooner or later the municipal plants must follow their example. The tragedy is not so much in the money loss in- volved as in the fact that the state of the art will be There is no other method set back a good forty years widely accepted of garbage disposal whi « been satisfactory. It is true that there are methods of garbage disposal are much more widely used than as now in use which reduction, but these are admittedly makeshift methods or of doubtful economic value. It is true, also, that there is a great diversity of they appear from below The digesters as contracted to buy this quantity of grease from the city at a price of 11.57 pound in 1918 and the KXmery Candle Co. pays 13.5 cents a pound for a sim- ilar grease obtained from Washington garbage. It has been stated by an authority on the subject of garbage disposal that 30,000,000 pounds, over $3,000,000 worth of grease, which could be converted into 4,400,000 pounds of nitroglycerine and almost 40,000 twelve-ounce cakes of soap, goes to waste in 24 hours in our large alone. If this garbage from a combined popu- lation of 5,000,000 were properly utilized, we would get, cents a cities fed hogs are particularly susceptible, be cause of lowered vitality, to cholera and other This introduces into the business of hog feeding a gambling element that increases as the size of the herd and the size of the city furnishing the garbage increases. In spite of these facts several large cities now feed their garbage to hogs, notably Albany, Denver, New Haven, Providence, Springfield, Mass., and Worcester. Many other cities feed to hogs only the diseases. choice parts of the garbage, such as is secured from : hotels and restaurants, and dispose of the remainder in some other way. About the only other methods of garbage disposal are JANUARY, 1929 St ASS ES | aaah eras. PTS ty sal te ed Ban atta PS a

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1922 suf- dis. »ndi- eco- ities here s of alue rads aul. ther ther war ob- The Ow- ion, sely her- und npt ore '_ = = ol = we ee me i JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 395 to dump the waste into some large body of water, throw it on a dump, bury it, and burn it. New York City now utilizes the first of these methods and hauls its gar- bage to sea and dumps it. But inland cities usually have to choose some other method; and even New York finds the method of dumping at sea not entirely sat- isfactory, since the barges must go on a long and expensive ocean voyage, or the city’s chickens will come home to roost in the form of garbage-strewn beaches. As a matter of fact, on some of the ocean- front near the big city the volume of tidally deposited garbage is right now a serious problem. In some cases the garbage is plowed un- der in fields as fertilizer. But the imme- diate value of garbage as fertilizer is far below what a chemical analysis might in- dicate because most of the plant food present is not immediately available as moving upward and is about to start downward—marking this point on the pen- cil. Approximate top dead center is thus vouchsafed. The propeller is now turned over in a forward direction until the pencil or scale has moved down so that the mark is even with the top edge of the hole, using the pencil in marking the disk in line with one of the pointers, The engine is given af backward motion until the pencil has moved up and down until the mark is again even with the spark plug hole, the§ disk being marked in line with the pointer. A pair of dividers will reveal the point} between the two pencil marks on the disk. Such point denotes the exact dead center of Nos. 1 and 6 cranks, the propeller being} turned until the point just discovered is under the right pointer. Without moving the propeller, the flange is loosened as well as thumbscrews, and the disk is turned by} such. It must first go through a long process of decay. And then, if the gar- bage contains much grease, this may clog up the pores of the soil with the effect of stopping the free circulation of air and water, and thus the garbage may even become a detriment to the soil. Incineration is one of the oldest methods of garbage disposal, and in many respects one of the most promis- ing. This hypothetical new Moses of the Garbage Can might well take a lesson from the Moses of old, for it is recorded that during the exodus from Egypt Moses ordered that all offensive and unclean waste be taken outside the camp and burned, Moses, however, would have wondered at the modern incinerating plants which not only provide a sanitary method of garbage disposal, but by burning the garbage under boilers develop energy in excess of the needs of the plant. The amount of energy available is not great because most of the steam thus generated must be used to dry the garbage before it can be burned. However, steam from such a plant operates a pumping plant for the city of Milwaukee, and the city of Savannah pumps part of its water supply in this manner. There is at least one small installation where this excess steam is turned into electric energy. The chief difficulty with incineration is that the fumes from the burning garbage are likely to create » public nuisance. The city of New Bedford, Mass., recently had an experience of this sort. New Bedford until recently disposed of its garbage by reduction, but when the plant began losing large sums of money, an attempt was made to economize by installing a dryer so that garbage could be burned under the digester tank boilers. The fumes inspired such a protest from citizens that the plan was quickly abandoned. Incinerating furnaces for the purpose of disposing of garbage with no idea of deriving therefrom any useful product or energy have been highly perfected. They consist usually of a coal fire beneath a grate on which the garbage is spread to dry, the dried material finally being fed into the fire and burned. To the potential Moses of the garbage can, the writer has these suggestions as to methods of attacking the problem of economical garbage disposal : 1. Find some new use for garbage grease so that there will be a steady market for this product. 2. Find a method of overcoming the fumes from burn- ing garbage so that the excess calorific value of garbage might be turned into useful energy with- New timing disk for airplane motors; B and C are the thumbscrew and flange by means of which it is attached and operated New Timing Disk Reduces a Day’s Work into a Few Minutes BVIATING the removal and replacement of pro- pellers, radiator shells and radiators, the labor- saving feature of a new timing disk designed and built by the engineering department of the United States Air Service at Post Flying Field, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, mer- its immediate recognition and widespread popularity. Specifically, the instrument was invented for use on Liberty motors, but by slight modifications it is adapt- able on airplane engines of any design. The spindle of this disk is provided with tapers and an expansion fea- ture, adjustable to fit into the hub of all Liberty motors. The expansion of the spindle is possible by thumb screws. Freedom to revolve around the spindle is per- mitted the disk itself until the flange is screwed up, jamming the disk against the back flange, which is sta- tionary on the spindle. Pointers are adjusted 45 degrees apart, indicating the center line of piston travel. Wash- ers and nuts secure the indicator into position. Vertical position for the indicator is insured by a pendulum rod. For the sake of convenience, the indicator is cut into three sections and the ends are threaded so these will screw into another. It can be assembled in the absence of wrenches or tools. The disk is marked every 120 degrees, the notation being the point of top dead center, the crank shaft having three throws of 120 degrees. Valve and ignition timing is checked by calibrated de- grees on each side of these 120-degree marks. Instructions from the Air Service include specific directions for using this timing disk. The tail of the ship is raised, not an absolute requirement, but one giv- ing the pendulum of the instrument full action. The spindle is shoved into the hole of the propeller hub, the adjustable screw being turned witil a tight fit is insured. Forthwith the thumbscrew is relieved and the flange is screwed back, thereby permitting the disk to circumvent the spindle. The removal of at least one spark plug from each cylinder facilitates turning of the propeller. The top dead center of a cylinder, say, No. 6, is then discovered by inserting a pencil or scale into the spark- plug hole and turning the propeller until the piston, by upward stroke, touches the pencil or scale and causes it to ride up. Continue to turn the engine over slowly until the piston, as directed by pencil or scale, stops hand until one of the 120-degree marks coincides with the pointer. Screw down the flange and thumbscrews and actual operation is in order. Subsequently, all the knowledge essential in timing the motor is that of recognizing when the valves open and close with reference to tops and bottom dead center. Once having timed the motor, the disk is subject to removal by loosening the expan-] sion screw and extracting the spindle from the propelier§ hub. Former designs of timing disks involved a day’sfl labor, whereas the recent invention accomplishes an equal task within a few minutes. Elevator Interlocks N connection with the safety work of the Bureau of Standards, a survey has been made of many elevators§ located in several large cities with an idea of analyzing elevator accident statistics as bearing upon the use of safety interlocks. It has been shown that 73.8 per cent of all fatal accidents in connection with elevators which have doors to the shafts could be eliminated by the use of well-designed interlocks. The report has been pre- pared in the form of Technologic Paper No. 202 of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, How Sensitive Is Dynamite? INING coal—hazardous occupation that it is—in volves the use of explosives in tunneling for the winter's fuel supply. Frequently a cartridge of explo-f sive becomes lodged in a drill hole and in foreing the§ charge of nitroglycerin or other form of dynamite to the# base of the opening, ramming may be resorted to, an} exigency that is likely to result in premature combus-§ tion unless the frictional resistance of the particular explosive is known. Such advance knowledge may now be ascertained by consulting a machine designed by the United States Bureau of Mines and adapted for use at its explosive experiment station near Bruceton, Pa. A shoe, a pendulum, and an anvil are the three essen- tial parts of the apparatus which lend themselves to easy introduction to the layman in a new guise. The swinging steel shoe, which may be shod with hardwood fiber or a product of more forceful impact, exerts itsel in a pendulum-like fashion from varying heights on a steel anvil which contains and exposes the charge off explosive. Smooth-faced, like the anvil of the immortal village blacksmith, to the extent of having a surface 3% inches wide and 12 inches long, in the middle ar to be found three grooves for holding th | | : | | ; | out creating a nuisance, 8. And, failing in these, find a way to convince a most skeptical world that any method of garbage disposal not yet tried is worth trying. Aerofoil Data RECENT paper of the National Ad- i visory Committee for Aeronautics, “The Minimum Induced Drag of Aero- foils,” by Max M. Munk, helps to explain the phenomenon of flight. It contains some theorems concerning the arrange- ment of airplane wings which are of con- siderable practical interest. In_ particu- lar, it shows the theoretical reasons for the decrease of drag which accompanies all increase in the aspect ratio or lateral extension of a wing. The efliciency of a given arrangement of wings may be cal- culated from the formule in this paper. A copy of this paper, which may be or- dered as Report No. 121, may be obtained object of the test. The steel shoe has af sway—that is, a radius of swing—of 6 feet# 6% inches and the curvature of its beard less face is 1014 inches. Weights rangin from 2.2 to 44 pounds are employed ing varying the force of the blow, the shoe being dropped from heights of 19.7 to 78 inches, Some explosives have yielded t« the impact of the shoe when shod witt wood fiber, while other combustible mate - rial is less sensitive even when’ poundec with harder substances, Explosives recognized for use in mines according to the 1920 permissible list of the Bureau of Mines, number 179 as com pared with 162 in 1919. Thirty-four nev explosives were admitted on the approved scheduJe, while 17 previously sanctiones wer ricken from the list. A digest of the” ules, regulations, and practices gov erning the testing of explosives has beer prepared, and all may obtain the report upon application to the Pittsburgh Exper iment Station of the Bureau of Mines, S upon request from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Pendulum friction machine for determining the sensitiveness of explosives Pittsburgh, Pa.

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10 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 ree ens oes conss'onae, tact thle port ts the New York’s Proposed Be ene ERGO MIOTENERS CF 1 piace a burden of waste and éolay on Substituting Direct Rail Connection for Costly Car-Float and Lig]

the interior states in their i ‘ se of their products at - Will; 77 SUNEET Maa” Geniacin steiever sents te beac tab eon oboe By Willian J. Wile in jure s eflicien ‘ f lense nd defense n cn ae alee a) sine a siete ee acy omeagpsr Npaaaae “asm ge proportion of the enormous tonnage that now ——— In the earlier years of the ne era of transportation this was not Railroad and a proposed new crosstown connection between the Bronx roads. The outstanding success of the Termina found to be a serious disadvantage: but conditions changed with the and Manhattan, the plan is rounded out and all the railroads on both of St. Louis has prompted the suggestion tha enormous growth of traific and the marked increase in the size of ships Some 75,000,000 tons of railroad freight now pass to, from and Pm through the port each year, and in so doing must cross the congeste« surface of the waters that se parate the various parts of the city from each other and from the mainland on the west The wastefulness « f this process can be best illustrated by com paring it with the confusion, delays and excessive costs that would RE. LACKAWANWA & A =_ reign in u great railroad terminal, where different gages of the main ae line and yard tracks would necessitate the transferring of car contents and car bodies in transit, within sight of their final destination, a condition too absurd for serious consideration Another development has accentuated these evils, namely, the phe nomenal industrial and commercial growth of the New Jersey shore, brought about by the presence of the railroad terminals on that side of the water. What once affected the City of New York alone, now is a matter of the utmost concern to the two states, whose dividing line is the middle of the Hudson River and the Kills, from the southern tip of Staten Island to the northern limits of The Bronx Thus it will be seen that with the mutations of time three elements have conspired to threaten the continued preeminence of the port of New York: (1) The apathy of its citizens who, like the fabled hare, have not realized that in greatness lurks the seed of its own decay—an o’erweening confidence in the maintenance of su premacy without effort (2) The presence of a physical barrier of the first magni tude between the rail termini on the New Jersey mainland and the island city of New York; and (3) The existence of the boundary between the states which politically separate the two parts of a common port Of these the first and last are the hardest to overcome Cenre Happily, the outlook is bright for remedying these evils, provided Wooo EL/ZABETH AL ‘ ae P ‘ 7 ‘ words are promptly and effectively translated into action For in CENTRAL FAX / 7 4 . ° stunce, there is widespread recognition of the need for reform if New York is to hold her own in competition with rival routes, includ ing the proposed Great Lakes—St. Lawrence ship canal project Also, the two states are uniting in the building of a unique twin-bore tunnel beneath the North River, for affording vehicular access be tween lower Manhattan and Jersey Cit) Furthermore, laws have been enacted by the two states creating a port authority for the uni fied improvement and administration of the port as a whole, which, suitably amended in the future, should accomplish its high purpose, Finally, a New York State law has been passed which directs the City, within two years, to start the construction of a freight and passenger tunnel under The Narrows between the boroughs of Brook lyn and Richmond (Staten Island), the rental for which shall be y sufficient to pay interest charges and amortization. Ate It is with the last mentioned project that this article has prin — Sa a RARLTAN BAY cipally to do, as the requirement that the tunnel shall be self-sup porting has forced the City to look beyond its borders for prospective «a4 users the railroads that serve the port ill of whom, it is believed Pant tO i: may be brought to the portals of the tunnel if it can be shown to ‘ ; them that the advantages of so doing will warrant their uniting in the building of a Metropolitan Belt Railway that will put them all in direct rail communication with each other and with all five bor

Map of Greater New York, showing how-the proposed Belt Line will intersect the railroads coming in from the Sou oughs of the city i facility of this kind will by-pass a inland to any pier or warehouse in New York, thereby effecting a great saving ™ time and |; It wil! at once be seen that

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JANUARY, 1922 posed Belt Railway SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 41 Float and Lighter Transfer Between Rail, Warehouse and Dock Villiam J. Wilgus SS should be made between all the railroads of the 2 many years chief engineer of the New York Central planning of the vast system of docks and railroads in eat effort of our Expeditionary Army in 19/8. communication and terminal and dock facilities gives ‘oday, the transferring of a car of freight from the Jersey costs gs much as it does to bring that freight from points 2 conditions affect the interests of the people, not only of every city throughout the United States.—EpiTor. port, under which they would jointly construct the portion of the proposed railway that lies in New Jersey, jointly lease the sections that are within the limits of the metropolis, and afford service to the users of such joint facilities at rates that will suarantee the payment of operating expenses and fixed charges, and no more. The experience of other ports and important commercial centers is in harmony with the claims that are made in behalf of the plan here set forth. Montreal, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, His long San Francisco and Chicago, as well as St. Louis, with each five y are brought into rail contact 1 proposed future improvements in all York ; ’ iin the growing industrial regions sight for this project is between 20,000,000 V, Without including the anticipated great mfidently expected to flow from partially port and industrial facilities. The annual such a vast traffic by this direct all-rail z tortuous combined rail and water routes, cess of fixed charges and amortization on nt, liberally estimated at something less h this comprehensive plan may be realized tween the city of New York and the rail- cess of the Terminal Railroad Association the suggestion that a similar agreement all voice the decided opinion that the belt railway is the backbone of their transportation layout, and. essential to their SUCCESS, So there appears to be every reason why the railroads should unite with the city of New York in taking advantage of the Narrows tunnel act to remedy many of the evils from which the greatest port in the world is suffering by reason of its physical disabilities. The careful detail analysis that has been made of the proposed belt railway demon- that the project will. much more than pay its way out of savings, and in addition bring many priceless benefits to a variety of strates interests. The port as a whole, including the railroads that serve it, will profit from the removal of abuses that threaten to divert trade to rival routes; the city of New York, in all its boroughs, will enjoy the ad- vantage, now denied it, of direct rail contact with all the railroads of the port, with resultant stimulation of dormant areas, appreciation of property values, growth of trade and commerce, and lessened conges- tion, delays and cost in connection with the supply of food and fuel. . P gheees aor > * (, R,7 = ae 4 — Rockaway Btace ing in from the South and West. This will render it possible to run a carload of eight direct from points aving ™ time and labor over the present. system of transfer by car-float and lighter The commercial, manufacturing and shipping interests will gain through better liaison between the car and the facility it serves; and the federal Government will secure improved prospects of modern terminals for its merchant marine, the surety of more economical oper ation of the railroads in which it is vitally concerned, and a valuable factor in defense of the city and nation in time of war. Too much emphasis can not be laid on the last item, World War it is a matter of common knowledge that Paris, and there- fore the allied cause, was saved on several through the presence of the Grande Ceinture (Outer Belt) over which troops and supplies were poured from many directions to crucial points without having to pass through congested centers. Certainly we do not wish again to find ourselves some day in Washington's predicament when he lost the Battle of Long Island in 1776. Our national safety demands that means should be provided, without delay, whereby for defensive purposes a modern army with its supplies may be quickly drawn from points in the interior and concentrated on Long Island or on These same means, in the case During the occasions many the north shore of Long Island Sound. of offensive operations, will spare us from the possibility of disaster which came so near to us when the existing facilities at New York broke down during the late war. Certainly the need for this great engineering work is urgent in the extreme, and calls for effective action by all the interests named in support of the start that has been so promptly made by the city of New York in compliance with the mandate of the State. Studying the Flight of Flies HE marking and 234,000 flies by expert Government entomologists in order that these scientists might study in detail peculiarities in fly behavior which previously had never been investi- gated thoroughly is one of the remarkable undertakings and accomplishments of recent years so far as “bugologists” are concerned. Federal representatives of the National Bureau of Entomology have officiated as modern fly and insect detectives in these novel experiments, whose objects have been to determine how various species of economic insects were distributed and how knowledge con- cerning the intimate daily doings of the winged pests could be used release of most cops advantageously in developing efficacious control and eradication measures. The varieties of flies which affect man and animals are largely distributed by natural dispersion through ordinary flight. These unique fly tests were started in order that practical data might be had which could be interpreted in terms of the spread of fly-borne diseases as well as to provide accurate data regarding the proper ioca- tion of dumps, incinerators, hog feeding stations and other favorable fly breeding grounds, so that the menace to surrounding towns, cities and rural districts would be avoided. House flies may travel anywhere from one mile to 50, or even 100 miles, in their journeyings about. Observations made at the Rebecea Light Shoal off the coast of Florida show that flies occasionally migrate to that point from Cuba, a distance of 95 miles, while fly visitors from Key West, only 46 miles away, are relatively common, The federal fly investigations have been carried on chiefiy in north- The flies were captured by baiting large conical fly traps ern Texas. The traps were exposed with packing house products of strong odor, in places which teemed with flies for anywhere from 4 to 24 bours and then screened cylinders were placed around the fly traps, the covers of the traps were removed, and then they were agitated until the flies were driven into the cylinders, The free ends of the cylinders were then covered with cheesecloth and they were conveyed expedi- tiously to the point of liberation, where the cylinders, one at a time, were slipped into a special canvas bag containing one or two ounces of finely powdered red chalk or paint pigment, which was thoroughly sprinkled over the captive flies so as to mark them definitely for future identification. The flies were then liberated. Yellow chalk and rosulic acid were not satisfactory for marking the flies, red chalk and red pigment being the best materials for this purpose. The flies flew away immediately after release from their paint-box prisons, most of them speeding with the wind or at right angles to its course. In order to ascertain the distance of dissemination, a large number of conical traps 18 inches in diameter were placed at varying distances in different directions from the points of liberation. These traps were baited with strong-smelling by-products which would attract the flies. The flies collected in these recovery traps were killed daily and counted, and the number of marked flies determined. In case the coloring matter could not be seen with the naked eye, microscopes were used which invariably would favor the identification of all the experi- mental flies in each lot, It is notable that over 64 per cent of the total number of marked flies recovered were captured again within 24 hours after liberation. Most of these flies previous to capture traveled at right angles to a wind that was traveling at a velocity of from 138 to 24 miles an hour. These experimental results show that for some unexplained reason the flies of all species failed to be recovered in the traps south of the points of liberation in numbers in proportion to those recaptured in the traps placed in the other directions. These tests also showed that the flies travel with a fair degree of speed, as they cover the first 1000 feet from their place of release in a few minutes. The common house fly will cover from 5 to 9 miles about two days imme diately after release. The tendency of the flies was to travel In a westerly direction, 77 per cent of them being recaptured in traps placed in that direction. The stimuli which was largely responsible for the wide dispersion of the house flies were the desire for food and the desire for places where ggs could be deposited. The fact that in their flights the house flies passed many towns, farms and other favorable places for feeding and eg breeding indicates that they possess marked migratory habits.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1922 Lessening Lumber Losses Some of the Ways in Which Wood Wastes Are Saved and Put to Work By George H. Dacy “age RE are two w — a een wooden material of large sizes exposed to which we can c nue - constant weathering. There are now more vou! requirement I > ” than 85,000,000 railroad ties in use in this me of these sto grow z country which have not been treated with wher altern ‘ oO Use e effe é 2 : protective overcoatings of creosote, zine he supplies now é Wi en } chloride, or other suitable preservatives in hat our remaining 127,000,000 ‘ order to protect them against decay. For- irgin forest ire cut in + t« . est Service tests show that untreated naintain the productivity of the land, a r ; crossties only last an average of 7.5 years, hat our 81,000,000 res of wh dle, whereas treated ties are serviceable for 15 and our 235,000,000 acres of part it years or longer. If all railroad ties used orest lands are put to worl Further in this country were annually treated in nore we must see that, of the 24 billion this manner—the cost per tie is not large ubic feet removed from the forests « h | a saving of more than 1,500,000,000 ear, 70 to 75 per cent no longer goes to board feet of valuable hardwood lumber waste in the form of sawdust, sl would result. If all wood used in the ind other mill refuse—that more than United States which is exposed to decay > to 30 per cent is put to some use were similarly armored, the annual saving It is only during the last few years would aggregate over 6,000,000,000 board feet, equivalent to 20 per cent of our an- nual lumber cut. This would go a long way toward saving our forests. About 15 per cent of the annual lumber cut is now used in making boxes and crates, the bulk of which are unsatisfac- tory in shape, size or strength. The Na- hat any great amount of technical and wientific study has been devoted to wood n this country Thousands of experts wreviously had devoted their energies to he solution of problems related to steel, ~oncrete, oll and rubber industries, but ood which was more complex and intri “ate than any of these wus neglected he eee ee nen ame —— . . .. tional Forest Service has devised efficient lence about a decade ago Uncle Sam and Creosoting posts, poles and railroad ties to prevent decay testing methods and systems of standard- iis skilful foresters, appreciating the vital izing these containers so that a good many need for more knowledge about wood, plunged into the the red heartwood was inferior to the white sapwood millions of doliars worth of freight will be rescued from ask of research and investigative work in search of Government tests have demonstrated the error of this repetitions of previous disasters during transit, while nowledge nugg which would permit of our more assumption and have effected great savings in the hick- large amounts of lumber which previously have been ‘ficient utilization of our timber supplies. The results ory industry wasted—so far as satisfactory container service was ire that more than a half million tests have been made Heretofore, time and money have been wasted in dry- concerned—will be saved. During a recent year, our m 149 different kinds of native woods at the federal ng and seasoning green lumber by natural air exposure domestic railroads paid out over $100,000,000 for Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin methods. The federal foresters have speeded up these freight lost and damaged during shipment due to faulty These make it possible to substitute accurate facts and long-drawn-out natural processes of curing by the boxes and crates. White pine alone formerly was used igures for previous guesswork in utilizing wood for the mechanical use of dry kilns, and now more than 35 largely for containers, but now as a result of govern- housand and one purposes for which its strength, elas different kinds of woods such as Douglas fir, spruce, ment experiments, 40 different kinds of wood are used, icity, toughness and other mechanical properties southern yellow pine, gum and oak can be dried in short many of which are thinner and stronger and reduce car mdaupt it. In some cases this means merely finding a periods at low cost. An annual saving of more than and cargo space from 10 to 40 per cent—to say nothing we for something always heretofore discarded in $5,000,000 has already been effected despite that the of the direct economy of material. ‘thers it involves actual new processes of treatment use of the new methods is still infantile in extent as As a result of the prevalent practice of cutting small *xtending the use of a particular variety of wood measured in terms of the countrywide industry. For dimension material from finished lumber instead of Grading rules for the building trades have been example, it used to take one to two years of air drying from the logs, large wastes occur in the handle, spoke, forked out as a result of experiments on the strength to season Douglas fir so that it was adapted for certain chair, furniture, toy and agricultural implement indus- f southern yellow pine and Douglas fir which now manufacturing uses. Now this work can be accom- tries. In the furniture business, from 40 to 60 per cent make it possible to secure as great structural strength plished under kiln drying systems in one-month. In of the raw lumber is frequently wasted. Some hickory n construction by the use of 20 per cent less material other industries, kiln drying has reduced the loss of handle factories report that not infrequently it takes than was formerly employed. rhis discovery alone material from 60 per cent to less than 2 per cent, while two tons of lumber to produce 400 pounds of satisfac- means a saving of about $40,000,000, if all contractors shortening the seasoning period at least 40 per cent. tory handles. Experts say that a saving of about will practice it Formerly, untold millions of feet of \ heavy call on our available forest stocks is made — 6,000,000,000 board feet a year can be effected if only Waluable hickory have been wasted because the handle annually in the replacement of decayed railroad ties, all the lumber which is now wasted by the industries und spoke manufacturers have assumed erroneously that mine and bridge timbers, poles, posts, piling and other could be saved and used as small dimension stock, —E UF 7 - Left: Douglas fir wing-beams for airplanes being kiln dried and seasoned in thirty days, against two years required by old processes. “".«t: Pickling posts in creosote to protect them from the ravages of insect pests Making our supply of wood stretch out further thafi in the past | JANU. The built-u proved tical n wood 1 is prol felled. says in p45) per mill, 5 in cony Moreov forests second to secu iain So and of second- miter: suilt-u lds a nd ot! wer, cts 1s ervice: that th wood it when t jected | made ol exist.” Wood if the « basis fe now be writing paints, ° acetylen quotes |! paper s industry put val over 6,0 1,000,004 spruce, balsam ods for garded ; paper pl lished. South is paper p marked to enabl in mixti producti have bee Studie the U. § potential 000,000 wood am Which jn our fore hull fiber zation f shown tl 200,000. t high gra are now productic sale valu Wood 1 several « the destr tate of li and gives acid, ace materials wood ane tion of w furnishes misfits of uct of the which is smelting manufact ing mate! refineries. Former considere¢ for the n cent inv that oak, just as e methods

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JANUARY, 1922 of im- the discovered presented by perfection built-up of construction and proved by the U. S. Forest Service—indicate one prac- tical means of plugging the largest leak in the field of wood utilization. The history of the average saw log is prolific in tales of waste from the time the tree is felled. Mr. S. T. Dana, prominent forest savs in this regard: “Of the wood 25 per cent is now lost in the woods, 40 per cent at the The potentialities methods economist, in the forest, some mill, 5 per cent in seasoning and from 5 to 10 per cent in converting the raw lumber into the finished product. replacement of our magnificent virgin poorly formed, often defective making it increasingly difficult The problem is to ascer- the small-sized, Moreover, forests by mnd-growth trees is to secure high grade material. ‘ain some way of utilizing the 75 per cent now wasted from our inferior Se and of making the low-grade material econd-growth forests do the work for which high-grade | has heretofore been regarded as indispensable. miterial suilt-up construction, by making possible the use of lids and ends from low-grade lumber, slabs, edgings nd other material now wasted may furnish the an- wer. One of the striking features about built-up prod- cts is that if properly made they are not only fully as ervicenble as similar articles made of solid wood, but that the glued joints are ordinarily stronger than the wood itself. Their chief weakness rests in the fact that when they are constantly immersed in water or sub- jected to alternate drying and wetting, they must be made of waterproof glue, a material which does not yet eXIst Wood is the most wonderful material in the if the diversity of products emanating from it is any basis for judgment. Products derived from wood are now being employed in the manufacture of news and writing paper, linoleum, artificial silk, gunpowder, paints, varnishes, soaps, inks, celluloid, sausage casings, acetylene, chloroform and iodoform, Again the writer quotes Mr. Dana, who told him that 90 per cent of our paper supply is now made from wood: “The paper industry employs 110,000 persons, has an annual out- put valued at $850,000,000, and each year over 6,060,000 cords of wood, the product of more than 1,000,000 acres of forest. Over 60 per cent of this is and the majority of the remainder balsam and poplar. In the wrapping paper field, meth- ods for utilizing the southern yellow pines, hitherto re- garded as unsuitable for the commercial production of paper pulp, have been developed and the industry estab- of the largest lumber companies in tae South is now turning its woods and mill waste into paper pulp at the rate of 60 tons a day. Recently marked progress has been made in working out methods to enable the use of southern pines, such as shortleaf, in mixture with hardwoods such red gum for the production of book paper, and already these methods world consumes hemlock, spruce, lished. One as have been introduced into one extensive mill.” Studies are now under way under the direction of the U. S. Forest Service designed to consummate the potential salvage of material worth more than $16,- 000,000 now lost each year through the decay of pulp wood and wood pulp while in storage. Another avenue which promises partly to cork up the annual drain on our for pulp emanates from the of hull fiber and second-cut cotton linters and their utili- zation for paper pulp Experiments have shown that these materials, there are about 200,000 tons available each ye: into high grade paper. Several forests wood use purposes, of which ir, can be converted large plants SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Mechanical glue-spreader used in the manufacture of plywood greatly improved and the amount of alcohol obtained from a given amount of wood has been increased from 10 to 15 per cent by better control of the temperature and the use of less fuel. Fifty per cent increased yields of alcohol have recently resulted by adding sodium c¢ar- honate in the form of chips or sawdust briquettes to the wood, New apparatus for studying steel under the in- fluence of an intense magnetic field The naval-stores industry can be saved only by per- petuating our forests, but it can be prolonged by devis- ing methods of tapping which will give larger yields with less injury to the trees. A new system of tapping developed by the Forest Service experts has already effected a saving of more than $4,000,000 a year. Under 43 this system, 20 per cent more gum can be obtained, the deterioration of the timber is much less and the danger from fire is greatly decreased. Potentially, it is antic- ipated that present methods will be so modified that the lives of the trees will be greatly prolonged. Sawdust and mill wastes can noW be used on a prac- tical in the manufacture of grain alcohol, the sawdust being hydrolized by treatment with a weak acid and then cooked so that its cellulose is converted into sugar. Yeast is then added, which ferments the sugar and finally produces alcohol which can be sep- arated from the rest of the solution by distillation, One ton of dry, coniferous wood like Douglas fir or southern 25 gallons of 05 per scale yellow pine will yield from 20 to cent alcohol, Chemists and foresters predict that shortly gcrain aleohol will be one of our important motor fuels. Already some resort to this ethyl alcohol for motor fuel has been made as our gusoline supply decreases. It is estimated that more than 300,000,000 gallons of this alcohol could made from the wood material now wasted annually at American mills. Small trees and low grade material could be devoted to this use. It may be that the time will come when trees will grown in planted forests for the specialized production of grain alcohol for use in automobiles. This would be but the logical outgrowth of the day’s advances in chemical technology. also be Magnetic Testing of Wider Applicability Hi flaming forge of the village blacksmith shapes the piece of steel in response to the needs of the moment. Nobody doubts the pliableness of the meta! when subjected to intense heat, but probably few reason that the specimen of steel undergoes marked changes in character while the hot flames are being applied. All by way of suggesting that steel is an interesting subject for study and that scientists have not said the last word on metallurgy. The development of new apparatus by the National Bureau of Standards lends emphasis to the theoretical study of steel under the influences of intense magnetic fields. Its accommodations for making magnetic meas- urements of relatively long straight of iron or steel in intense fields is the distinguishing characteristic of this device as compared with other similar apparatus, The projecting bars evident in the illustration repro- duced herewith emphasize this novel virtue. Hereto- fore the length of the test specimen was restricted by the testing mechanism itself. By the use of this appa- ratus it is possible to carry the magnetizing force to a sufficient degree to determine the saturation intensity bars of magnetization of long bars. The apparatus is composed of an electromagnet of the Du Bois type with flat pole pieces. arated by an air gap of 2 centimeters and pierced ¢o- axially so that a rod 6 millimeters in diameter and sev- eral centimeters long can be extended through them as well The test rounded by three coaxial coils wound on brass forms, each 1 centimeter long and having external diameters of 7 millimeters, 10.5 millimeters, and 13.2 millimeters, Each coil has 100 turns of No. 40 enam- eled copper wire. Insulation from the guaranteed by the enclosing of the latter in a thin sheet of paper; reinforced by having the whole coil, after winding, shellacked and baked in an oven at 100 deg. Centigrade for several hours, This apparatus should prove useful in applying mag netic analysis in the theoretical study of iron and The device will not These are sep- specimen is sur- as the electromagnet. respectively. brass forms is steel, dis- are now engaged in this work, their daily production amounting to 300 tons with a sale value of $15,000,000. Wood alcohol which is indispensable in chemical industries is made by the destructive distillation of wood. Ace- tate of lime also obtains from the process and gives rise to the production of acetic acetone, acetic ether and similar Small and crooked trees, limb several acid, materials. wood and slabs are used for the produc- tion of wood alcohol whose manufacture furnishes a profitable disposition for these misfits of the timber tract. The by-prod- uct of the distillation consists of charcoal Which is used as a fuel as well as in the smelting of iron, tin and the manufacture of gunpowder, as an insulat- ing material, and clarifier in sugar refineries. Formerly birch, beech and maple were considered as the only satisfactory woods for the making of wood alcohol, but re- cent investigations have demonstrated that oak, gum, elm, ash and hickory are copper, in as a place other serviceable apparatus, but con- stitute an additional method for studying the physical properties of steel. The Bu- reau of Standards is now engaged in study- ing the correlation between the magnetic and mechanical properties of By S. R. Winters. steel, A Tiny Tannery HE world’s smallest complete tannery has recently been constructed by Prof. A. W. Thomas of Columbia University, New York. Barely two and one-half feet long, raw hides can be fully and most sci- entifically tanned in this invention. Pro- Thomas built this tiny tannery, which is believed to be the only one of its kind in the world, with the object of mak- ing a careful and scientific study of the fundamental chemical action of tanning; in other words, to find out just why cer tain chemicals acting upon the raw hide tan it into serviceable leather. Curiously enough, although the process of tanning has been understood for generations, we fessor just efficient for this purpose. The methods of distillation have now been as Investigating the chemical basis of tanning in the world’s smallest tannery have yet to learn the chemical why of it.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Latest in Steel Rails JANUARY, 1922 Doubling the Life While Increasing the Cost Only by Twenty Per Cent BSERVANT strollers upon that favorite American O promenade, the railroad track, may see on the web of an occusjonal rail, in addition to the usual other eabalistic letter figures and signs, the ruised letters SS 8, near one end These letters are the initials f the words “Sandberg Sorbitic Steel,” a material now engrossing the interest of railroad managements, metal lurgists and manufacturers in Europe and America Five hundred tons of sorbitic steel rails, weighing 105 pounds to the yard, or enough to lay three miles of continuous track, laid February on the Spuyten Duyvil curve in the electric zone, and Hudson River and New York Central accordance with the have been since last in numerous other curves, on the the Pennsylvania Railroad. In request of the half the curve is sorbiti divisions of the each instance, in manufacturers, the outer rail for one and for the other half this in order that conditions in steel open hearth steel com- under of ordinary parisons may humerous instances Representatives of the railroad and of the licensees under the Sandberg keep rails under observation, Contours of the rail of three to six be made identical patents these heads are taken at From the amount of intervals months metal worn the life of the rails can be determined and the relative merits of the new and old processes compared. At least two years will be required to reach definite conclusions; but experiments begun at a prior date on other American railroads seem to bear out the assertion that sorbitic steel will wear from two to three times as long as ordinary open hearth steel rolled at the same time from the same ingot. With By Frederic C. Carl upon and argued about without limit and without satis- factory result; for every improvement in thé rail has been promptly followed by an increase in the demands upon it. Attempts have been made, both in England and the United States, to find a method of tempering rails economically ; but the plan involved quenching the rail at a high temperature and then reheating to arrive at a given temperature. The process was slow, very ex- pensive, difficult to control and uncertain in results. The New York Central has 1,500 tons ot manganese steel rails in service. The Southern Pacific purchased 2,000 tons of manganese rails to lay in passenger tracks on mountain divisions. A number of other roads have tried manganese rails on Prior to the war the price ranged from $80 to $85 a ton; during the war the quotation went up to $250 to $280 a ton; around curves, also now it is SISO. Manganese rails are tempered by being quenched in water. It is agreed that they will wear ten times as long as open-hearth steel; but their elastic limit Extra good wearing rails are not needed on tangents, but they are essential on curves Rails of such low elastic limit, if hit by a locomotive at high speed not properly counterbalanced, might bend with unfortunate results. An ideal method of manufacturing a rail which should at least satisfy present demands would not re- strict the output, would not discard old plants or re- quire elaborate new apparatus, would not unduly in- crease cost and would materially increase both safety and durability. is only 35,000 pounds. smooth black. out increased brittleness, Hardness is very greatly increased with- On the contrary the Sandberg treatment renders the steel more ductile. In one test a rail was cut in two, one half being left as rolled while the other half was given the Sandberg treatment. Pieces 8 inches long were machined from the heads of the two pieces, then fixed in a chuck for After 2,000 revolutions per minute for micrometer, abrasion tests, 20 minutes the pieces were measured by The untreated piece had worn away 1.35 millimeters; the sorbitic steel only .32 millimeter. Under a sliding abrasion test, the nearest approach to actual wear to which a rail in the track, sorbitic steel showed a resistance of three to one as compared with untreated steel. By the Brinell test the sorbitic part of a treated rail showed a hardness of 300 to 350 as com- pared with 240 in the pearlitic structure of the web and base of the same rail. Hardness by the sclero- scopic test is 50 to 52 for sorbitic steel and 38 to 40 for ordinary open-hearth steel. Sorbitic steel has an elastic limit of 90,000 pounds and a tensile strength of 140,000 pounds with an elongation of eight per cent, as compared with 60,000 elastic limit, 125,000 pounds ten- sile strength and elongation of ten per cent for open- hearth steel. Another form of the Sandberg treatment for producing a sorbitic condition in the upper surface of the heads of rails in place has recently been applied rather ex- tensively on street railways in London, Bournemouth, Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool and Glasgow. A four-wheeled push-car with hand gear for slow uniform is fitted with a special acetylene burner for heating the head of the rail. When the proper temperature has been reached is subjected movement, open hearth rails at $47 a ton, an addi- tional charge of $9 a ton is made for the Sandberg wear of 100 per cent or more for an increased price of 19 per cent would seem to be a most at- yrrocess, An extra tractive bargain for frugal railroads, In December, 1917, the Pennsylvania Railroad purchased an experimental of 130 pound rails made by the new pro- cess. Some of them were laid in 3- and 4-degree curves on Turkey Hill, they were subjected to a slow-freight traf- fic aggregating 127,000,000 tons in two years. Numerous American rail- roads, including the Lehigh Valley, Dela- ware & Hudson, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, New York, New Haven & Hart- ford and Southern have ordered: experi mental lots of sorbitic steel rails varying in weight from 90 to 136 pounds to the yard The accumulated from all where other data must not; he had no idea why. pr oduct VEN the layman whose interest in metallurgy prompts him to try to keep posted on this subject must have met the terms austenite, martensite, troostite, sorbite, pearlite, ferrite, cementite, and per- haps a few other -ites of one sort or another. Nobody, we believe, is en- lot tirely clear as to the hows and whys and wherefores, and particularly as to the precise whats, of these substances; but we are learning every day. And in the learning.we are putting on a very solid basis of scientific knowledge a lot of things which have never before been understood at all, or known in any sense other than the empiric. knew by bitter experience that some things he’ must do and others he That great progress is being made in this essential department of engineering knowledge is evidenced by the fact that the makers of a new steel rail for which double life is claimed are sufficiently removed from the empirical to be able to christen their It is this sorbitic rail and its showing that Mr. Carl tells us of in the present story—THE Epiror. “sorbitic.”” The heat-treater the head is cooled by a jet of water from a tank on the ear. Photomicrographs of drillings at various depths show a progressive change in the metal. At a depth of one-eight inch there is a sorbitic structure with a hardness of 600 on the Brinell scale; at a depth of three-sixteenths inch there is a change from sorbitic to pearlitic structure; at a depth of five-sixteenths inch normal pear- litic structure is found. The rails so treated become highly polished, showing the change in the structure. This process has the advantage of requiring no disturb- ance of the permanent way; but steam railroad men look askance at the mere suggestion of such heroic treatment. Treatment by the Sandberg process at Steelton is such that the base and web of the rail are not affected. Only the wearing surface and the sides of the head these trials ought to be conclusive. The manufacturers have also supplied a lot of the new-process rails to the French State rail- ways. In England, where the process originated, ex- periments with the Sandberg rail have been conducted for the last four years on several steam railroads and on more numerous street railways in the larger cities. The English are also experimenting with the Sandberg for hardening what they insist on calling “tyres.” During the war an offer of the Sandberg free gift to the British Government was accepted after Ordnance Committee, the Ministry of Muni- process yrocess as a exhaustive and the process was adopted by tions for the purpose of reclaiming high-explosive-shell steel which failed to meet specifications. The process was used extensively in England, Canada and the United States for this purpose, saving several million experiments by the shell forgings which otherwise would have been re- jected. In this way the Sandberg process was brought to the favorable attention of the corporation which obtained the right to use it in the United States. The process is the invention of C. P. Sandberg, a distinguished British metallurgist now veloped commercially in urgent demand for rails of a well known that committees of of Civil Engineers, the American Railway Association, the American Society for Testing Materials, not to mention the United States Bureau of Standards and a number of private investigators have been study- ing the rail problem for years. Section, chemical com- position and details of manufacture from the hearth furnace to the cooling bed have been reported deceased, de- response to an increasingly higher quality. It is the American Society Engineering open- The Sandberg process seems to meet all these re- quirements fully. The additional apparatus required is nothing more than a section of pipe the length of a standard rail, pierced with holes three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and spaced three-eighths of an inch As the rail comes from the hot saw, at a tem- perature of about 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit, at which the color deep orange, it is held under this pipe while air at a pressure of 12 to 15 pounds plays upon the top and sides of the head for about three minutes, or until it has cooled down through the when the temperature apart, is a close critical range to recalescence, of the head is about 1,250 Fahrenheit. The rail then passes on to the cooling bed as usual. Two such pipes are sufficient to treat 20 per cent of the output of the big rolling mill at Steelton, near Harrisburg. Steel in a sorbitic condition has long been known to give maximum hardness and strength combined with toughness, a high elastic limit and resistance to shock. A sorbitic structure is therefore aimed at in the metal Sandberg’s method for for gun forgings and other high class work. contribution to the art was a practical treating rails to attain this structure. The effect of the Sandberg treatment is to develop a sorbitic structure in the upper surface of the head of the rail to a depth of about three-eighths of en inch, although it is claimed that the sorbitic structure is carried to a depth of about an inch in some instances. Sorbitic granules are so very fine that it is difficult to distinguish them even when enlarged 1,000 diameters. Photomicrographs show a marked contrast to pearlite with itS distinct markings, the sorbite being a perfectly are tempered because those are the only parts subjected to wear. The outer rail on curves is subjected to very severe wear for it has to resist the tangential thrust of the enormously heavy trains at high speed. The inner side of the head of the best open-hearth rail that the present state of the art can produce is soon badly worn and deformed, especially on a busy road like the Pennsylvania division of the New York Central Railroad with its traffic of 60,000,000 tons a year. As at present applied the Sandberg treat- ment does not harden the sides as much as the upper surface of the rail head, and to that extent improve ment seems desirable. As sorbitic rails at an wanted only for conditions on curves undef heavy traffic, particular care is taken at Steelton to insure good material. Steel low in carbon is cast ip very large ingots—25x30x96 inches, weighing 12, pounds. Then, to insure sound normal metal, the upper two rails from the ingot are discarded. steel increased price are severe German Locomotives for Russia AX article in the Berliner Tageblatt, dealing with the increasing activity in Russo-German trade states that the Soviet Government recently ordered 700 railway engines, which German manufacturers have undertaken to, deliver in six to seven months. The first cargo of six engines is already at Hamburg await ing transport to Russia. The Soviet Government has also placed orders in Germany for chemicals, agricul tural machinery and rails to the value of a milliard and a half marks. The first deliveries of goods in pay- ment from Russia have already arrived in Germany. oars oa pee BE PALES BE PITT LANES IIE ENE RIE Sear ie Pe ak je or ba bo ea cal bu sid sig ma be act filr oo be the en ne’ tur ma one eac Th cal the ord ste mo ine S nev tha for it var feri I sho typ rece low the The ste! in : nec side A ing also the = Mal

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1922 with- lberg . left berg from : for » for eter, fers; ding ir to steel with rt of com- web lero- ) 40 ; an h of , as ten- pen- cing ads ex- uth, A orm "ner hen hed rom jous the ere ; of nge ta P-ar- ‘ing "eSS "an lly the ith NOLEN BS ry en ere PPO, JANUARY, 1922 A Camera That Analyzes Motion OST unusual effects can be obtained by taking M motion pictures at a high rate of speed and pro- jecting them at the standard speed of sixteen pictures, Such pictures show tennis or “frames,” per second. balls and hurdling horses floating through the air, boxers gently and nonchalantly fanning and tapping each other, and so on. There are various special cameras for this kind of work—high-speed filming— but until the present their construction has been con- sidered the deepest A new speed camera secret. for motion-picture work, de- overcome the objectionable features of the makeshift heretofore used for this work, has been invented by a Pacific Coast man. The chief char- acteristic of the new camera is a straight pull on the film. With a camera capable of taking 14 feet of film (224 separate pictures or frames) per second, it will be readily appreciated that there is a terrific strain on the film, to say nothing of similar destructive influ- ence on the camera itself. With the film magazines mounted at the back, the new camera takes the film in a direct line to the aper- ture and in another direct line back to the take-up magazine, thus providing an instrument that has only signed to devices one turn for the film. With a turning mechanism that is geared very high, each turn of the handle exposes seven feet of film. The handle is turned at the same rate as on an ordinary camera—two turns per second—hence to the operator there is no difference in manipulation. Of course, when such a film is projected at the ordinary rate of speed, objects move very slowly, one step of a runner, for instance, taking ten seconds or more on the screen. This makes the instrument of incalculable value in scientific and industrial work. Keeping Track of Surgical Operations URGERY, after all, is largely a matter of precedent. w) If one surgeon has met with success in handling a new kind of operation in a somewhat different manner than heretofore, his work immediately serves as a guide for other surgeons confronted with similar cases. So it becomes necessary to keep accurate records of various important operations without in any way inter- fering with the work of the surgeon and his assistants. From Germany interesting photograph shown in the lower left-hand corner, showing a new type of motion-picture camera especially intended for recording operations. The camera is mounted at the lower end of a long arm suspended from the ceiling of the operating room, directly over the operating table. The camera is carefully focused by looking through a sterilized periscopic sight, which also serves as a handle in aiming the lens. The camera is motor-driven, the necessary controls being placed on a small table to one side of the operating table. A somewhat similar idea, although not of the record- ing character, is a reflecting projector device, which is also mounted over the operating table. The image of the operating table is projected on to a screen in comes the en Making a film of an operation by means of the new German motion-picture camera SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN . 3 Ultra-speed motion picture camera with case open to show straight pull action of film another room, where it can, be studied by students and others without disturbing the surgeon and his assist- ants. Hot High-Nitrogen Gas in a Metal Mine \ HILE investigating the presence of heavy strata gases in certain mines of the East Tintie district of Utah, a small, local body of light, very hot gas of high nitrogen composition was noted in one of the mines. Observation and analyses indicate that this light gas was resulting from very rapid oxidation of finely dis- seminated pyrite, in lead-silver sulfide ore. The gas was actually mine air which had lost a large proportion of its oxygen content by reaction with the pyrite. This body of gas was hanging in a local high spot about 5 by 5 by 5 feet in size, caused by caving, at the end of a crosscut. Fifty feet from this spot, an air current of 6000 cubic feet per minute was entering the 5 by 7 foot crosscut from a raise from below. On account of the vapor contained in the gas, the bottom level of the gas could be plainly seen and was practically a. horizontal plane, but of slightly wavy appearance, coinciding with the point where an acety- lene light was extinguished. This body of gas was visited on three and samples obtained by means of evacuated bulbs and by water displacement. The temperature of the gas was approximately 175 degrees Fahrenheit on all three occasions, so that samp- ling required thick gloves and quick action. Air three feet below the vapor line had a temperature of only 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and a relative humidity of 27 per cent. The stratification of the air and gas mixtures was so sharply defined that the sampler could hold his head a few inches below the vapor level for an ap- preciable period of time without any noticeable effect other than that due to high temperature. At one foot below vapor level, it was 135 degrees Fahrenheit, and the relative humidity was 30 per cent. When a candle and an acetylene light were raised into the gas from below, the candle flame was extinguished at a point two inches lower than the acetylene flame, indicating a drop in oxygen content from about 16 per cent to 12 per cent (oxygen content of normal dry air 20.98 per cent) in the distance of two inches. The analyses and the air-free calculations made there- from show that the gas is black damp (defined by Had- lane, the English physiologist, as an accumulation of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in proportions larger than those found in atmospheric air) composed almost wholly The average analysis of normal dry at- occasions of nitrogen. mospheric air is usually given as carbon dioxide (CO_), 0.03 per cent, oxygen (O_), 20.93 per cent, and nitrogen (N_), 79.04 per cent. Included in the nitrogen percent- so-called rare gases of the atmosphere which constitute about one per cent of the total con- stituents of air, and, like nitrogen, inert. Mine air always differs slightly in composition from the above, but in mines as well ventilated as this particular mine, the CO, percentage rarely goes above 0.2 or the oxygen percentage below 20.5, even at points as much as are the age are a mile distant from intake openings. The analysis showed that as the elevation increased from 12 inches above the vapor level to four feet above this level (and one inch beneath the roof), temperature remained fixed at 175 degrees Fahrenheit and humidity at 100 per cent; carbon dioxide content increased from 0.17 to 0.38 per cent, oxygen from 8.93 to 2.49 per cent, and nitrogen increased from 90.9 to 97.13 per cent. The calculated air-free composition of the black-damp was 0.48 per cent or less of carbon dioxide and the balance nitrogen. One inch below the visible vapor line, analysis of the atmosphere showed 0.17 per cent carbon dioxide, 20.27 per cent oxygen, and 79.56 per cent nitrogen—practically normal air. In every decreased 45 case, after the gas under analysis had been examined for carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane (CH,), and none of them had been found, the nitrogen content was found by subtraction on the assumption that the balance of the gas was entirely nitrogen. That the oxidation was still in rapid progress was evidenced by the fact that, although the body of gas occupied not more than 150 cubic feet and the vapor level was practically constant, a thin stream of hot gas, estimated at 25 cubic feet per minute, was flowing along the roof of the crosscut to the air cur- rent 50 feet away. The tendency of such a mixture of air and gas to “hang” to the roof is due to its lighter weight as com- pared with the mine air. The difference in weight is due primarily to the differences in temperature and humidity, rather than to the difference in chemical composition, since nitrogen is very little lighter than process of air. The gas had a strong, musty sulfur odor and had a suffocating effect when breathed. Attempts to prove the presence of sulfuric acid vapor in the body of gas were not determinate, although a very slight amount was undoubtedly present. ° The presence of this body of gas in this particular mine probably represents the first step in the production of certain heavy strata gases high in carbon dioxide content that affect mines in this district, that is, the production of residual at- mospheres by oxidation of sulfides, accompanied by the production of heat, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid, the succeeding step being the production of carbon dioxide by reaction of the acid with carbonates pres- ent in the rock. Deposition of dehydrated iron sulfate had formed a border about one foot wide and one-half inch thick on the surrounding walls, the upper edge corresponding with the vapor level, while the walls in contact with the gas had a leached and porous appearance. A sample of the material (pyritic lead-silver sulfide) from the wall in contact with the gas analyzed 7.8 per cent sulfur and 80.20 per cent insolubles while only 50 feet away and in the same ore body the sulfur content is reported to have run 14 to 25 per cent. Microscopic examination of thin sections of the same sample showed that the pyrite occurred both in masses and in finely dissem- inated grains, the individual grains of the masses aver- aging 0.1 millimeter (0.0089 inch) in diameter, while the disseminated grains were uniformly small, many of them measuring less than 0.004 millimeter (0.00016 inch) in diameter. A Trolley Cable in Place of a Bridge HE accompanying view in the lower right-hand corner shows an aerial tramway employed in carry- ing men and material across the Tuolumne River at Hetch Hetchy, in California. A heavy cable is stretched across the river, which supports the car, the latter being suspended below the cable on pulleys. These tramways make it unnecessary to travel great distances to the few bridges that cross the river. Trolley cables are employed in crossing the Hetch Hetchy River in the absence of bridges

Page 46

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Noiseless Elevated JANUARY, 1922 Philadelphia’s Plans for Making Conversation Possible While the Trains Are Passing 46 N elevated railroad over whiel trains of ten all- A steel cur will roll t high speed with less disturl ance of the surroundin thoosphere ind the eardrums of spectator thum that « “xl now by a single trolley ear is nearing completion in Philadelphia So far not a wheel of passenger car has turned over its tracks But engineers of the Philadelphia Department of Cit Transit say this road will be the quietest elevated rail way in the world Instead of the usual ear-splitting rattle given off when a train passes, the noise of operation on this structure will be a deep rumble, something akin to the roar of artillery at a considerable distance. According By William A. McGarry couplings for the usual jolting during starting and stopping The line has been built by the city. It runs from a junction with the present Market street elevated in a north and northeasterly direction, roughly paralleling the course of the Delaware River for a distance of eleven miles, and is virtually completed now with the exception of interior work on some of the stations, and t e equipment Its operation has been delayed by fail- ure of the city and the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Com- with the result building its own sub-stations, three pany to reach an agreement on a lease that the city in number, to distribute the current for operation, and is now said, makes a great improvement over the which ties are laid directly on the steel. expected to cut the Frankford elevated, as the new line is known. same effort for rigidity has been made throughout the construction. The footwalk on both sides of the strue- ture, for instance, is of concrete slabs instead of the usual boards. A feature of this road which is of great importance is the fact that every station is built on private property the city, and not as an integral part of This obviates the neces- taken over by the elevated structure itself. roads on The concrete filling in the beam channels and the arch flooring are the noise in half in the operation of The sin cP Teint Gunue: ite th sient el ioe betel ois i 1. The elevated structure south of Dyre St., showing single-column or T-bent type of structure on Frankford Ave., carrying two tracks. jack arch concrete floor. 3. A detail of the ornamental work at the Interior view of one of the stations, showing stairs from main floor to platform floor capacity. Allegheny Ave. station. 4 2. The clear arch span of 112 feet over Lehigh Ave., showing the Interior view of partly finished car, showing longitudinal seat arrangement designed for maximum carrying Structure, cars and stations that contribute to the comparative noiselessness of Philadelphia’s new elevated railroad to the engineers, it will be a noise of low pitch and of few vibrations compared to the familiar elevated train ruttle; a noise that will cause far less interference with ordinary street conversation and that will be less of a nervous strain on the average citizen. This achievement, if it may be so called in advance of its completion, will be the result of perhaps a score of little changes in methods of construction, and two or three major mechanical developments, many of which have heen put into practice singly elsewhere Some of the summed up these apply to the elevated structure and some to cars being bullt for the line, but all may be by the statement that the object sought was rividity at all minimized, vibrations the built bridge work with trains solidly and rigid times: with no free play at s having built fifty steel cars containing many new features, The structural features of the road are a development the old Market which is exceedingly street elevated, quiet in operation used in com- if those l 1905, ileted in compared to some of the New York and Boston elevated lines. That structure rests on H-beam uprights, with flat steel and concrete deck, and a _ rock-ballasted roadway In the new line the channels of the H-beams ure filled solidly with concrete, and the deck is made up of small concrete arches, as shown in ‘the illustra- tions. These have been tested to a weight of thirty tons per square foot without showing any signs of failure. Virtually the only noise-deadening feature of the Mar- ket street line is the rock ballast, but this, as has been sity of taking up sidewalk room with stairways. The building lines of these stations have been set well back in order to provide plenty of room for any future con- gestion. Passengers enter a building resembling a bank, xo up by easy stages and cross a bridge at platform level to reach the cars. Short ties—a separate set for each rail—are used in the rondbed at the stations in order to facilitate the clearing away of the rubbish and litter thrown on the tracks by passengers waiting for trains. These ties are fastened directly to the concrete slabs, as the speed of trains at all stations will be so slight as to make the noise-deadening ballast unnecessary. One stretch of the elevated, about two miles in length, is rather novel. It is said to be the only cruciform type SORES OE RRL? rete oy eRe ARREARS: TP OMY, reg poh NPY ME JA ele’ the line tior tra the of : the trac ext A and for of | sho be | of Thr inst a re Eng off | in p U elev stre railt Col spla: wou The side even face that ping elev: cond TI of tl some man: are road and Marl whic nect- feet pacit total The ears type perin on tl some resul a we stalle and t nary a str and ; has time gear the t made mine the g gear by th less ¢ is im to ms Eli paten and ; coupl over arate turne electr a dev auton partic The of thi struct diculs small the ar lutely tainin that i

Page 47

is on crete - are mn of The t the true- r the ance erty rt of eces- —_—.

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JANUARY, 1922 elevated in this country carrying two tracks, although there are several short stretches of single-pillar elevated lines supporting This type of construc- tion was used in a section of the city where the line traverses narrow streets, in order to avoid darkening the thoroughfare and the stores and dwellings. By way of anchorage the footings of columns, which rise from the center line of the between double surface tracks, are spread out under these tracks, thus assuring single tracks. street extreme rigidity. A test car was loaded with seventy tons of steel rails and placed at different points along the line of the cruci- form structure for the purpose of testing the strength of various members. No failure or excess stress was shown under the greatest concentration of load that will be possible in operation. The most severe strains here, of course, occur with the load on only one track. Throughout the line a protecting rail of steel is used instead of the wooden rail used on some lines. This is a regular track rail and not the familiar lighter type. Engineers say that it will be impossible for a car to go off the structure after derailment, with this guard rail in place. Unusual care has been given all along the line of the elevated to the question of preventing the darkening of streets. The entire under-surface, except over steam railroad lines, is painted gray, above the six foot line. Columns are painted dark green to that height because SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN at starting. will start and stop as a single unit. Saving of time and labor is a considerable item. Safety features of these cars are the most advanced so far designed. <A red light burns beside the motorman when all the doors are closed. Doors will be operated by separate air motors controlled electrically by mul- tiple unit control, under a pressure of 360 pounds, which is expected to take care of winter conditions and dirt in the door track. Without a safety device this pres- sure, of course, would be dangerous. Accordingly the end of the door contains a spring, longitudinal, so ar- ranged that a light touch on it makes an electrical con- tact that reverses the motion of the sliding door. This device is so sensitive and so sure that, according to the engineers, 2 passenger can stop the shutting of the door with his face without suffering the slightest injury. Patrons of the New York subway will recognize it as fundamentally the same as the device recently installed to enable the Interborough trains to run with one guard, for two cars, stationed on alternate platforms, After the door flies open its motion is again auto- matically reversed and it starts to close. It will con- tinue to run back and forth as long as there is an ob- struction. The builders realize that passengers will soon become aware of this and will take advantage of it to hold the door open for friends. Accordingly a key In other words, a train of eight or ten cars The safety feature is the most important in automatic coupling, but the 47 Lumber of Steel HAT metal lumber home-building material is recently completed in Canton, Ohio. house was constructed to show that metal lumber con- struction has reached a perfected stage. From this house plans and drawings for homes of varying types, dimensions and costs will be evolved to meet the taste and purse of every home builder. For each standard house every metal joist, stud and channel will be supplied of an exact size, so that all parts fit quickly and easily. Spikes and nails are replaced by bolts (3% inch and 7/16 inch) in the assembly of metal lumber, The general plan of construction in the house erected will be followed in all. The framing of the outer walls is of four-inch channel shapes, on the inner and outer flanges of which are prongs, punched for the attachment of metal lath. *artitions are erected of two or four inch studs, on both sides of which metal lath is affixed. Plaster is then applied as in homes of wood construc tion. The floors are constructed by using metal joists, spaced by two feet. Strips are nailed to these joists and wood or composition floors may be installed as in any conventional construction building. Metal lath goes quickly into place on the bottoms of these joists to provide ceilings. Metal lumber rafters support the roof to which nailing strips are attached. Any form of roofing de- provides a most practicable indicated by an exhibit A two-story metal

splashing from _ vehicles would soon ruin the gray. The effect of this is a con- light Sur- siderable increase of even on narrow streets. face drainage is so controlled that there will be little drip- ping from the sides of the elevated, the water being conducted direct to sewers. The cars follow the lines of the new Brooklyn cars in but offer improvements. They y turns in the 5D feet, some many are limited | length of and by conditions in the Market street subway—with which the new line will con- nect—to a width of eight feet ten inches. Seating ca- pacity is 51 passengers, with total room for about 200. The silencing feature of the ears is the adoption of a new type of gear with which ex- periments been on the Long Island road for some time, with satisfactory results. It is something like a worm gear. This is in- stalled between the motor and the car wheels. In ordi- nary trolley car construction a straight-edge gear is used, and after a car of this type has been in use for time it becomes noisy, due to respects, road to a have made some

sired may be applied. Wood grounds are applied for the installation of windows, door frames, picture molding, ete. In the finished house no metal can be seen, inside or out. An exterior finish of stue- It is pointed out baseboards, co is used. that in a building of such firm framework this stucco will be permanently free from cracks, sometimes caused by settling or “weay ing.” Plaster and interior finishes will also be pre- served. The steel structure is im bedded in the foundations at all points and is thus an chored securely. The foun dations may be of any standard type. Fire risk is reduced to a minimum. The building is far more fire resistive than a brick house with wood partitions. Fire ean not get in from the out side and is confined to any room in which the blaze originates, Diminished Flax Acre- age in Ireland ee a recent offi- cial survey of the acreage

in Ireland under flax during

gear rattling. Engineers of the transit department have made an exhaustive study of car noises and have deter- mined that a great percentage of this noise comes from the gears in the operating machinery. The new type of fear is set at an angle so that the grip at all times is by three teeth on each gear, instead of one, and regard- less of the age or length of service of the car, rattling is impossible so long as the gears are sufficiently sound to make operation possible at all. Elimination of noise is obtained also by the use of a patented coupling device which couples cars, current and air by simply running the cars together. Each coupler is equipped with a cover plate which snaps shut over the electrical connections when the cars are sep- arated. The couplers are so tight that a hose may be turned on them without getting any moisture to the electrical connections. Installations of these devices are a development made as a result of the study of patented automatic couplers in use experimentally elsewhere, particularly in New York. The only air coupling possible in an automatic device of this kind was a butt connection. In ordinary con- Struction there is a great deal of lateral and perpen- dicular play in the draft gear, and this adds in no small part to the general racket. It was necessary in the automatic coupler to have the butt connection abso- lutely tight, which means constantly rigid. And by at- taining this the engineers attained also a train rigidity that is expected to prevent*the usual jarring and jerking The test house of metal lumber in Canton, O. is supplied to station men which will cause the door to suspending the operation of the safety spring, when inserted into a hole on the side of the car near the door. The New York subway cars might advanta- geously be equipped with something of the same sort, though the station man is usually able to solve the problem by a display of force. It is estimated that in the ordinary platform car with end and center doors the average walk of the passenger inside the car is one-third the length of the vehicle. In the new cars for this line the average Walk will be one- sixth the length of the car. Doors are placed not only equidistant on the car, but also as regards the station. There are no piatforms and this permits the use of room that generally goes to waste. The conductor is provided with a set of buttons, One controls all doors, and there are separate buttons for separate doors if their use in that way There is a step up by which the conductor may look over the heads of passengers. The placing of the doors is expected to bring ubout a great saving of time in loading and un- loading cars, better distribution of passen- gers with consequent elimination of congestion, Air to the brukes is applied electrically for the whole length of the train, thus decreasing the time necessary for a full stop. In event of a break in the current the control applies the brakes in the usual method. close, becomes necessary. and also a vastly the same operation of the present season, it is an- nounced that the growing area is 40,000 acres, as compared with 127,000 acres last year, reports the American consulate at Belfast. The reason for the decreased this year is to be found in the reaction of farmers from the artificial stimulus afforded by a Government bounty, now with- drawn, and by the contribution by the linen manufac turers themselves of the sum of £630,000 to the flax growers as an additional bonus during 1919 to premote the growth of flax at a time when linen products were commanding phenomenal prices, Coincident withdrawal of both these inducements for a supernormal crop has resulted in a subnormal one—TIrish farmers apparently possessing their fair share of human nature. Manufacturers are unable to forecast the result of this flax shortage upon the linen market in the near future. There is much flax, they assert, in the hands of farmers, unsold, which is being retained in the hope of higher They claim that, in view of the world-wide depression in business, they are unable to sell linens at remunerative prices or to create a demand for flax at such a price as will induce the farmer te sow the normal acreage. Everything depends upon a return of business to its usual volume. Should this condition arise suddenly, the flax shortage would be come acute, as it is claimed that the quantity held in reserve by the farmers would not supply the Belfast mills for a period longer than three months were they all to resume work at full capacity. ncereage prices.

NSN RS RE ere eee

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48 A Novei Sprinkler for

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

JANUARY, 1922 both in European countries Golf Greens and the United States and tuking into account the ex. ten since the artificial perience gained in connee. 4 Watering of golf gree tion with international auto. has been resorte: mobile contests. While no dependable method of comparative data on the taining the urf I roads built in this country in a vigorous, growing con are available at the time of dition during per of writing, the constructors droughty weather difficul claim for the new race. ties have been experienced course the distinction of be in shifting the = sprinklers ing the most remarkable ip and hose about so as not to | Europe. injure the green with foot - . From a constructive point tracks or other objection eietan 2. aid ; , ; of view, the road presents able marks. At the Wawon ; ae - * au number of interesting fea- owin Golf Club, Ishpeming, [nearer —e ee . aa Yes tures. It is made up of a Michigan, this —_ m has Large carbide cans form the basis of this interesting system of lawn sprinklers, which is said not parallel straight courses, been solved successfully by to injure the grass in any way connected together at the the perfection of a home ; . north and south ends, re made sprinkler made of corrugated carbide cans which The Grunewald Automobile Race-Course spectively, by huge curves, its total length being 12 are so arranged that they can be shifted about the FPL necessity of a special automobile road in the miles. Whereas in the case of motor-car roads pre- green even when it is soaked with water without | neighborhood of Berlin had long before the war viously built, the top line of the curved surface runs damaging the grass in any Way Any large, round made itself felt in an ever-increasing degree: On the in the middle, the new road is so designed that cars can could be used instead of carbide cans, the out one hand, the pedestrian and vehicular traftie was entering it on the right will keep their wheels at con- standing feature of importance about these containers more and more inconvenienced by the rapidly growing stant height, thus affording the double advantage of is that they are made with corrugated surfaces which motor-car traffic, and on the other, there was an in- uniform wear and remarkable ease of control, even at cannot be dented eusily creasing demand for special race-courses suitable for maximum speeds. The stone layer about 25 cms. in Wooden ends are placed in the carbide cans and efficiency contests, such as eould not always be held thickness constituting the bedding of the road is made each of these covers is perforated in the center so on the roads serving general traftie purposes, up of a continuous row of coping stones 25 ems. high, that they will carry a %-inch pipe. The cans are Plans of building a special motor-car road were joined to one another and which, being let down to spaced at intervals in such ; - the level of the road, con- a manner that they really | stitute on both sides an operate as rollers for the invisible concrete wall. The pipe, which in turn is con road traverses practically level ground and, accord- nected to the water hydrants and hose A simple sprin kler which will not get out of order or clog is placed at each end of a length of pipe The distance between the sprinklers is determined by the water pressure In the locality where the novel sprinkler is used At the country club where this plan was originated the = sprin klers are placed 26 feet apart so that they water a green zone 52 feet wide by the use of hose 75 feet long, greens Which are not over 150 feet wide can be sprin kled satisfactorily from fau cets on euch = side The sprinkling is started at one end of the green and as the various zones in turn are watered thoroughly, the he wit sprinkling apparatus can other the turf stepping green the saturated where tl atter end of without nece the and over in neurest to time carbide ¢: pipe bas be removed by that other Any novel This mercial the can has r serving as idlers workman ¢ outn cals competent green sprinkling device is of to home-made revolving types begin utter sprinklers, which out make their wear immediately they tion even water! kler efficient ; il hand first revolu- and seon produce un distribution of the The Michigan cheap, durable s light in weight sprin is and it} ly carried and « be reodi The sprinklers that the vide enough the golf particu watering hot, when tor in one cheap best pre green They valuable at dry, summer are 80 plan for course larly greens is to each on are for during weut he r, night it is almost impossible workmen to operate the or- dinary run of green sprin klers in the dark without damaging the greens in one way or another—By G. H Dat Vv

ingly, readily be in- spected over a considerable length, which, of course, greatly increases the safety ean of trafliec. Concrete viaducts (20 al- together) have been pro- vided at each crossroad, thus avoiding any level crossing. The two recti- linear courses run close to one another; inasmuch as each of them is traversed in one direction only, any risk of collision of cars traveling in opposite directions is avoided. The width of the road (261% feet) is so eal- culated as to allow four cars at the same time to over- Berlin’s new automobile parkway, with one of the feeder roads leading into it take one another. Parallel (from the left in this view) to the road there are grass strips running outward and pulled gently toward the therefore suggested as far back as in 1906, in connec- inward, to which any damaged cars can be removed hout any damage to the tion with the Taunus races, but not until the last in safety. The special configuration of the road see ‘ssity of the attendants years preceding the world war could these be brought tion causes the driver automatically to keep to the greensward The extra to a happy end. <A special company was founded with right. The design of the tarred upper layer insures ie hose is attached to the the cooperation of the municipal corporations of Greater imperviousness to water and perfect freedom from dust. * a revolution or two, but Berlin, which for a period of 30 years rented a strip The construction of the road was, in 1914, nearing eached dry ground The of land 6 miles long and about 45 yards in average completion, so that its inauguration could be antiei- support the line of hose width, extending from Witzleben Station, at the en- pated for the fall of that year. However, the world an construct one of these trance to the Grunewald forest, to Wannsee Lake. war and its immediate after-effects, from 1914 to 1920, ts in about three hours The aim of the undertaking was to provide a motor- temporarily stopped the work. This long period of superior to all the com cur road embodying the best practice of road building enforced idleness has, by the way, done the road no material harm. On the con- trary, the race-course has had time to settle and will

we te . ee afd Rod —, SF 55

The southern curve, on which the road is broadened to a width of about 83 feet not undergo any further de formation. Moreover, a few months have been sufficient to rid the road of its weeds, and to renew the gravel layer. The tarring is but a matter of a few days, s0 that the road was ready for training for the automobile races in September, At the very last moment the company decided on en larging the Southern curve to a width of about 83 feet and a superelevation of 1.7; and a similar enlargment of the northern curve is being contemplated for the near future. The two curves are 376 feet and 940 feet, re spectively, in diameter.—By Dr, Alfred Gradenwitz.

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JAN’ TA’ i b uses. ing” ¢ target that w of the to the were I the ca and tl sembla on gra raids. gresset planes greate! until ¢ cipal bomb | which high ¢ were bombs the bu cendiai showel mass core; b bombs to pier attack. Of a ment \ its gre: the gre enormo has be ships a It truly it warfar of whic and th For it that ac on mor destruc all the transpo to airy have t wasted. The of the |} thus a} that of bomb, a ing por craft 4d airplane the pro bomb |} difficult. At th war the 15,000 t bombing for nav feet for at the-] ment ar be suffi altitude: From of a con about 5€ enclose of the ¢ traverse: of a seer a fair m bomb, ay more, th 4% The act the 2000 is

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1922 © Intries ‘S and Z he ex- Hi onneec. | auto. ile no 1 the yuntry me of uctors race- of be. ble in point § ‘sents y fea- f two urses, the 5, Te ig 12 & pre- runs cars con- re of -n at Ss. in made high, § nh to A con- § an The cally -ord- in- ‘able Irse, fety a ee a oe PREM areee rr ) al- pro- oad, evel ecti- > to as d in risk ling is the § cal- “ars ver- Hel ‘ass and ved sec- the res 18t. ing ici- rid 20, of no on- 1as vill de- Sa de Peeriaes Tremere 1 ARR ART PRN NEN inc Vs Ce eer Te 77) = ve — ae JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Bombing and Bombing Sights How Aiming from the Unstable Platform of an Airplane Is Made Possible YAVIGATION of the air was searcely a proven possi- N bility before consideration was given to its military Even the earliest airplane meets had their “bomb- ing” contests of dropping bags of flour or oranges upon targets outlined on the ground. Small wonder, then, that with the advent of the war the inventive resources of the nations were turned to the new locomotion and to the development of its possibilities. The first uses were naturally for reconnaissance and fire control, but the capabilities for offensive use were clearly evident, and there followed the dropping of steel darts on as- semblages of troops and animals, of incendiary grenades on grain fields, and before long the Zeppelin bombing The development of bombs and airplanes pro- uses. By Dr. E. J. Loring, Army Ordnance Engineer but dropped in woods with instantaneous fuse the de- struction covers 200 feet radius. Figure 1 shows the apparent size of the destructive areas for several sizes of bombs at the usual altitudes, if viewed from the height of a table, and represents the relative area within which the bomb must be dropped to have effect. Another view shows the effect of a direct hit on a rail- road track with a 112-pound bomb, and it will be seen that a hit twenty feet to either side would have done far less damage. In order to place the bomb within this limited area the flight of the airplane must be directed in a certain definite relation to it, and the bomb released at the pre- cise instant on that flight, with a leeway of not over sensible only from the perspective of the earth's surface. No pendulum or spirit level can give it, but will only indicate the apparent vertical which departs from the true vertical on every bump, pitch, side-slip or turn of the airplane. Whether on foot, bicycle, automobile, ship or airplane, no course is ever laid truly on a straight line, but at best is a’succession of slightly curving paths on which an érror of direction is accumulated until recognized, and then corrected. These curves may be slight, but lateral forces arise instantly and cause devia- tions of any pendulum or similar device. A deviation of one degree is an error of 175 feet on the ground at 10,000 feet, and is a complete miss, DEVIATION OF A PENDULUM FROM THE VERTICAL ON raids. ; sressed together—larger bombs and air- A TURN planes of greater lifting capacity and e. Seeed of aleainins Seenh of atvedans greater cruising radius to carry them 100 Ib 300 Ib. 600 Ib 100 Ib 2000 Ib 4000 Ib. 23 100 ft/sec 150 ft/sec until at the close of the war each prin- = &| Radius Time for _, Radius Wicae Gee cipal nation had built or projected a Size as seen from Qs feet | comes cae — | comonete were . > 729 . | 2% . O sec. pomb of 1000 pounds weight or more of 4000 feet O 1 17ese 18 min. 40 ses. 4010e a0 mage oe which about half the entire weight was (High Naval Bombing) 3 | 5940} 6 “ 18 “| 13600] 8 “ 80 7 5 q = Ss 8000 BE high explosive. Other types of bombs 7 , 3 « — oe 5700 1° a were also developed: fragmentation 10 >. 51 ¥ 3945 2 a5 e . 20 55 54 “ 92 "sa bombs to scatter the sharp fragments of 4 g4 “| 1218 51 , sting case among personnel; in- ' the burs s pe 2 8000 feet Oo O O OC) Note: Radius, feet=0.311 cendiary bombs to start fires from a Night Bombing tan O ‘ : ae ; \ shower of burning material or from a Seconds on turn=1.965 =} mass of oil with a high temperature V=ft/sec O=angle core; bombs with smoke-producing liquids ; 15000 feet ° ° O O O O Thus the bomber, shooting from his un- bombs to give high-power illumination ; Day Bombing stable platform at the rapidly moving target, unable to direct his shet except in to pierce armor plate; and for submarine attack. Of all these types, the greatest develop- ment was in the demolition bomb with its great mass of high explosive, reaching the greatest weight contained in any projectile, and the enormous power of such bombs when favorably placed has been shown lately in the sinking of the German ships and the ex-U.S.S. “Alabama.” It is not generally contended that these results are truly indicative of the results to be expected in actual warfare today ; the tests were rather to show the results of which the bombs are capable when favorably placed, and the question of placing them is another matter. For it is only the hits—direct, or alongside of ships— that actually count; all others are without effect except on morale, and unless some desired point is within the destructive area of the bomb as it hits, the bomb and all the time, energy and expense of its production and transportation and the risks Fig. 1. This diagram viewed from the height of a table, represents the area of destruction for demolition bombs (50% explosive) of the respective weights, as seen from the altitudes given one-fifth of a second. At the instant of release the bomb has the motion of the airplane, that is, the actual mo- tion in relation to the ground, and the control of the direction of this motion for a point one to three thou- sand feet ahead requires more than a simple observa- tion. Further, the bomber usually has no direct control of the direction of the airplane, and can guide it only through the pilot, with whom he may communicate by signal or by reins on the pilot’s elbows; and almost every airplane, whether bombing or otherwise, is “blind,” so that the pilot, from his seat, is unable to see the ground at the bombing angle. The bomber, too, unless located in the prow, has only a very limited view of the target, and at low altitudes can see it only a very part by directing the airplane itseif through the pilot, can not by his own senses or by any ordinary apparatus de- termine precisely the forward path of the bomb or the vertical from which to determine its range. To show something of this difficulty of sighting on the vertical, even under the best conditions, place the sheet with Figure 1 on the floor, select any particular circle, and try to drop a pencil into it from the level of your eyes; or better, place it a few inches from the edge of a platform, 5 feet high, and try to roll a marble off the platform to hit within the selected circle while someone moves the figure. With this great and fundamental difficulty of getting the vertical, many efforts have been made to find other means of finding or holding the vertical. So far there has been but one true vertical observed from an air- plane, its own reflection in still water below it, as found by Major F. C. Brown, and on this phenomenon the Ord- to airplane and _ personnel have been ineffective and wasted. The efficient functioning of the bomb and its fuses is thus a distinct problem from that of efficiently placing the bomb, and with the increas- ing power of the anti-air- craft defense, driving the airplane to higher altitudes, the problem of placing the bomb becomes increasingly difficult. At the close of the world war the usual altitudes were 15,000 to 17,000 feet for day bombing, 8000 for night, 4000 for naval and 2000 to 1000 feet for submarines, While nance Department of the Army has based its trajec- tory tests, photographing the falling bomb against the re- flectiow of the airplane with a moving picture camera. An observation method is by the use of two vertical mir- rors at about 45 degrees to the line of sight to right and left; when the horizon shows at the same height in both mirrors the intersection of their planes is a_ vertical line. For service use, how- ever, the development is toward the use of a gyro- scope, to give a reference line or to actually hold the bomb sight in position. Such a gy- at the-lower altitudes judg- ment and experience might be sufficient, at the higher altitudes definite guides for aiming became a necessity. From the day-bombing altitude of 15,000 feet the head of 4 common pin held at arm’s length covers a circle of about 50 feet diameter on the ground, a circle that will enclose the ordinary farmhouse, and is about the size of the crater of a 600-pound bomb, and the airplane traverses this diameter in from one-fifth to three-fifths ofasecond. With a delay fuse, the size of the crater is 4 fair measure of the destructive effect of a demolition bomb, and with a fuse giving one-half second delay or more, the diameter in soft soil is about 4f’ weight of bomb or 5’ weight of explosive The actual destructive area is somewhat greater; for the 2000-pound bomb the crater is about 50 feet across, Fig. 2. Damage to railroad tracks by a direct hit of a 112-pound demolition bomb released, during and possibly little time before the bomb must be which time he must recognize the target, correct the direction of the airplane and set his sights. The bomb when released from the airplane continues in motion with it, but is immediately subject to the action of gravity, acting vertically downward, and the bomb takes up a downward motion in addition to the forward motion which it already has. The effect to the bomber is as though he were fixed in space and shooting at the rapidly moving target with a low-power gun that is fixed vertically; he can not point his gun, but can only await the proper moment to fire it. He knows that it is fixed on the vertical, but he can neither see the gun nor see the vertical to recognize it, for the sense of vertical is nearly lost in an airplane, and is roscope is very sensitive. It may carry the sighting appa- ratus directly upon it or may hold the apparatus paral- lel to itself by the action of relay mechanism, by which means the apparatus may be handled without disturbing the gyro. Figure 3 shows a stabilizer of the first type, with the attached sight. This gyro has a three-phase electric motor taking current from a special generator, driven by an air fan in the slip-stream of the propeller The Bomb Trajectory. A body dropped in the car of a railroad train in motion falls to the floor at the same point it would strike if the car were at rest, and if dropped outside the car it would fall on a vertical line as seen from the car, except for the effects of the re- sistance of the air. In the same manner, the horizontal momentum given the bomb while on the airplane carries the bomb forward during its fall and determines the

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50) SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 19) JAN! released, and during the fall of the bomb direction of its patl nd if there were n the wind has moved the distance and ding, resistance from the ! e bomb i tion AA’, carrying with it the entire play ' always be vertica nder the airplane in the air containing the airplane ay X f fot the bomb +4 par : a but because « ‘ e the b bomb to the position O’ A’ at the instay lags behind in , ‘ ind of hit. The point of hit is still in th horizontal! ‘ ile other edi plane of the axis of the airplane, as wig rected by the vane ! nner which will no wind, since the bomb has received ony be referred to later el ! Iways be the same lateral displacement as the ajp. hind the vert 1 fre the airplane, this plane itself, but this point is no longer q distance at the ground being called the the projecting path of the airplane Of trail but to one side. This correction may From the alr ne it is the ground that made in the construction of the bom eems to move nd the bomber is endeny sight by setting the trail correction always a oring shoot iinst irget n in the axis of the airplane while deviatin F ith the speed of the rplan The bomb the line or plane of sight to the side. t its release seems to fall down an in In every bombsight it is necessary ty clined curved line at the rear to the establish a line of sight—the range sigh 4, anc ground This is the one and only dire from which the target will move to th vanes tion In which the bomber may shoot, and trail position in the time of fall of th ficient his only control in range is to release at bomb. To establish this it is necessary ty this a such an Instant that the bomb falling down have some measure of the ground speed chang this inelined curved line reaches the and this has been done by timing, either turn, | ground in precisely the same time that directly over a measured distance, or ip or “sk the target takes to reach this line, so that directly by coincidence methods; by sym nosing bomb and target meet. This is much the chronizing, in which a part of the appa nearly same as shooting ahead of a flying bird ratus is caused to move at the same a its for to bring it down, but in this case there is parent speed as that of the ground; fron the gr no choice of angle or point at which the data of air speed and wind speed ané of no hit is to be made s is had by pointing observation of drift; and by compounding directé the gun: the hit must be at the trail, and the apparent motion of the ground with, flying the bomb must be released ahead so that known lateral motion. Figure 7 is know of two the target reaches that point at the same as the “equidistant” method; there ar of wh instant as the bomb three points an equal distance apart, the even ¢ These conditions are shown in Figure 4 rear point being on the trail sight; ther variati a bomb released at O falls along the curved is a reversing stop watch, having an ind increa: path OHA, striking the ground at A, the cator which may be at the time of fall of that a airplane in the meantime moving to B the bomb, indicated by an altitude seale the sal The bomb, as seen from the airplane, falls The watch is started in the normal diree It w down the curved path BA to the point of tion when the target passes the first line to dire hit, seen at the angle LBA behind the ver of sight, reversed when it passes the see conditi tieal BI if there were no air resistance ond, and the bomb is released when the good | the bomb would t all times be ertically a hand returns to the position of the ind steady under the airplane as at F and G and Fig. 3. Gyro stabilizer and attached bomb sight. Cross sections hold the bomb cator: the hand, continuing, will reach the sonnel, would fall along the dotted curved path sight parallel to the gyro axis, and devices of the gyro control balance starting point when the bomb reaches the airplar OGDC, a parabola, reaching the ground at weights that tend to hold the gyro axis vertical. A. Timing and an : ae ie eae . ; , eee : ground and the target reaches the line of steady PD. The angle from the point of release to trail knob. B. Altitude knob. C. Collimator, directed i ahs pas Page ‘i : , . } on line of sight. D. Glass window in base the trail sight. The principles of Figure weight > "? of if re \ en i tter . ” - _ : ‘ the — ! from whi h the latter have been used a great deal. There ar bombs, would be predicted, is given then by the em two scales, one for altitude and one for relation time, corresponding for the particular tangent of angle of sight } b i > The ti » is taken fi any Probe ; _— - _ . F ines mpd In use, l€ ime 1S taken for any travel of plane during fall, less trail os — i BI object to pass from the altitude point to I altitude of plane 7 / the trail, and a point is set at this time W; 0 sare OB 4 yb on the time seale, giving the range sight, Mech BI indicating the point on the ground that ee 4 . . . ‘ ~ SS emtee the attend din a of the / the bomb will hit, so long as the airplane reas Knowing the vertical, ie speed o “ \ al / a te Se at the need anda largest lane in relation to the ground, the alt > 2 SS a ae oe a re pli li x " " 2 3S S| / | Hon for cer tude, and the characteristics of the bomb 2 om My $ genera! lines or points may be set up in an appa 3 e, SAH he \/ The values for the trail for a Gay devotec ratus in the airplane to form triang! t Ned As = @ 3 \/ bomb are obtained with great difficulty Th | t ‘ pli o or ; vies | i ve -~ G rvs , e with sides parallel to the lin f the fi $ %, 5 or Of Fi a through long and tedious tests and com —_ ‘ _ "i i o ie ines o ‘ vv ¥ a “it z a ne rive! F ure, and thus predict or indicate at each Y wv is a / %, putatiors. They depend chiefly on the on veep lca preteen 3\ 3 g = % factors of altitude, air speed, and the wee ft. instant that point on the ground that . a’ oy \ > | i e = \2 nar ae r.p.m. re ” shape, weight and resistance of the bomb would be hit by a bomb released at that | iY), =/ 5, i yf ‘a ; of larg vas hn: ahem of - a le 4 &/ \ at various speeds, and the variation of alt instant 1e sides of such triangles may j K/ * = M dehte ave arrannsl at 1006 be proportioned to distances or to velo« / ‘ density. Most sights are arrange¢ The di ties; for ex: imple am may represent the Ground Line A 0 L —_ a atts amigas seve - = a = periphe mean velocity of fall and ob the ground ne - Range ste Trail ~—* ene penmete te arrange spperee er Si speed of the rpl . . repre ” take account of all factors for different I set peed o ie airplane, or am may repre } ae wit) te @ sito <a rror powerf vent the alttteda ont ab the travel ef tha . wombs With only a slight Maximum e@ . mnt en ‘ ‘ ‘ l \ ee ‘ iS li : ber critical plane for the time the bomb is in the air ‘ rhe bomb sight indicates to the bes a matt Si th Gn ck alist on tte Gand Gh tinial i the point on the ground which would — i j s ch a basis mt all n ; : ; instant teeth ; sights are constructed, although with many hit by . bomb released at that instem® which i modificatios : taking consideration of the ground speed, Ty ications a = ar saoe copa ‘ 1e : Most bomb sights at present in use have Fig. 4. By the time bomb, released at O, strikes the earth at A, the airplane wind speed and dire tion, air speed, = is by ne been intended for use only in the plane has moved forward to B. Air resistance retards forward movement of bomb tude, and the bomb’s vrearraggi: of the wind—that is, up or with considerable of thes down wind, but this restric- f factors, It — indica S tion is a very serious one proper moment of release, . 4 particularly where there is | +--+ perform that function aule dition anthaian=® ae } matically. The come ; E : ——— ee io ines « sisr i fence, as the directions of at sighting Sgpararnnes see I tack e then known in ad also to Getermine ee soneniie oA. semen “Coart and direction of the airplane ; saben Dawe buen Gavia’ to and of the wind in relatiol permit of use in any direc- to the ground, and to show ; tion to the wind The action pe pa pned = « : ! . nities » slonkeme a in a cross wind is readily axis of the airplane i aa ; understood if we consider ns tony — yo a to : that the effect of the wind muniecate this direction as seen from the airplane, is the pilot. * ed & to blow the ground away up The bomb is an elongs 3 wind In Figure 6, a view body provided with fue in plan, the airplane is at O vanes at the rear to direct ft hess flying with its axis directed ame. oe + pars Fig. along OA when the bomb ts Fig. 5. Bomb dropped from airplane, showing true flight. Note how the bomb follows the airplane curving, as shown in Figw

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192)| he bea i Nd diree re Plane ine an - instay & L in the as With ved onht the air nger ine OL may be > bomb | alwaysi eViating le. ‘sary te ze sight P to th Of the SSary ti 1 speed , @ither . OF ip by syn e appa ime ap 1; fron ed and unding with ; known Pre are irt, the there in indi. fall of > scale 1 diree- rst line he see en the e ind ich the ies the line of igure 8 re are ne for ticular or any int to s time sight 1 that rplane diree- given ficulty 1 com nthe id the bomb of air 1 for s been us Terent error. omber ild be stant, speed, , alti ‘Ss; OF these re the se, oF auto plete juired speed plane lation show f the reach cor mm to cated ns oF ect it ith is igure - : mRNA 8 Y ~ ys t t JANUARY, 1 LU Fig. 6. Showing effect of a cross wind on the path of an airplane 4, and if the bomb is not properly proportioned or the been damaged, the bomb may not turn suf- ficiently and may move at an angle with its path. If this angle becomes great, the forces on the vanes may change the path; if nosing up, or hanging back on the turn, as at A, Figure 10, the bomb is forced forward r “skids” at the expense of its downward velocity; if nosing down, as at B, it may be forced down in a more nearly vertical path at transforming its forward into downward motion, so that it may reach the ground in even less time than the theoretical bomb of no air Figure 5 shows a bomb properly directed on its path. Figure 11 shows three bombs, one flying true and two nosing up. Figure 9 shows the path of two bombs, supposed to be similar in every way, one of which fell true and the other wobbled or possibly even cartwheeled. It is impossible to predict variations, but fortunately they are much reduced with increase of size. Accurate bombing not only requires that a bomb take a certain path, but that it always take the same path, so that its point of hit may be predicted. It will be seen that it is by no means a simple matter an airplane and release a bomb under trying obtain a hit. It requires vanes have increased speed, resistance, these to direct conditions in a manner to good training and team work in pilot and~ bomber, steady nerves, quick reaction, a special class of per- sonnel, sighting apparatus of a special nature, steady airplanes, and a careful proportioning of the bombs for steady flight. But good bombing will place a given weight of bombs against a target with less loss of bombs, of airplanes and of personnel. Probable Limits of Electric Generators and Superpower Plants for Germany \ RITING in Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure for August 27, 1921, and abstracted in Mechanical Engineering for November, Prof. W. Reichel discusses the problem of the most economical and the largest commercially possible sizes of electric generators for central stations. The economy of large units is generally mized and an interesting discussion is devoted to the question as to the largest possible sizes. recoy The most advisable speeds for various sizes are given as 3000 r.p.m. for generators up to 25,000 kva., 1500 r.p.m. for generators up to 40,000 kva., and 1000 60,000 Kva. cited As examples of 60,000 kya. war in Germany. meters, so that the 1000 r.p.m. is about 118 meters per second. Such large dimensions required a very powerfully built axle and design in which the critical speed was higher than the operating speed. As a matter of fact, the axle weighs 36 metric tons. The teeth are provided with ventilating orifices through which air for cooling the rotor is driven. The author distinctly states, however, that 60,000 kva. is by no means the limit of size for such generators, and rp.m. for generators up to of large generators two units are at 1000 r.p.m. installed during the The diameter of the 5 peripheral velocity at rotor is 2.25 also a : Feet Altitude 5 Seconds Time involving use of an Method of sighting, altitude and a time scale Fig. 8, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Fig. 9. Night photograph by Dr. A. W. Duff, using a storage battery in the bomb and an electric light on the tail. Note that the bomb that is wobbling— probably “cartwheeling”—loses its forward velocity more quickly, and finally falls in a nearly vertical path. Full breaks in the lines indicate seconds. The bright points are stars os Fig. 11. Three bombs dropped from an airplane. Note the true trajectory of the upper bomb and the “nosing up” of the two lower bombs. Accurate bomb- ing not only requires that a bomb take a certain path, but that it always takes the same path 51 am ion Pate oo Time of Fall Diagram illustrating the “equidistant method” of sighting Fig. 7. theoretically it is by no means impossible to go consid- erably beyond that. In fact, he says that it has been established by calculation that generators may be built in sizes up to 160,000 kva. and the most serious obstacle in the way of accomplishing such constructions lies in the difficulty of the transportation of such huge mia chines by railroad, necessitating their assembling and, in particular, winding on the spot of installation, a process not always attractive. The use of giant machines of 160,000 kva. at 1000 r.p.m. is suggested in a central station with six units, one being a standby. Such a plant would have a nor- mal load of 400,000 kw. and a peak load of 500,000 kw., with a total output per year of, say, 2,000,000 kw. hr. Five such central stations would have been sufficient to satisfy the entire demand for electric power in Ger- many. For steam turbines driving these generators are Suggested double units with steam admission in the middle, 16 to 17 at the turbine inlet and 20 atmos. gage pressure on the boiler, with a steam temperature of 350 degrees Centigrade at the turbine inlet valve. In view of the great consumption of fuel and water of condensation, it is that economically such big plants should be located only near a large coal supply and near a large river. Assuming that coal would be delivered 300 days in the year, this would mean that 7500 tons per day would have to be received into the plant and be distributed either to the boiler rooms or to the bunkers, The general conclusion to which the author is that at present the limit to the size of electrical generators is set mainly by the demand for power. atmos. pressure obvious also comes What Is Gray? NEW publication, Scientific Paper of the Bureau of Standards, No. 417, entitled “The Spectral Dis- tribution of Energy Required to Evoke the Gray Sensa tion,” has just been announced. The chief significance of this paper lies in the development and testing of an experimental method for determinin yan objective phys- ical standard of “white light.’ Exxperimental results are given from four observers. The average results of these observers indicate that “white light” may be represented: (1) Theoretically, by the light from a Planckian radiator at a temperature of 5200 degrees absolute; (2) practically, to a fair ap- proximation, by average noon sunlight at Washington. It is, however, emphasized that the final establishment of such a standard should be based on a more extensive statistical investigation, An appendix to the paper sets forth the desirability of an extensive statistical determination and correlation of the characteristics of color vision, This publication is now ready for distribution, and any one interested may obtain a copy by addressing a request to the Bureau of Standards until the free stock is exhausted. Fig. 10. ‘Showing bomb A nosing up » and bomb B nosing down

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN How N“ other prehistoric creature now ext 4 ing as much consideration to-day as populi rity of this sea-rept Saurus Phe based on ure constantly being lute quurries in Hol temberg, they are found in such can almost be procured as reuson that Germany's geologic such complete and interesting specimens of a now ex- tine pust. In view of the wealth of for investigation and comparison, the enabled to study every of this sea-monster The scientist was to determine to a large means of a comparative study of existing creatures, whose bodily saurus. The Ichthyosaurus appeare and Cretaceous formations in Europe, as 1 chiefly in well as in the Upper Jurassic strata of America to Greenland in the North, and likewise in the Upper Triassic formations of Europe. Individuals 10 meters long were then a common occurrence, lived ex- clusively in the seu, and consequently might be considered to have adapted them- selves to this life to a very high degree. Undoubtedly they were descendants of some land-monsters, although their bodily structure shows they were utterly incapa ble of land, but spent their lives exclusively swimming about in addition to their bodily which show adaptation to high their method of reproduction is evidence moving about on the water In characteristics, an aquatic existence to a degree, Sufficient proof exists that A total of 14 bodies of Ichthyosaurus were found with young of this fact. they were born alive. ones in their bodies. Considering the con dition of the young ones in a number of these specimens the process of birth be came problematical, in view of the fact that many of these young ones were fac ing each other. Both Owen and Quenstedt expressed the helief that the Ik hthyo suurus frequently ate their young ones, Branca deserves the credit of having defi nitely established the truth of this asser- tion by X-raying a Berlin specimen The Ichthyosaurus po tailed head spindle-formed torso practically without a sessed a long which was joined to the neck, a fact which enabled the monster to skim through the water with practically no resistance Undoubtedly, through bod have ily structure and limbs, they must been the best swimmers among the sea- animals of that time, They possessed very short limbs of a finny structure. The , lop- locomotion was obtained by hind rudder-organs showed weak deve ment, since means of the two lobulated tail-fins, act ng in conjunction with a rather high back fin as keel, In the structure of the skeleton of the 1 limbs we find proof of a striking increase Did the Ichthyosaurus Live? n the fact that numerous well-preserved fossils found. In certain se nden and other parts of Wurt- the dangerous large numbers that one Large circular bony desired. It collections fossil material available scientist was detail of the bodily also enabled at that time and which extent its habits of life by structure resembles that of im the net is recely- fins was the Ichthyo five fingers e is chiefly The gills tions of the the is for this the comprise Siurus, structure the I hthyo number of phalanges, the result of considerably equippe d with possession predatory witer-pressure like They lived chiefly on cuttle-fish In the upper Jurassic formations we find form: equipped with considerably fewer teeth. number of teeth is unquestionably ing numbers of soft-shelled cuttle-fish which developed formed their main diet. A peculiar characteristic of one completely fossilized specimen is a semicircular throat-sack, whose function has not yet been determined. evidenced on all of teeth, set formation of instinct plates protected aut great more which these depths, This due to Triassic its for whale, was an unusually (Belemnites) which enlargement a splitting eyes t Ichthyosaurus with young, from photograph in the American Museum of reduction in the increas- Perhaps it served a pur- pose similar to that of the human larynx, or of a the Jurassic which had some connection with its absorption of food. of the of three or formations, pointed, and common give groove, proof of monsters, against he Ichthyo- gel diver. and fish. Natural History The skin of the Ichthyosaurus was completely naked, being an adaptation to its aquatic existence and its swift movements, and in order to overcome the resist- ance offered by the water. Nevertheless, there are traces of armored limbs (Panzerresten) to be found on the front and hind fins, which give proof of the | fact that its land predecessors were armored. In the black Lias strata of Swabia several specimens with well-preserved skins were found, on which the outlines of the present tail-lins are completely retained, These fins are vertical in position; that is, they are joined symmetrically even with the body. The ver tebral column shows a pronounced curvature in the region of the tail, which is indicative of the function of the tail-fins as organs of locomotion. In their outer appearance the Ichthyosauri remind one very much of the Delphine mammals. This cor respondence can only be accounted for by necessary adaptation to a similar mode of living. Among other characteristics its simple vertebral head bespeaks its monstrous nature. Bony ventral ribs covering its the racic cavity, unquestionably enabled it to ? oh} wee a ead take in large quantities of air in diving into the depths, for one must assume that breathing took place through the aid of the lungs. The large numbers of fossilized speci- mens found prove that these animals led a gregarious existence, and that, like the whales, they moved about in large schools. Whether or not they are to be considered as having been the sole inhabitants of the high seas, Solenhofen’s discoveries prove that they even ventured into shallow bays. This reptilian family flourished in the period of the Liassic Formations, the most important feature of which is the large number of different specimens of Ichthye saurus and other reptilian remains. In the Upper Jurassic strata they become rarer, and rarer still in the Cretaceous rocks. Not a single Ichthyosaurus remains from the Tertiary Period. It must accord ingly be assumed that this reptile became extinct in the Upper Cretaceous forma- tion. Development of the Asbestos Industry in Canada RECENT discovery was made of a& 4 bestos-bearing rock which gives prom ise of being of considerable value. Consul Norton F. Brand in a recent report states that the deposit is located in the serpet tine rocks of the Canadian Pacitiec Railway connecting Revelstoke and Arrowhead and is about four miles north of Arrowhead. The Montreal Daily Star recently al- nounced that a large manufacturing plant for making asbestos products is about t@ be constructed in the Province of Quebet. According to this article about 80 per cent of the asbestos produced in Canada has heretofore been exported to the United States, while nearly all of the Dominion’s requirements of products has been reexported from this country. It #8 understood that asbestos constitutes about asbestos Adult and infant ichthyosaurus, as restored from the fossil remains of the German fields one-half of the mineral production of the Province of Quebec. JANUARY, 1922 capers Cea oS aS RS OARS on oon eer ee teas 2s fk a atal awa} from gine exhil fron! 20 te fund they over of “] whee dem¢ fathe domi Th tures our ! the « and cycle reade press a cel ’roun Th be di place of st were failec for ¢ is ex pheri deal Roch strok as th Ou four We t mean a pre at th cente: —_-~— §

Page 53

; , 1922

cy ara naked, § nd its é resist- | "e are j found | of the -imens ‘h the ained, ‘y are P Ver- n the nection i italia ae emia “EAR NCR emind S Cor -SSary other cS its s tho it to living > that id of J speci- Is led ‘e the hools, dered f the prove hays. n the most large ithyo- In come ceous nains ‘cord came : yrma- a eciciel istry f as yrom- ynsul tates rpen- lway and read. an- plant it to ehec. cent has ited on’s has t is pout the

JANuARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

1S

Six successive stages in the action of one cylinder, starting frem the moment when the compression stroke is completed. For full details see the text Intake, Compression, Power and Exhaust Successive Stages Showing What Happens Inside the Motor That Drives the Modern Automobile NE of the popular features of automobile shows of recent years has been the display of engines cut away in some manner and driven by electric power from outside, to display the successive steps of the en- gine cycle. There are always half a dozen of these exhibits, and there is always a good healthy crowd in front of each. We cannot believe that the people who go to the automobile shows lack acquaintance with the fundamentals of the internal combustion engine; yet they stand by the hour watching these exhibits turn over with their internals exposed. When the author of “Helen’s Babies” put the words “I want to see the wheels go ’round!” into the mouth of little Taddie, he demonstrated the statement that the child is father to the man, and gave expression to one of the dominating impulses of the civilized homo sapiens. This, we believe, is sufficient justification for the pic- tures and text that Few of our readers are in ignorance of what we tell here. On the other hand, the things that experienced drivers do and say make it plain that all the niceties of the engine eycle are not universally appreciated. And even the reader who finds nothing here which had failed to im- press itself upon his consciousness will, we hope, take a certain satisfaction in just watching the wheels go ’round. The first attempts to make an engine which should be driven by the direct power of an explosion taking place in its cylinders, without the intermediate agency of steam to convert the heat of combustion into power, were disorderly and unsuccessful mainly because they failed to take into account the fundamental necessity for compression. A proper mixture of air and gasoline is explosive under all atmos- pheric pressure it will not produce power to do a great deal of work. It is for this reason that Beau de Rochas, who first laid down the orderly sequence of strokes set down in the title above, is often recognized as the grandfather of the modern four-cycle engine. Our first series of drawings attempts to follow these four parts of the cycle through in a single cylinder. We take the carburetor for granted, assuming that a means is present for supplying to the intake manifold 4 proper explosive mixture. We start, in Drawing I, at the point where the cylinder stands at top dead- center after the completion of the compression stroke. poet’s occupy these two pages. circumstances; but at This cylinder stands now on the verge of doing work; the gas above the piston is under compression as indi- cated by the in-turning arrows, and all is in readiness for the spark. For the moment we shall take the spark for granted, too, and rest secure in the confidence that when it is due it will arrive. Drawing JI shows the next stage; the spark has occurred, the gas in the cylinder has ex- ploded, and the arrows indicate that pressure is being exerted in all directions. An explosion, be it noted, can take place in a closed chamber without anything of note happening. <A certain definite pressure is pro- duced, and if all the walls are able to withstand it they will do so, and it will be contained. In the present case, all the walls of. the combustion chamber are amply able to contain the explosion, with the single reservation that the floor of this chamber, furnished by the piston, is movable. The expanding gases take the vent that is open to them and drive the piston down. Drawing II shows it on its way, moving downward as indicated by the arrow. The “throw” of the crankshaft, which a moment ago stood straight up, has been pushed around and now stands straight out in front of the plane of the paper. The camshaft, which makes a single revolu- tion to two complete turns of the crankshaft, for a reason to be demonstrated later, has made one-eighth of a turn to match the quarter-turn of the crankshaft ; the cams are in correspondingly shifted positions. In Drawing III we are within a quarter-inch or so of bottom dead-center. The exhaust cam has moved around far enough to have started to raise its push-rod and with it its valve. With the crankshaft throw so near its own dead-center, the piston can not exert much push on it in any event; the infinitesimal amount of power lost by what might at first blush seem the pre- mature opening of the exhaust valve is more than com- pensated for by the acceleration given to the exhaust process by this early opening. For there is going to be xn real loss of power if we attempt to explode the next charge, when its time comes, without having cleaned out the burned gases thoroughly. In this drawing we still have the gases in the combustion chamber expand- ing, pushing in all directions, and incidentally passing to some degree out through the partly opened exhaust valve and thereby lightening the task which the piston must perform on its upstroke. Drawing IV shows the piston at the end of its down- stroke, at bottom dead-center; and the exhaust valve is open a trifle wider. The piston will not move any further, so that the cylinder is impervious to the ex- pansive force of the gas save at the one point where we are only to glad to have it yield—at the exhaust valve. The only action of note that is taking place in the gas is therefore its continuing escape through this valve. In Drawing V the piston has gone well along on its upward stroke; we see the crankshaft throw up and out behind the plane of the paper. This is the exhaust stroke; the gas may still have a certain amount of ex- pansive action left in it, but that is immaterial. The piston is actively engaged in driving it up and out, through the now wide-open exhaust valve, the heel of the cam (in a cam of this shape it seems as though it might better be designated the toe) being at its highest point. The sixth sketch depicts the next significant stage. The piston has again reached the dead-center at the top of its stroke, and the absence of an arrow to indicate its direction makes it plain that it is again momentarily checked. ‘The exhaust valve has closed completely, in anticipation of the opening of the intake valve which is to follow. At the stage shown here, nothing is hap- pening in the chamber above the piston head; the ex- haust has been completed, the intake has not started. So we have no gas flow at all, and no arrows to indi- cate any. As soon as the piston starts its downward stroke the intake valve of course must start to open, in order to get the full benefit of the suction from the motion of the piston. Drawing VII shows that this condition is met; Drawing VIII shows the intake stroke at its cen- ter, with piston and crankshaft in about the same posi- tion as in Drawing II, but with the cams and the valves and Drawing IX shows us at the end Here we quite otherwise ; of the stroke, at bottom dead-center again. are about to start up on the compression stroke, and it might seem that the intake valve should have closed in expectation of this. The fact is, however, the in- drawing force at the valve is so persistent that we can afford to permit the closing of the latter to drag along a wee bit into the compression stroke; it need not close completely until the gas in the cylinder shall have had

oa

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The rest of the cycle, carrying things through to a duplication of the state of affairs seen in Drawing I, above

Page 54

54 time to transmit the compressive force of the movin piston from the bottom to the t if the eylinde But Drawing X shows us that oon inv appreciable distance has been elled | nin i ipward compressive wi the intake ‘ eated. Drawings XI and NIl how the completion of the compression stroke, and bring to the beginning gain Careful comparison of Drawings III-VI with num hers VI-X will she t! the intake valve and the ex haust valve do not correspond ¢ etly in their action The exhaust opens before the piston res hes bottom dead-center nd is closed at the instant when it arrives at top dead-centel The Intake vilve on the other hand, opens a hace ifter top dead-center nd loses i shade after bottom dead-center This result, it will be appreciated, requires that the two cams be set, not it exact right angles to one another, but at an angle a trifle wider than this, so that the intake action follows the exhaust at an interval slightly greater than a quarter revolution of the camshaft or a half revolution of the crankshaft As here pictured, the two valve ac tions take the same actual time; and the action of each valve in opening takes the same y™ riod as the action of the same valve in closing If it were desired to depart from these conditions, the periods of the valves could be made to differ by having the intake and the exhaust eams of different shape: while the half-periods of a single valve could be made to differ by having the cam unsymmetric—sloping more sharply on one side of the heel than on the other The valve action and the shape of the cam have been copied, in these drawings, quite faithfully, from a par ticular engine of a particular brand of automobile. Aside from this, it will be realized that liberties have been taken in the drawings, which ave rather crude in a number of respects In particular, the aleove that carries the valves is not, in fact, in front of the cylinder SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN In of the individual cylinder de- stroke not once on each turn of the shaft, nder her words livers u power

but once on every two turns. This is the feature that sepurates the four-cycle engine from the steam engine nd the two-cycle type generally, where work is done on both sides of the piston so that a power stroke is delivered on each revolution of the crankshaft. Pursu- ing the matter further, this is the reason why the four cycle engine is always a multi-cylinder affair. A single cylinder can hardly deliver enough energy on the work stroke to carry the crankshaft through a turn and a half, drive the piston through three parasitic strokes, and in addition deliver energy to the transmission system, The cylinders must, however, be arranged so that two demands are met The power strokes from the several pistons must come at evenly distributed intervals DRIVING END ROCKER a ARM UP 2 Gere aan se ~ ROCKER ARM DOWN | ‘= Some | { | VALVE VALVE OPEN 7 | i} OPEN cCYLInDeR 1} ; | | CYLINDER | | ' 1} | 1} ¢ cAM uP a i< CAM uP 7s CAMSHAFT The relation between valve-head and cam is exactly the same in both types, despite the reversed direction of opening Poppet valve vs. overhead type through the two revolutions of the crankshaft that cor respond to the single cycle of the entire.engine: and they must be so distributed spatially along the shaft, from front to back, as to keep the latter evenly bal- anced The latter condition is not so clear when ex- pressed in words as the former; what it means may well be appreciated by a glance at our drawing of the complete four-cylinder engine. It will be noted that here the two end throws of the crankshaft are shown down, with the pistons corre- sponding to them at bottom deud-center, while the two center throws are up, at top dead-center. This, it will be understood at once, results in an even distribution of the up and down moments about the center bearing of the crankshaft If, without proper thought, the cylinders were allowed to fire in order from front to back, the first and third throws would be down while

JANUARY, 1929 practically equal to that of the best fours, while the and twelves of necessity their extreme smoothness of operation upon a larger consumption of fuel. We have selected the four for full diagrammatic rep resentation of the entire engine-cycle, and have retaineg the conventionalized crudities that make for more eon. venient diagramming. We are now able to show the relation between the crankshaft and the camshaft. The driven gear at the end of the latter is twice the gig of the driving gear at the end of the former, so that the camshaft turns once while the crankshaft turns twice. Refiection will show this to be a necessary ¢op. sequence of the four-stroke cycle; it could be avoided only by the use of separate camshafts for intake ang exhaust valves. Arrows emphasize the fact that with au simple arrangement like that pictured, thege shafts revolve in opposite directions, No comment is necessary in each cylinder individually, since in every case one of the stages shown in our first twelve drawings is re The point here is rather to exhibit clearly eights base gear produced. the succession of power, exhaust, intake and compres § sion; as well as the succession of power strokes through cylinders 1, 2, 4, 3 when numbered in accordance with their position along the axis of the engine. The cams have been still further conventionalized, and this time the arrangement of all eight of them appears. No effort is made to indicate the manner in which the timer or distributor, for producing the spark at the right time in the right cylinder, is geared or connected by chain to the ultimate source of its driving power, It, like the camshaft, must rotate once to two turns of the crankshaft; it may be driven by one-to-one gear off or by a similarly geared chain off the camshaft gear, the camshaft. The point in showing it at all is to indicate a little more clearly where the spark comes from. Assuming that we have a sparking current i the wires, it is plain that as the brush passes over each contact, this current flows to the plug in the cor responding cylinder and there gives the spark. We show only the wire leading to the cylinder that fis actually tiring. The distributor is the one element in the timing of the engine that is flexible (as the spark-lever indicates) The slower the engine speed, the further the spark must be retarded to give the maximum of power; the greater the engine speed, the further it must be advanced in the same search for maximum force. Perhaps the rea son for this not to every driver. Reflection ought to make it plain that the slowing or speeding of in the least affect the relative tim valves; it affects only the actual On the other hand, the combustion and explosion velocities of a mixture of air and gasoline are entirely definite, and nothing we do t the engine can affect them in the least. is clear the engine does not ing of and values of their several speeds. pistons

chamber, or behind it, but in every engine is actually at one sick so that the valves stand side by side in the direction parallel to the crankshaft. For simplicity of drawing we have turned the aleove around, and at the same time so pictured the valves that they may both have their push-reds resting on the cams of the single camshaft. Of course no sane designer would set up his engine in such a way that the intake would have to puss across the exhaust valve, covering a superfluous dis tance of two inches or more Other departure f our drawings are likewise made in the interests of cleat diagrammatic representation, and will be so understood We have shown the valves on our typical cylinder as of the poppet type More and more, engine-builders are availing themselves of the advantages of the overhead valve in the top of the cylinder casting, so a word ought to be said about this Its big feature is that it eliminates the aleove, and makes it possible for the intake and the exhaust to proceed without running around a corner, The incoming gas enters the main body of the combustion cham ber at once; the exhaust gases leave that % the valve. Curiously cof the no modification of chamber directly via enouch, the introduction overhead valve requires the cam setting, in spite of the fact that the valve OF “TIMER Dr, INTARE VALVE NTAKE VALVE INTAKE VALVE

¢.cstp CLOSED OPEN EXHAUST vAWwE [ exaust vawve ( exnausr vawe \ CLOSED CLOSED

head must move downward to open and EXHAUST VALVE upward to close, in reversal of the poppet C.seeD ah INTARE VALVE _~ valve action The push-rods are merely CLOSED made longer—sufliciently long, in fact, to faeee wnew Revove project into the clear on top of the cylin der casting. A rocker arm is then pro Laace . ORivEn vided, running from the end of the push cean—?" rod to a sbort valve stem. When the , SMALL push-rod moves up, this rocker drives the pavind_, and, as our drawing inserted for the purpose shows, the two styles of valve down:

When we slow the engine, or speed it up, we therefore do alter the ratio between the piston speed and the speed at which the acts in the combustion chamber. If we slow the engine materially the ex plosion takes place at the same old speed and will reach the piston head and begin to do work thereon before we are ready for it to do so; to prevent this, we retard the spark and start the explosion later. When we speed up the engine beyond the velocity of explosion, we similarly cas gas

EAMAuST CAM VP INTARE CAM COPUNG UF

( €xHAUST CAM conc DOWN BEHIND CAMSHAFT “NEEHAUST Cam Comune UP NTAKE CAM DOWN

INTAME CAM GOING DOWN BEHIND CAMBMAFT

must advance the spark in order to make certain that the expanding gas shall reach the piston head soon enough. The whole sequence of events that take place inside the gas engine is admirably designed to bring out the true significance

valve are in precisely the same position for the same position of the cam. It is even possible to introduce a_ lever-ratio effect by allowing the valve end of the rocker arm to be longer, from pivot to bearing point, than the driving end that bears on the push-rod. In this way the valve travels faster than it can with the direct drive from the push-rod, and so may open wider without any loss of time The action of a single cylinder is by no means all there is to the automobile The several cylinders have to be so arranged that they will all contribute, in equal share, to the driving of the shaft. It fS here that the fundamental divergence comes in between fours and sixes, and between all-in-line and V-type engines We have not space to picture them all, and must therefore content ourselves with a few generalities Every piston, it will be realized from what we have already shown, must make two comp! return trips down and up again in its cylinder for complete cycle: and that means that the crankshaft must rotate two for a single cycle of the comple e turn through The essential features of the full cycle of the four-cylinder engine, shown in diagrammatic form (cylinders numbered in order of firing) the second and fourth ones were up, and the unbalanced would destroy the center bearing in short order, if not the crankshaft in the bargain. The six-cylinder engine, of course, presents three ex- plosions and three power strokes for each turn of the crankshaft, while the four-cylinder type presents only pressures two. This means that where the successive cylinders n the four (in order of firing, not in order from front of the engine to back) have their crahkshaft throws exactly opposite one another at angles of 180 degrees, the corresponding angle in the six is 120 degrees. The advantage of the six inheres in this circumstance ; for where we show the four with all pistons at dead centers simultaneously, this cannot happen on the six, rreiut which must always have at least four of its six cylin- ders somewhere in the middle of a stroke, with never more than two of the six at a dead-center. This explains why the light six-cylinder cars make gasoline-mileage of minute intervals of time. The Greeks had their celebrated paradox of Zeno, which was a permanent puzzle to them because, admitting the possibility of dividing space again and again and again into as small intervals a we choose and admitting the reality and the significance of the parts into which it might thus be divided, they refused to divide time similarly into indefinitely small pieces. We are apt to share this feeling that there comes a point beyond which further shortening of the time dealt with lacks significance. If we will but Te flect that pistons make up to 2000 trips up the cylii- der, and 2000 trips down it, and 4000 dead stops and reversals of direction, in 60 we ought to bk convinced of the reality of minute time intervals. There is time, and to spare, for the proper sequence of all the things that must take place to complete a compl cated engine cycle which lasts for but 6 one hundredths of a second—even when the item under consideration is the halt at dead-center which can only be allowed a small fraction of this already minute period. seconds, upon what is taking place § é

a Fe =

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JANU Y B st kept fi of ice obstac! cially compal city of compal The ears e which out for side tl also e steel fe when < feet. ' “moppe benefit Anot with a front ¢ steel t which said, W to equi there a Electr ] N Mi | grou through out any vice. A accomp) 12 feet grade ¢ of lowe order t The s of the then the the duct ducts a was ere of plan the tres passed | nut and ing sup ties wel short di wire wa and on t end of t the tens with a s suspensi the nuts turns ar three tu the nuts the guy about th After th were scr This pro had reas bolts an trestle d Daily HE | factu has open Station a with the day Call which ca within a Every Standard ing of a ment re is given. tainment: day nigh Stories fi phoned, During every bal ported as

Page 55

, 1922 Xtreme tie rep. P Fy ctaine] © Te Con. ow the s The ¥ he siz © SO that turns ry con. i voided ke and it with these : place se one ; is re clearly mpres- hrough e with > cams S time tile the © i tion of }

ae el which | at the nected power, irns of par off iin off is to F comes ent in $s over 1@ Cor We hat is of the ates) must reater ‘ed in e rea- ection — ae ee I Bie

ing of § e tim ictual d, the of air do to least. it up, ween vhich mber. e ex- speed begin -eady etard later. 1 the larly make “each take rably ance "eeks Zeno, them space Is as ance they mall here ’ the t re- ylin- and o be here r all apli- dths tion wed

ea REE TR Se MOTT RELI

Seo. J

ome JaNuaRY, 1922 Trolley Snow Sweepers Y means of new devices, Cincinnati B street car tracks and streets are to be kept free from heavy shows and coatings of ice which in the past have proven big obstacles to traffic. They have been offi- cially adopted by the Cincinnati traction company, and formally approved by those city officials having supervision over the company. The new equipment consists of seven cars equipped with snow-pushing “wings” re 12 feet long and when spread

which a out for action clear a width of 7 feet out- side the car track. These “wings” are also equipped with extensions of heavy steel folded over like a jack-knife which when opened up clear several additional SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 55

feet. This contrivance may be termed a “mopper-up” and clean the street for the penefit of other traffic. Another piece of equipment is a large car provided with an apparatus for the removal of ice. On the front of this car is attached an apron provided with steel teeth, for the cleaning of ice from the tracks, which forms after snow melts. This machine, it is said, will do the work of 200 men. It is also planned to equip trucks with “wings” for use on streets where there are no car tracks—By R. C. Kroger. Duct Line was Lowered N Minneapolis recently a two-line under- | ground duct was lowered 12 feet through a total length of 1100 feet with- out any interruption to the electric ser- vice. At the point where this work was accomplished the roadway was depressed 12 feet eliminating a grade crossing, and the suspension method Electric Service Continued while i in the process of of lowering the ducts was resorted to in order to gain continuity of service. The street was cut away on either side of the ducts to the required grade and then the ground was cut away from under the ducts at 10-foot intervals. Under the ducts a trestle of cross-ties and uprights was erected in the openings and two sets of planks were placed on edge on top of the trestle parallel to the Bolts passed between the two timbers carried a nut and washer and this formed a carry- ing support for the ducts. Short ties were slipped under the duct line a road. cross- so that thousands were able to enjoy the games. Sim- ilar service will be provided for the major football games and other important sporting events: the fact that these occur strictly on schedule makes them more eligible for such treatment than the more serious news of the world. Elections, however, can always be cov- ered, as can market quotations, important court deeci- sions, big sporting events and anything else that hap-

Testing of Thermometers HE previous edition of this Circular of the Bureau of Standards contained, in addition to the testing regulations, much general information on thermometry and temperature measurements. The present, or third edition of Circular 8, has been very much shortened by including only the information which is essential to who avail themselves of the Bureau's, test- ing facilities. The Bureau's standard scale of temperature is defined and the method of reproducing it i. briefly indicated. <A new feature of the circular is the inclusion of definite testing requirements and of tolerances as to correctness of graduation. Thermometers meeting the requirements as to suitable design, material, and work- manship will, if found correct within the established tolerances, be certified, others will receive reports giving the result of the test. Notes on the behavior of thermometers which are included in the circular are intended to give the user of these instruments the information necessary for an intelligent application of the results of the test. Explanations are given of the reasons why the appli- those

cant for test must assume all risk of breakage either in shipment or test. The circular contains general instructions concerning packing and shipping and schedule of fees for testing.

short distance apart and a loop of guy wire was passed around each end of a tie and on through a pivoted eye on the lower end of the bolt. All the bolts were adjusted to take up the tensions, and the remaining earth was removed with a scoop shovel. Then the ducts being in complete suspension were ready for lowering. To lower the lines the nuts on every other pair of bolts were given three turns and then the alternate supports were lowered by three turns of the nuts. Upon reaching the bolt ends the nuts were taken off every other pair of bolts, and the guy wire loops were lengthened out by Using the trolley sweeper to clear snow from the roadway pens on fixed schedule or at a time known in advance. The Westinghouse Newark station operates on a wave length of 360 meters, and its call letters are WJZ, It should be easily heard as far south as Baltimore and as far north as Albany; while under favorable condi- tions, the messages should be audible in practically the entire area eust of the Mississippi River, and as far afield as the Bermuda Isiands. The circular may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Zine Cyanide Plating Solutions INC coatings furnish by far the best protection from corrosion of and for this reason zine plating or electro- galvanizing was extensively applied to all sorts of machinery during the war. Satis- factory zine deposits can be secured from either sulfate or cyanide solutions, but the latter advantage of “throwing” the deposit better into deep de- pressions or upon the surface of irregu- larly shaped articles. The cyanide solu- tions were, therefore, given first considera- tion in the investigations conducted by the Bureau. It is hoped later to extend this study to include the sulfate tions. It was found that satisfactory zine cyanide plating solutions can be made by using zine oxide to replace part or all of | the zine cyanide formerly employed for this purpose, Technologic Paper No, 195 of the Bureau of Standards describes the above work and steel, possesses the solu-

gives formulae for satisfactory solutions and general directions for their use. Concrete Tower for Dam Construction UR cover this month shows the concrete tower 172 feet in height which has been built to carry the mixture of concrete up to the different levels for con- struction of the Hetch Hetchy dam, from which a large part of California will ultimately be

about the length of the thread on the bolt. After the bolts were placed back the nuts were screwed down to take up the strain. This process was repeated until the ducts had reached their new level. Then the bolts and loops were removed and the trestle demolished—By Allen P. Child. Daily News and Concerts by Radio Telephone HE Westinghouse Electric and Manu- facturing Company announces that it has opened a radio telephone broadcasting station at its plant in Newark, N. J., and, with the cooperation of the Newark Sun- day Call, is supplying news and concerts Which can be heard by wireless operators Within a radius of 200 miles. Every night beginning at 8:05 Eastern Standard time, an entertainment consist- ing of a digest of the day’s news, Govern- ment reports, and a musical selection IS given. A special feature of the enter- tainments is a children’s hour every Fri- day night at 7 o'clock, when songs and Stories for the youngsters will be radio- phoned, During the World Series baseball games,

served with hydroelectric dam is to be built in two sections, the first being 22614 feet above the stream bed, and the ultimate crest 312 feet high. As the dam goes up, the height of the tower will be increased correspondingly, so that at all stages of the work it will give ample pouring head. The aggregate is delivered directly to the mixers by small locomotives. A nar- row railroad was constructed run- ning from the dam site along the side of the valley a distance of some 7,000 feet to a rock quarry at the foot of Wampama Falls. Excavation was carried to a depth of 72 feet to provide a solid foundation for the dam, numerous pumps being required to unwater the add further evidence to the numerous text and pictures which have already to give the readers of the Screnrieu AMERICAN some idea of the magnitude of the whole undertaking. Our given a idea of many of these phases of the work, and has shown how operations are conducted on a 24-hour basis with the aid of huge flood- power. The gage site. These big towers served artist has good

every ball, strike, and other play was re- ported as soon as made from this station,

Lowering the electric-line ducts

without interrupting the service lights that draw their power from that part of the project already co: ipleted

Ahh Saf IPI Loe

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Effect of Oils, Greases and Degree of Tannage on Russet Harness Leather 4 ype esult of a eries ot experiments conducted sureau of Standards is reported in Technologic Paper No, 160 rhe variation in tensile strength, stretch ind buckle strength in leather from dif ferent parts of the hide is given for six sides of leather It has been found that variations in the amount of oils, both mineral and animal, and ot medium and heavy tannage, as well as the amount of stufling, properties has a bearing on the physical there bevond ils do not is il point add and which these mater to the strength, and indeed ma actually de- crease it. It was also found that the tensile greater for leather tanned time than for that This also affects the firm- strength is for a short given a long tannage. the leather, the leather ness of longer time tan- resistant Min- more buckle. producing used near a to sheer when eral oils of the type used in the experi- ment did not affect the physical proper ties of new leather in any degree sub- stantially different from animal oils Ductile Nickel-Cobalt ESEARCH continues to uncover the R reasons for the behavior of different compounds to such a degree that one can not fail to or individual wonder why many industries concerns in an industry hesitate to support research For ex- nimple, the alleys of nickel and cobalt at ordinary iined for have always been non-ductile temperatures, but it has rem Colin G. Fink to learn that this non ductility is due to the presence of carbon in the alloy, and that when such a non- ductile alloy is freed from carbon, sul fur, phosphorus and basic impurities becomes ductile An illo containing 20 to BO parts of cobalt ind %) to SO parts of nickel produced in an electric furnace using an alundum crucible un der circumstances which pres ude con tamination with the impurities men h, when melted, rdded, may tioned nbove ind to whi two parts of mancunese ure from one-half inch down without he rolled two one-hundredths of an inch intermediate anne ng Such an is suitable as a support or a current lead heat creases the wire for electric lamps. It has low conductivity, and therefore in efliciency of electric lamps, particularly in the case of those of low voltage -aper been Waterproofing BRITISH 4 for a new paper to such an patent has granted method of waterproofing extent that it may be used as ai substitute for rubber or leather in making diaphragms for gas meters, etc., or for the manufacture of The October sinall articles like patent is abstracted in the Chemical and Metallurgical and states that the material is prepared by impregnating long-fibered paper with purses issue of Knoineering a warm solution of animal and vegetable After drying rubbed into the Jap- glutinous substances. whale oil or a fat is treated The anese paper is considered preferable, and the following impregnating solution is considered suitable: Gelatine one part, arrowroot one part, potassium bicarbon- ate one-half part, calcium chloride or paper long-fibered Conducted by H. E. flam- onium car- three parts, and to reduce Pility three parts of dded These solved in one hundred parts of factor, used, and the alluded to when the ma- inl materials are ttleness is not a vy he treatment with fat or oil cessary only terial j o be alternate subjected to wetting and drying Coal Gas Composition NNALES DE CHIMIE for May and A report by Vignon on the relation of temperature June results of experiments to the composition of gas obtained by the distillation of coal. In the series various coals were heated at 400, 600, SOO, 1000 and 1200 degrees Centigrade, until only small quantities of gas continued to come off at that tempera- ture. A number of conclusions are re- ported The unsaturated hydrocarbons distill below 600 degrees and are broken very up at higher temperatures. The sat- urated hydrocarbons distill up to 800 de- grees in large quantities; that is, up to S4 per cent, but this percentage dimin- ishes rapidly at still higher tempera- Most of the hydrogen comes off 1000) degrees, and tures between SOO and less than 10 per cent of the carbon monoxide When the increased comes off below 1000 degrees temperature of distillation is a greater volume of gas is obtained, but this gas is of low heating value and con- greater amounts tains on the average of curbon monoxide. The Value of Planting Trees to Supply Raw Material for Chemical Industries TOT so many years : N ered necessary to where it was consid- establish a tan- could be izo it woods nery in the neur large supplies of the various bark ree red More lately methods for prep ition of concentrated tanning extracts loped, and the newer tanneries vere deve ve, in general, been placed with refer- ence to easy access to a supply of hides nd skins to which if is che iper to bring the concentrated extract than to rans} he green hides to the bark. Part of this change comes about through trees, and Germany the Union of the German Leather Industry urging be devoted to the e disappearance of suitable Central is now that more attention planting of chestnuts, not as 8 substitute increasing The bark, chestnut con- for oak, but as a means fo! domestic tannin production as well as the wood, of the tannin, and found that at the age of 15 to 25 years the chestnut will yield from 4 to 7 tannin as the oak of the same age from plantations The plan seems to be to replace the oaks as they setting out chestnuts. true that the present scarcity of or methyl alcohol in the United due in large part to the demand for formaldehyde used in the treatment of and as a material in the preparation of or- tains one investigator has times is much ouk are removed by While it is wood States is seeds, etc., raw ganie accelerators for rubber vulcaniza- tion, it is also true that several wood distillation plants have been compelled to cease operations for lack of raw ma- terials. Notwithstanding the _ efforts made on the part of the authorities and some private interests to practice refor- estation, the subject seems to be one to The Service of the Chemist { Department Devoted to Progress in the Field of Applied Chemistry HOWE, Chemical Engineer is given in conver- The de- which more attention sation than in actual practice. different chemical indus country may bring added to accomplish the type which long velopment of tries in our pressure to bear of reforestation work has been advocated. A New Cooperative Movement YNTIL the organization of the Crop J Protection Institute, under’ the auspices of the National Research Coun- cil, on September 28, following the pre- liminary conference held June in Rochester, N. Y., there been no adequate facilities for close cooperation last have between the various scientists interested in combatting injurious insects and plant diseases and those who manufacture the materials and appliances used in such work. The new Institute represents all of these groups, and through its activity it is planned to conduct regional confer- ences and cooperative experiments to the end that rapid may be made in devising new methods for insect and plant disease control. None of the present work will be duplicated, but an effort at coordination will be made and there is every reason to believe that the eventually benefit to a more progress public will marked degree. The importance of such work be emphasized by the before us in controlling and if eradicating the bean ladybird. sect arrived from Mexico establishing itself among the leguminous Unless it can be con- threatens the bean So far as we cooperative may work possible The in- has and is crops of Alabama. trolled this crop of the United States. now, the ladybird has no natural and as it clings to the underside difficult to reach with dusts. Unlike three-fourths of the insect know enemies, of the leaf it is sprays and most insects, two-thirds or indi- viduals are females, each of which may lay 750 eggs in a season. It is evident that to wage war on so dangerous an insect requires the fuliest amount of co- operation on the part of state and fed- eral authorities, as well as others. The work of an insect of this sort could readily undo all that the bollweevil has taught the South concerning the benefits of crop rotation and the growing of leguminous plants on soil where the boll- weevil makes cotton raising commer- cially impossible Renewing Worn Files pater has just been given to a method for renewing old files which consists first in cleaning them with a “file card,” after which they are placed in a mixture of four ounces of washing soda and one quart of very hot water, in which mixture they are then scrubbed with a brush to remove oil, dirt, ete. The acid mixture to which the files are then transferred consists of four ounces of sulfuric acid in one quart of water. It should be remembered that when di- luting sulfuric acid with water sudden heat is developed such that if the water is poured upon the acid dangerous spat- tering will occur. The acid should always be poured into the water very slowly and the solution stirred with a piece of wood or a glass rod. The old files remain covered in the solution for from 10 to 12 hours, after which they are thoroughly washed in water, dried, and oiled. A Chemical Method for the Dete. tion in Fruit of a Prior Frozen Condition HIS is the subject of an interesting article by Dehn and Taylor in th October issue of the Journal of Indy trial and Engineering Chemistry. “Modern methods of storage ¢@ fruits sometimes raise the questig whether too low temperatures have beg employed, resulting in abnormal deter. eration when the fruit is removed frog storage. For example, pears are heldg a lower temperature than peaches, ani if both are held at the same temperatup the peaches may be injured. The que tion arises whether fruit which has bea frozen or only partly frozen can be ds tinguished from fruit not subjected 4 these low temperatures, “Extreme cases of frozen fruit can, ¢ course, always be recognized after thay cold ing by the mussiness and darkening ¢§ the pulp, by the modified taste, and h the rapidity of rot. Between the extrem frozen condition and the non-frozen em dition cases arise that can not be judge by such obvious indications.” The authors, therefore, undertook t devise chemical and other methods fe the examination of fruits in such cass and found that advantage could be take of divergencies in the largest component of the fruits, particularly the variatie in the ratio between invert sugar ap sucrose. Inversion subtracts from th sucrose concentration and adds to t sugar concentration, thus givin measurements of such dive which can be determined § standard gravimetric methods of mes urement. Sucrose is inverted duri ripening, overripening, rotting and free ing, and the invert sugar itself may ® destroyed by chemical decomposition, tk metabolism of the plant or the action of yeasts and molds. Molds consumet large part of the invert sugar, or at a rate feed upon it rather than up sucrose, so that should great deterion tion take place in the case of the sample§ the method suggested is not reliable. invert accurate gencies Other Meat roge months ago reference was mat J to experiments conducted by Tr bridge at the Experimental Station ¢ North Dakota in utilizing horses beyell the effective work age as a sourceé food supply to supplement beef. it found that dried horse flesh from! horse 13 years old was more tender # just as palatable to the average pers as high-grade dried beef. The Office of Home Economies, Unit States Department of Agriculture, ® been working upon a comparison of # edible portion of the flesh of the ki rabbit, horse, and seal, and it has be found that the digestibility of the meats, or of the proteid of the four kiné of meat, is substantially the same ® that of any of the other, and bet#® known, meats. Whenever experiments of this sort # made we are reminded of the prejudit of the average consumer, but it noted from the conversation of ti partaking of the various dishes those who were being treated to ¢ of horse meat found nothing uf about them, and thought they were good variety of “hamburg steak.” JANUARY, 199 J. T a th an en dis Me wh the tak equ mu ord con | tral via abo gra For cow ima and far sucl deli inal iden sion wire it me tran han¢ odd | of th even to b ingel Th of tt trans York empl radio the f eral | static Ho viven draw be Me moto! be tr certai cuuse to for the b As th is re presse the p of a Obvio stylus less p irregu relief curr throug phone varied lated, an ele pretati lief i Vari¢ lated be sei Wires | ployed mitter, The telegra: Set, as As will accomp the fine Silver y ful elec on its 1 passing from a which screen,

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e Deter. ‘ior nteresting or in th of Indw y. torage ¢f questia have bee al deter ved fron re held ches, ay nperatuy rhe ques has bea in be ds jected it can, of ter thay cening of *. and by > extrem OZeN Co ve judge ie é -rtook t hods fe ich case be take ponent variatia lgar aM from th s to th is givin ‘h dive iined } of mei 1 durint nd free may & ition, hi » action nsume r at a an upe leterion » samples able. ras mat yy Trov ation ¢ s beyong ource ' ref. it from ! nder a e persé ;, Unite ure, be n of te the kit has bet of the ur kiné same ® d_ bett® sort a re judic# it of thot ies thi to case unus¥ were § ” JANUARY, 1922 Why Not Long-Distance Stenography? HE usual dot and dash language comprising the Morse code of wire and wireless telegraphy is rather a crude piece of work. That is to say, it depends on the differentiation between dots and dashes and spaces, and even the slightest error in making a proper differ- entiation leads to serious errors in the transmission of dispatches. Obviously, it is a delicate language, this Morse code, especially in long-distance radio telegraphy where the receiving operator’s ears must strain to catch the faint signals, or where the photographic recorder takes down the signals and parasitic disturbances with equal facility; and it is for this reason that there is so much repeating of messages in radio telegraphy, in order to insure accuracy even under the most adverse conditions. The Belin system of image SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN parent at the other, with varying degrees of transpar- ency between both extremes. Obviously, as the mirror turns on its axis in response to the fluctuations of the incoming current, which in turn represents the varying values of black and white represented in the image at the transmitting station, it rests on the corresponding section of the graduated screen. More or less light, therefore, passes through the screen and through -the lens at the rear which guides it to the aperture of a light-proof case. Inside the light-proof case is a motor- driven cylinder that carries a piece of photographic paper or film. Thus the varying values of light are impressed on the sensitized paper or film as it is revolved at the same speed as the cylinder at the trans- mitting end, an ingenious synchronizing device being employed for the purpose. The image is thus formed 57 skilled stenographer. Even with atmospheric distarb- ances or “static” at its worst, there would be sufficient of each outline present in the received images unmis- takably to read the messages. In the case of the telegraph code, the static breaks up the arrangement of dot, dash, and space, thus changing the entire mean- ing of the received signals, whether they are received audibly on a photographic tape recorder. In the case of Chinese characters the Belin system is of greatest import. Chinese can not be spelled pho- netically, as is the case with Japanese. Furthermore, it is practically impossible to form a sufficient number of dot and dash combinations to represent the hundreds of letters of the Chinese alphabet. Heretofore the prac tice has been to translate the Chinese dispatches into some other language that does admit of telegraphic interpretation, and to trans- late that language back into transmission over wires and via wireless may yet bring about a revolution in tele- graph and wireless systenis. For with this system it be- comes possible to transmit pyar images instead of mere dots and dashes, and there are far less errors possible with such images than with the delicate Morse code. Orig- inally the Belin system was identified with the transmis- sion of photographs over wires and even by radio, but it now appears as though the transmission of facsimile TO MODULATOR OF RADIO TRANSMITTER RELIEF IMAGE MADE BY GELATINE PROCESS MOTOR-DRIVEN CYLINDER SENDING RADIO RECEIVING ° APPARATUS BLONDEL OSCILLOGRAPH Chinese at the receiving end. An awkward and dangerous practice, true, but it was the CYLINDER WITH best available. The Belin Parer. system now makes possible the transmission of the Chi- nese characters themselves, thus marking a vast stride forward for Chinese and all other languages which are to be handled in their original form over wires and wireless alike. Production of Liquid Air HILE liquid air has been produced in the handwriting, typewriting, odd characters such as those of the Chinese alphabet, and even stenography may prove to be the more fruitful field in which to apply this ingenious invention. The Belin system has been described in past issues of this journal, at the time when it was employed in transmitting photographs between St. Louis and New York City, and more recently when this system was employed in transmitting drawings from the Annapolis radio station to Malmaison, near Paris, France, and the facsimile handwriting of Premier Briand and Gen- eral Pershing from the American-built Lafayette radio station, near Bordeaux, France, to Bar Harbor, Maine. However, a brief description of this system is again given here, together with the accompanying schematic drawings which are virtually self-explanatory. It will be noted that the transmitting device consists of a motor-driven cylinder on which is placed the image to be transmitted. A Details of the Belin system of image transmission over wires and by radio, as arranged for photographs and other so-called half-tone subjects in a helix, so to speak, with the successive lines of the helix practically overlapping. It is the fineness of the threads of this helix that that determines the texture of the received photograph. The process just described applies to the transmission and reception of photographs, in which all tones from black to white must be handled. The transmission of plain black and white matter, such as facsimile hand- writing, type matter, drawings, maps and so on, is con- siderably simpler. The microphone is replaced by a plain make-and-break device equipped with a _ stylus, while the graduated screen is dispensed with at the receiving end. In this arrangement the stylus either makes or does not make a contact, and current either flows or does not flow through the line or through the radio transmitter. At the receiving end the mirror laboratory and on a commer cial seale for many years but little information is uvailable in printed form concerning laboratory plants for its production. Scientific Paper No, 419 of the Bureau of Standards has just been issued and may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents a copy. It appeals to anyone interested in the subject. : Combining Motion Pictures with Clockwork pee France comes an ingenious motion picture camera of compact dimensions. In fact, the little camera measures 4 by 5 by 614 inches, yet it contains au highly finished mechanism capable of exposing 250 separate pictures on a strip of ordinary motion picture negative film 20 feet long, either in the form of motion pictures or as separate snapshots or time exposures, The entire mech- certain causes this image to form in relief on the brass cylinder. As this relief image is rotated, there presses against it the point or stylus of a microphone. Obviously, as the stylus is more or process less pressed by the irregularities of the relief image, the current flowing through the micro- phone is likewise varied or modu- lated, thus giving 22) anism of this new camera is auto- matic. The camera is made of metal throughout and consists of two parts: first, the camera proper ; sec ondly, the mechani cal motor = attach- ment. The motor mechanism is of the clockwork pattern, and supplies’ the necessary mechan- ical energy for the taking of motion pictures or separate exposures, It is an electrical inter- pretation of the re- lief image. This Varied or modu- lated current can be sent over the Wires of a telegraph or telephone line, or can be em- ployed to control a continuous wave wireless trans- mitter, The receiving end, which may be connected to a telegraph or telephone line or to a wireless receiving Set, as the case may be, is somewhat more involved. As will be noted by studying the receiving side of the accompanying drawing, the incoming current is led to the fine wires of a Blondel oscillograph. These parallel silver wires, passing down between the poles of a power- ful electromagnet, earry a small mirror, which swings on its vertical axis with the fluctuations in the current passing through the parallel wires. A beam of light from a powerful are lamp is directed on the tiny mirror, Which in turn reflects the beam on to a graduated Screen. This screen is opaque at one end and trans- proper Three views of an ingenious camera for making motion pictures and separate exposures, showing, respectively, the front; the inside of the with film gate, sprocket wheel and film-spool shafts; and the rear of the camera, showing on the film or for enlarging, the counter indicating pictures exposed, clockwork mechanism, and knob that sets the mechanism for motion picture work, snapshots, or time exposures A French camera that combines clockwork with motion picture mechanism so as to make an all-round hand camera either turns so that the beam is directed into the aper- ture and on to the sensitized surface, or it does not turn, hence no light falls on the sensitized surface. In view of the fact that long-distance radio stations are often tied up for hours at a time because of the atmospheric conditions which break up or muddle up the delicate dots and dashes of the Morse code, the Belin system is highly promising. In fact, M. Belin has given serious thought to the use of stenography in connection with his system. Thus a message to be transmitted could be written in shorthand, specially treated to bring it out in relief, and then placed on a drum for transmission. Instead of the delicate arrange- ment of dots and dashes the message would then con- sist of facsimile reproduction of the shorthand notes at the receiving end, which could be read off by a the sliding shutter raised for focusing directly wound with a fixed key. The mechan- ism is released by pressing a button An indicator at the side of the camera shows whether the mechanism is set for motion pic tures, time, or snapshots. The film shifts automatically The camera is supplied with the usual motion picture lens, with an extreme aperture of 3.5 and a 2-ineh focus. A view finder is provided on the lefi-hand side of the camera and can be used for either upright or horizontal pictures. To permit of the loading and un loading of the camera in daylight, the film is « in a special box which opens and shuts in the interior of the camera by an ingenious attachment on the out side of the case, Other features are an indicator which shows the number of pictures exposed; a sliding shutter which allows direct focusing on the film and the using of the camera as an enlarger, a device for using the camera as a printer, and a screwhole with universal thread for fixing the camera on a tripod camera closed pe acres Re

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58 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1929 The Motor-Driven Commercial Vehicle Conducted by MAJOR VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S. A. E. This de partme nt is devoted to the interests of pre sent and prospective owners of motor truc ks and delivery wagons. The editor u“ ill endeavor to answer any question relating to mechanical features, operation and management of commercial motor vehicles demands asked of them; and the up- rates in any district. The value and building of the motor truck manufactur- the fragility of the load bear a direet ing activities have popularized this relationship to the rate that should be method of moving farm produce. charged. The length of the haul nat Rural freight is hauled by the farmer urally is a prime consideration. Road who owns a truck and handles his per- conditions directly affect operating costs sonal marketing, as well as that of his and hence must also be considered ig neighbor, by motor; by the local truck establishing rates. The perishability operators who haul farm produce as a and bulk of the load must be taken into business: by the local automobile or consideration. Where complete delivery truck agencies that operate transporta- is made from the door of the shipper to tion trucks as a side line; by the city the door of the consignee, this must be transfer company which also engages in considered in fixing the rate. rural hauling; and by the large corpo- ° vm . ration which operates a fleet of trucks College Girls Tour East in Truck . - . * « 1c (. =] over a wide range of territory. Natur- to Raise Funds ally there is a similarly wide range in peter Simmons College girls have J cruised the country this past Sum Motor-truck caravans are a practicable means of long-distance transport under emergency conditions L san ; the methods of doing business. Long-Distance Trucking Justified have yarn, freight embargoes notwith- Farm-to-farm collection of freight is mer on a unique venture. The $2,000,000 : . ° standing, from an Attleboro, Mass., plant practiced on short rural routes where endowment fund which their Alma Mater in Emergencies of dyers and bleachers. A 5-ton truck comparatively few stops are ordinarily is out to raise is considerably richer by rey assert that industry in the of standard make was ealled into service. made, Such collection is costly both in virtue of their efforts and enterprise, 4 United States had outgrown the With a cargo of worsted yarns, valued at time and gasoline and hence necessitates Having mapped out an itinerary de whole system of rail transportation un- nearly $35,000, the truck set out on a higher rates. The cross-roads collection signed to take them daily to new places til the recent setback. It will be years, scheduled round trip of 2300 miles, The system is popular also, the shippers cen- where people congregate—to Summer re- they said, before the existing railway contract price for the trip was $2888.25, tralizing their produce at certain points sorts, carnivals and fairs—the seven equipment can be restored to full effi or approximately $2.40 per mile one way where it can be loaded on the trucks. girls chartered a 2-ton truck at Boston a - oe ee | ; ke % —e- ¢ 6: Gena ~** Left: Carrying boxes of garden truck to market. Right: 114-ton trucks used by a dairy for collecting milk Valuable service is performed for the farmer by trucks of his own or other ownership iency and the extension of facilities $1.20 per mile for the entire route. The central assembling method where and embarked. From the well-stocked necessary for the rails to “catch up” to The emergency was met promptly. the shippers concentrate their freight at truck the Simmons seven sold creations the normal demands of business can be Similar situations have been met in one point or where a lighter, auxiliary of their own skill and originality, and @ accomplished, During the acute short- other parts of the country and raise the truck collects and delivers it possesses conglomerate stock it was. A partial in- age of cars which existed last year, question whether such use of trucks, many efficient features. ventory would reveal confections and business everywhere, with its customary though involving increased expense, was There are many different systems of cloth hats; silver and furniture polish resourcefulness, sought relief elsewhere not an ultimate economy. Suppose de- computing rates and charges for hauling. made at the college; soap, woolen and Cut off at the round house, it turned to layed shipments of raw material had There are several factors which should knit goods; not to mention the famous the garage. Inter-city shipping by truck been allowed to force suspension of pro- be considered in the establishment of Sally Simmons dolls. which under ordinary circumstances is duction, with a consequent loss of time included in the short-haul category, was for employes Very shortly, lost time commonplace and as ordinary as the and decreased production would have motorization of hauling and delivery proven much more costly than the emer- within the city. gency use of trucks for long hauling of As the demand grew, distances became needed raw materials. Less tangible, longer and longer, until the 1000-mile but none the less real, was the danger of mark had been passed in numerous in weakened prestige by failure promptly to stances. Now, the experienced truck fill certain orders, a danger that proved maker and operator knows that under to be the closing factor in the decision normal conditions there is no economy) of certain firms to use trucks, in truck hauls of such distances. Hence . : . he would not recommend them except in Many Factors in Farm Haulage cases of great urgency. However, many | AULING farm produce to market in emergencies have come up in the past motor trucks represents one means which sent motor trucks over the roads of the successful solution of the “short on long trips. The cost of these ventures haul,” one of the most difficult prob was high, but shipper and consignee lems which confronts the transportation alike comsidered the expenditure an ulti expert. The failure of railroads to keep mate economy. We will point out a pace with the expansion of the short- typical case. haul business; the development of the In order to keep its factory running, a producing areas adjoining the larger knitting mill in Delavan, Wis., had to cities in propertion to the production Truck used by college girls in cruise to help the endowment fund

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Y, 1922 ee any ee lue and n direet ould be iul nat. Road 1g costs ered ip hability en into lelivery pper to nust be Truck S have t Sum- 000.000 Mater her by -rprise, ry de places ner re- seven Boston ocked tions ind a al in- and lish and mous JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Heavens in January Some New Observations Upon a Stellar Object of Old Interest HE most interesting astronomical news of the past month relates to stellar matters. We may begin with a new chapter in a long and interesting history- that of Tau Corona Borealis, the new star of 1866. This object blazed out suddenly, of the second magni- tude, on May 12th of that year, remained at maximum for only a day or two, and sank out of reach of the naked eye within a few weeks. As soon as its exact position had been determined, it was found that it was identical with a telescopic star, of the ninth magnitude or a little fainter, which had been observed years be- fore by Argelander and listed in his great “Durch- This afforded the first evidence that these so-called “new stars” were not really newly formed bodies, but merely variable stars, previously existing, which had increased suddenly and enormously in brightness—a conclusion since confirmed in the cases of several other novae. This star, too, was the first nova to be subjected to examination by the spectro- scope, which had just come into use in astronomy. Huggins detected in its spectrum the strong bright lines of hydrogen which are characteristic of the type, and from his drawings it appears that the spectrum was then very like that of more recent novae just after maximum. Within a few months the star had faded to about its original brightness, and it was almost forgotten by observers for half a century. When half a dozen other novae had sub- sequently appeared and been studied, it was seen that this one was fairly typical, except in a few particulars. Unlike all the rest, which lay close to the Milky Way, it was forty degrees from the lat- ter; and it was brighter before the out- burst than any other temporary star yet recorded. Moreover, the paroxysm of brightness was unusually short-lived, en- during but a few months where other stars often have required years to return to their original states. The only recorded observation of late years was by Miss Cannon of Harvard, who classified its spectrum as of the K type. Now most novae on fading exhibit a spectrum containing bright lines much resembling those of the “early” (or prob- ably hot) stars of class O, and not at all like the “late” (cool) stars of class K. It therefore occurred independently to Dr. Lundmark at the Lick Observatory, and to Dr. Adams and the writer at Mount Wilson to photograph its spectrum with powerful instruments. musterung” catalog. A Surprising Spectrum The two observers agree perfectly in their findings, which are certainly re- markable. The spectrum is of an ad- vanced M type—indicating about the low- est surface temperature which prevails among the stars—but is rendered unique by the presence of bright lines, not only of hydrogen, which would not be remark- able, but likewise of helium—and an advanced line of helium at that ( \ 4684 on the ordinarily used scale), which requires for its excitation about as violent a de- gree of stimulus as any known spectral line. Unexpected as these findings were, they do not appeal inexplicable. There is very good reason to believe that the catastrophe which causes the outburst of a nova, whatever it may be, affects only the surface of the star, and that much of the disturbed material is actu- ally ejected into space—as is indicated by the extraor- dinary expanding nebula observed around Nova Aquilae. The rest of the star, comprising probably almost the whole of its original mass, gradually reverts to some- thing more or less like its original state before the disturbance. Now in the case of Tau Coronae the out- burst was apparently less violent than usual—as is in- dicated by the rapidity with which the light decreased. Hence it is possible that fifty-five years later the star may have settled down to its original condition as a red star of low temperature. The bright lines of hydro- gen and helium, on this hypothesis, may be attributed to the remains of the ejected nebulous matter—though it should be noted that the well-known nebular lines in the green ure absent. At 11 o'clock: At 10 o'clock : At 10% o'clock: By Professor Henry Norris Russell, Ph.D. Stars of class M appear always to be either giants, much brighter than the sun, or dwarfs, much fainter. We may hope that Dr, Adams will be able to tell defi- nitely from his spectra to which of these classes Tau Coronae belongs at present. It seems improbable that it is a dwarf, for then it would be very near us among the stars (twenty light-years or so), which does not agree with the absence of any considerable proper mo- tion. If, on the other hand, it is a giant, it is now probably somewhere between ten and fifty times as bright as the sun. During the great outburst it was a thousand times brighter—which is indeed an enormous luminosity, though there is some evidence that Nova Aquilae may have been as bright. The whole affair illustrates strikingly what beautiful opportunities for discovery surround the observers with great telescopes. Adams’ exposures on the star lasted only about three hours; Lundmark, with a smaller instrument, required the more heroic interval of some fourteen hours, dis- tributed over successive nights. But even so, the game is well worth the candle. : A second interesting report comes from the University of Illinois, where Professor Stebbins has just completed Jan. 7. Jan. 14. Jan. 22. Southern Horizon At 914 o'clock: Jan. 29. NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY one of those precise and admirably finished studies upon eclipsing variable stars for which he is justly famed. As in the rest of his recent work, he used the photo- electric photometer, an instrument of extreme precision, but demanding great manipulative skill. The object of his study was the star 1H Cassiopeiae (that is, No. 1 in Heis’ list of the stars of this constellation), which is a star of the fifth magnitude, in the western part of the constellation, and may be found by carrying a line from Gamma Cassiopeiae through Beta, and extending it as far again, bending slightly to the left. It was discovered to be a spectroscopic binary in 1903, and was later found to have a period of slightly more than six days. A New Eclipsing Binary Among stars of this sort, which are known to have faint companions revolving fairly close to them, a con- siderable proportion are likely to have their orbits turned so nearly edgewise to us as to produce eclipses ; and the present case is one in which Professor Steb- bins’ examination for such phenomena has been re- warded. Two well-marked eclipses occur during the period—well marked, that is to say, when the observa- At 9 o'clock : At 8% o'clock : At 8 o'clock: The loss of tions are as precise as those of Stebbins. light is only eleven hundredths of a magnitude at one eclipse, and three hundredths at the other, and would be quite imperceptible to the ordinary eye. The deeper eclipse lasts two hours, and the other about twelve— the difference arising from the eccentricity of the orbit. From this light-curve Stebbins shows that the prin- cipal star has a smaller companion, of one-third its diameter, and only one-thirtieth as bright... When this passes in front of the primary it produces an annular eclipse, cutting off eleven per cent of the light. When the companion is hidden behind the larger star the loss is only three per cent of the total light. This is the first time that the faint companion in an eclipsing pair has been found to be both smaller and duller in surface brightness than its primary. There are probably plenty of such systems in space; but a moment’s consideration shows that in such a case the loss of light during eclipses must be small regardless of which star it be that is eclipsed; so that it is not likely to be detected except when, as in this case, something else tells us what stars to observe. Even in this case, the companion is far from being a “dark star.” Stebbins shows that it is probable the brighter star is about six times the sun’s diameter, and the fainter one twice as large as the sun. The larger body is about one twenty-fifth as dense as the sun, and the smaller one seven times denser. We can only guess roughly the distance of the star from its proper motion, but this indicates a value of some 500 light-years. This would make the larger star about 300 times as bright as the sun. The “dark” companion would then be ten times brighter than the sun—and larger and hotter to boot— so that if the sun were its satellite, it would in turn be in danger of being ealled a “dark body.” The Heavens Turning to our star map, we find the familiar constellations in their usual win- ter places—Orion on the meridian, Canis Major below, Canis Minor high in the southeast, Auriga, Taurus and Gemini grouped around the zenith, Hydra and Leo in the east, Ursa Major in the north- east, Ursa Minor and Draco in the north, Cassiopeia, Perseus and Andromeda in the northwest, and Cetus and Eridanus in the southwest. The Planets Mercury is an evening star, but is not well visible until the latter part of the month. At elongation, on the 29th, he is oer 18 degrees from the sun, and sets at Feb. 21. 640 P. M. He is then in Aquarius, far from any bright stars, and being himself brighter than Capella, should be conspic- uous. Venus is a morning star, but is getting very near the sun so that she is practically invisible. Mars, on the contrary, is coming out toward quadrature and rises a little before 2 A. M. in the middle of the month. Jupiter is in western quadrature on the 8th, and rises just after midnight, while Saturn, ten degrees to the westward, comes up forty minutes earlier. Uranus is an evening star, too near the sun to be ob- servable, while Neptune, in Cancer, is approaching op- position, and crosses the meridian at 1,30 A. M. in the middle of the month. The moon is in the first quarter at 5 A. M. on the 6th, full at 10 A. M. on the 13th, in her last quarter at 1 A. M. on the 20th, and new at 7 P. M. on the 27th. She is nearest the earth on the 14th, and furthest away on the second and again on the 30th. During the month she passes by Uranus on the 3rd, Neptune on the 14th, Saturn on the 18th, Jupiter on the 19th, Mars early on the morning of the 21st, Venus on the 27th, Mercury on the 29th, and Uranus again on the 30th. The con- oi. some junctions with Jupiter and Mars are close, and should be worth looking at if one wakes early enough. Princeton University Observatory. November 4th, 1921.

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The Mechanism of the Psychic Indications of an Unformulated Force, and What We May Hope to Make of Them er past century has been eminent scientific In pliysics, chemistry, biolog) istronomy sciences generally vast progress h been made But the further science progresses, the neurer do its conclu sions tally with those for long taught by the so-called occult And whereas science has done much to discover the crosser energies of the body, it has done very little toward discovering its finer and more subtle forces those with which we apparently deal in psychic investi f which psychic phe gations, and upon the operation « nomena depend. Here, I believe, is the field of the future Take, for ex imple Charles Russ, of the energy A delicate solenoid of mica, cov- the recent discovery, by Dr. which is said to radiate from the human eye, ered with strips of aluminium, is suspended in a glass vessel, to the outside of which are affixed metal plates electrically charged. When the gaze is focussed intently upon one end of the cylinder, it moves away from the eve when the gauze is directed toward the other end, it moves toward the eye; and when the center of the cyl inder is gazed at, it remains stationary. All normal causes seem to have been carefully eliminated, and, so far as I know, these results have never been explained have an example of what I mean by the This experiment is one of Hlere we subtle energies of the body. the first of this nature more or less admitted by ortho dox scientists, and, if accepted, will constitute an open- ing wedge for the admission of further the physical By Hereward Carrington, Ph.D. pretations, depend upon the central fact of the exter- nalization, beyond the periphery of the body, of some form of vital energy. All this has been pointed out in the past by competent investigators, two theoretical speculations which are, I believe, more or less novel in character. The first point is the appar- ent connection between the normal, physical energies of (and particularly the sexual energies) and certain psychic manifestations. Mr. Podmore, in his analysis of a number of “polter- geist” cases, pointed out that the great majority of them occur In the presence of a young boy or girl between twelve and sixteen years of age. He endeavored to prove that trickery would account for the majority of these cases, if not for all of them, and assumed that the spirit of mischief, often present in children at that age, inspired them to produce the manifestations. Undoubt- edly this was the motive in certain cases. But, in view of newer cases, quite unexplained, and of pathological researches into mediumship and hysteria, it now seems certain that many cases of this character are genuine, and that supernormal phenomena do occur in the presence of certain, peculiarly endowed indi- the body psycho- viduals, phenomena are usually sponta- ous in character. They even continue to occur in spite of the opposition of the subject, as in the case of These “poltergeist” Now, however, I wish to lay out one or mediums, with a view to ascertaining possible subcon- scious associations. A detailed psychological study of the patient’s utterances in delirium has never been un- dertaken ; and assuredly the psychology of insanity is yet in its infancy! Nevertheless the study of all these conditions is of the utmost importance, since they throw light upon the psychology of mediumship; and, assum. ing for the moment the spiritistic hypothesis to be true, upon the mental state of the communicator while send- ing messages through the medium. It is possible, however, that we shall yet have to take a further step before we shall be in a position to under- stand all this fully. I have, throughout, been speaking of the subconscious mind. Is it not possible that, in addition to this, and the conscious mind, there may also be a superconscious ; that it is this mind which is active in certain ecstatic and trance states; that it is through this mind that all supernormal phenomena operate? It is possible that telepathy and other supernormal phe nomena take place through this realm; that there is a “mentiferous ether,” as some writers have suggested, which carries telepathic waves. The discovery of this ether, or of the actual mechanism of thought-transfer- ence, would assuredly be a profoundly important one for psychical science! Just here, perhaps, I may be permitted to offer a Suggestion, based on analogy with the “carrier waves” sometimes employed in radio. It would certainly be interesting to try experiments in telep- athy in, say, a high-tension electric field, phenomena of the kind. All of which re ealls the famous remark of Professor Wil- liam James, that “whenever the mystics and the scientists have had a dispute as to certain phenomena, the mystics have near lv always been right as to the facts them selves, and the scientists have usually been right as to their interpretation.” But in- s a secondary matter. Let terpretation us establish the facts first of all, and their interpretation will follow in due course. This question of a vital energy of some sort, radiating from the human body throws an interesting light problems. For, if such an externalization upon other takes place, it is possible that inanimate matter may be enabled, in some way, to receive and to store up this energy. Dr. Hodgson, through his experiments with Mrs. Piper, became convinced that objects handled by the medium did in fact stim ulate phenomena, and insure, at times, a new flood of supernormal information Whatever the explanation may be, the facts are undoubted, as I also observed in my own sittings with Mrs. Piper. In haunted houses, again, a “psychic atmosphere’ seems to he present ; and we know that, in mediumistic séances, a def VERY age sees ad new science survived. which can be explained by no natural law yet formulated. cases of fraud and misinterpretation are ruled out, there remains a residuum of manifestations which can best be taken to indicate the existence of an unidentified force. We may hope that the science of tomorrow will tell us what this force is, and give us control over it. Substantially thus we spoke in our 75th anniversary number fifteen We have since been searching for some authority who could formulate the problem, describe what has already been accom- plished, and outline the possibilities of the future in a sane manner. In Dr. Carrington we have such a man—one who for years has been in close touch with the respectable side of the psychic world, and who is sufficiently acquainted with the other side to know where to steer to Naturally in any subject that consists so largely of forecast and speculation he must speak for himself and not for the SCIENTIFIC It is, however, a pleasure to put his remarks before our THE Epiror. months ago. avoid it. AMERICAN. reader S. He plans to say more in a future issue. a whole body of new phenomena and the principles that govern them, developed where we had not even been conscious of a void in our knowledge. electricity; again it was psychology. name of psychic has been given. of personal survival or that of communication with those alleged to have But there is a growing fund of authenticated phenomena When all Once it was Now it is the field to which the We have no reference to the question ing apparatus. At least the experiment through which electric waves of definite frequency are passing which might act as carrier waves. Under these circumstances it is conceivable that telepathic waves, if such exist, might be reinforced and ren- dered perceptible by some delicate record- should be tried. Experiments should also be tried, it seems to me, while both sender and percipient were breathing in unison, or when certain chords were struck on the piano. Though all these tests might lead to no definite results, it would be at any rate interesting to try them; and so far as I know they have never been tried. This idea—that telepathy must be in some sense dynamic in character—throws light upon a variety of problems: thought photography, telekinesis, the operation of certain instruments. If mind is thus ae tive, and the vital energies are also ¢a- pable of acting beyond the periphery of the body, we may derive from these facts the general conclusion that, in all its ae- tivities, life is dynamic. I would here emphasize one important point which has been to some extent over- looked: the rapid and remarkable growth of instrumental tests. How simple and inite “charging-up” process seems to take place within the cabinet, and from this cabinet radiate the phenomena Other things being equal, a small room or a small cabinet is better than a larger one, which is what we should expect if an energy were being stored up for future use Take again the question of the human aura. We can artificially create an electric aura around living bodies by means of high-frequency currents; but this is quite a different thing from the natural aura, said to exist, and observed by Kilner and others by means of chemical screens. Kilner himself believes that this is an ultra- violet phenomenon, and, in his latest book, has pub- lished a number of interesting experiments as to the effects upon the aura of electricity, magnetism, various chemicals, ete. Here again is a whole field for study and research, relating to the subtle energies of the body, upon which, however, much light will be thrown by proof of the bodily radiations, or exteriorized energy, before referred to. And here, of course, we are reminded of the phenom- ena of materialization that incredible phenomenon, which bas nevertheless been so well attested in the case of Eusapia Palladino, and other mediums in the past, and in the presence of Nva C. today. These phenomena, whatever their ultimate explanation may certainly depend upon the emergence of a form of vital Into explanations prove to be, energy from the body of the medium. I do not propose to enter. I wish only to emphasize that all these phenomena, and their subsequent inter Angelique Cottin, about the middle of the last century. \n energy seems to be radiated from the body, in such which induces these phenomena; and it will be observed that this takes olace at about the age of pu- CUSeS berty, when the sexual energies are blossoming into maturity within the body. It would almost seem as though these energies, instead of taking their normal course, were somehow turned into another channel, and externalized beyond the limits of the body. There may, therefore, be a definite connection be- tween sex and psychic phenomena; and this seems to be borne out by several analogies. Recent physiological researches as to the activities of the ductless glands, and particularly the sex glands, have shown the enor- mous influence of these glands upon the physical and even upon the psychic life. The observations made in the cases of Kathleen Goligher and Eva C. show that which is materialized frequently issues from the genitals. The clinical observations of Lom- Morselli and upon Eusapia Palladino brought to light many recognized sexual stigmata. And all eestatic religious rites show the connection between the “plasma” others sexual energies and the eestatic states, just as we find instances of “sublimation” in modern Freudian psycho- analysis. And speaking of Freud—it has often struck me as remarkable that more experiments have not been tried in erystal gazing, automatic writing, ete., with physical Be relatively primitive were the tests under- taken by Professor Hare and Sir William Crookes com- pared with the complicated and beautiful apparatus which has been devised and is employed in psychic in- vestigation today! We can trace the gradual evolution of such laboratory methods, from the first tests made by Hare and Crookes, to those employed by Bottazzi, Lombroso, Imoda, and others with Eusapia Palladino; to those conducted by the General Psychological Insti- tute, of Paris, with the same medium; to Dr. Coover’s kymograph tests with “Mrs. Key;” to Dr. Crawford’s ingenious tests with Miss Goligher; to Dr. von Schrenck- Notzing’s photographic and microscopic tests with Eva C.; to the beautiful apparatus perfected by Dr. Grune wald. This shows an evolution of scientific laboratory methods comparable to that of any other science. We in America are endeavoring to push still further this line of investigation. “The American Psychical Institute and Laboratory” has been founded in New York, for the purpose of investigating certain branches f psychic phenomena, by instrumental means in a prop- erly equipped laboratory. We have already secured the names of a number of eminent men for our Council, and it is my hope that we may be enabled to secure many more, and to justify their support and adhesion by our work, which we shall endeavor to make sound and scientific. We began, very naturally, by acquiring or building @ (Continued on page 80) JANUARY, 1922 \} Th In 3 larg ligh pres inat it. for are cost sati eral of | war geal van! F han the tan Th

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ubcon- udy of en un- ity is these throw issum- > true, send- D take inder- aking at, in y also active rough 2? It phe- »isa ested, f this isfer- tf one fer a ives” ly be elep- field, finite ‘t as nces s, if ren- “ord- nent also nder son, the lead any far » in ows ight 1 of ac- ca- of icts ac- ant yer- wth ind ler- pm tus in- ion ide Lzi, 10; sti- Ts d’s ck- va ne- ry er ral 1922 JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN nventions New and Interesting A Department Devoted to Pioneer Work in the Arts The gearless brake that pulls like a geared one Increased Hand-Brake Efficiency HE simple staff hand-brake in use on passenger and freight trains is largely a survival from the day of lighter loads and lower speeds. Under present conditions it is often entirely inadequate to meet the loads put upon it. While geared brakes meet the need for greater power and a number of these are in use, objections based upon initial cost, weight, size, or failure to release satisfactorily have prevented their gen- eral installation. An interesting design of brake staff has just been put for- ward, giving all the advantages of the geared brake with none of its disad- vantages, according to the manufacturer. For any given pull on the brake handle of a staff brake the tension on the chain varies inversely as the dis- tance from the center of the chain, in winding, to the center of the staff. The brake which we illustrate has a winding channel for the chain to run in, and the shank around which this channel passes tapers toward the bottom and at the sume time runs out of the true center- line of the upper portion. The result is to give less tension and rapid take- up of the slack in the chain at the start of the braking operation, with slower take-up and greater braking tension ~ toward the end, where it is useful. The ultimate result is that, operating with the ease of a gearless brake, the’ effi- ciency is that of a geared brake with ratio of three to one, A Grease-Cup Wrench YCREWING down grease-cups by hand Ss is a dirty job, as every driver knows. And there is little satisfaction in trying to substitute for the dirty finger any wrench or pliers of conventional design. It always turns out that the instrument that will grip the circular rim of the grease-cup without slipping has its han- dle attached to the business end in such a way that the leverage is not at the proper angle for this use. But now we are offered a modification of the socket wrench, designed especially for the grease-cup job; and the picture shown herewith makes it plain that at last we may hope to keep our cars greased and our fingers clean at the same time. Making an Addresser of the Typewriter DDRESSING envelopes on the type- i writer is something that is always avoided when there is a large number of envelopes to deal with and any pos- sible way of addressing them by other means. It is not that the actual work of typing on the envelope is slow or unsatisfactory in its results; but the placing of the envelope in the machine and its removal are operations that take time. We can afford to put a sheet in and take it out again in connection with the writing of a letter of reasonable length; but when it comes to the mere typing of name and address, the non- productive end of the job assumes too large proportions in comparison with the time which the operator is able to de- vote to actual typing. Large batches of envelopes, however, ean not always be addressed from a mailing list prepared in advance, and hence the various addressing machines a The quick and easy attachment that converts the ordinary typewriter into a speedy addressing machine A modification of the socket wrench designed for turning down grease-cups which one would prefer to the type- writer are not always susceptible of use. It is with this situation in mind that a Cleveland manufacturer has put out a ‘apid-fire feeder that handles the en- velopes for the typewriter, and reduces he operator's efforts almost entirely to the manipulation of the keyboard. The appearance of the new device, which can easily be attached to any standard model typewriter, is shown by our photograph. In operation, a single motion of the oper- ating lever puts into effect the following operations: The envelope is brought down and placed in the carriage in the exact posi- tion for the first stroke of the keys. The carriage is moved to proper position for this stroke. The list-holder moves the list, of names upward, keeping the next name to be addressed constantly before the operator. A counting device attached to the feeder registers, so that at all times the exact number of envelopes ad dressed is known. The previously ad- dressed envelope is ejected as the one to be addressed is brought into position so that the carriage is never empty. The apparatus is fitted for use both with a continuous list and with cards. The list-holder operates entirely auto- matically, as indicated above. With the card-holder, the cards must be removed from front to rear by hand as they are addressed; this operation consumes no more time than is necessary for the shifting of envelopes, hence results in no loss of time at all, and leaves the ecard file, at the end, in the same order as at the beginning. The card-holder is easily adjusted to fit any standard size of ecard, and has a capacity of about 125 cards, after which it must be replenished from the file. The counter can be per- mitted to run to the end of the job, or can be set back to 1 at any moment, The “Haltstellenanzeiger” N OST of us have had the distressing 1 y| experience of standing on a corner of the main street of an unfamiliar town, where apparently all the car-lines in the county ran, and of waiting and wait ing for the desired car, eventually to learn that it runs through another street three blocks to the north. Or perhaps our troubles arose from a staggered-stop system, where some lines stop at every corner, others at alternate corners only, and the interurban expresses every half mile or so. In any event, we shall recog nize the instant and automatic solution in the trolley-station pole illustrated herewith, which has been installed at Berlin’s busy corners. All lines in the city are designated by numbers, much like the several lines of the Fifth Avenue ‘Bus Company in New York. These numbers do not replace altogether a fuller statement of destination, ete., but they do make possible the identification of a car from a much greater distance than would be the case in their absence. And with the numbers on the cars, and a complete list on the pole of all lines that stop there, the stranger in town knows instantly whether he can get his car at this point or whether he must inquire. The stopping-place indicator, to translate the name of this device, could find a place in many American cities. But if it were to be given this place, we are sure that the spaces left for adver- tising placards would not show so many vacancies as the apparently more con- servative Berlin merchants have allowed to remain unfilled, The trolley pole that lists all cars stopping at this corner

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62 Not a new stove: merely the latest deep-sea-diving outfit The Washfountain YVEN the fountain, that classic symbol I of all that Is ornamental, has now been converted to the uses of utility \n American manufacturer has recently put on the market a device which he calls a “washfountain.” It may be used wher ever large wash-rooms are hecessiary in factories, schools, public buildings, hotels ind railway = stations—in fact, every public or industrial lavatory. The saving in spuice is considerable as compared with the old-fashioned wash bow Is. It has been for 24 people require a minimum of 91 shown that bowls square feet floor space, whiie the wash fountain accommodates an equal number only 64 feet. This with each using in comfort economy naturally increases succeeding installation The fountains are (wo s1Zes it ae | inch basin to “accomimno- smaller, 32-inch, manufactured in dlate 12 ,people, or a where six people may wash at one time, Due to the circular construction of the plenty of “elbow fountain there is room” for the comfort of the users. Considerable economy is effected in the amount of water consumed, The wash fountain built to accommodate 12 people uses no more water than bowl. for instance, the amount This is acconiplished by piped for one wash converting the flow into a fine stream—Jjust as effec tive. Hot water costs are also reduced heated at any evenly, since the water may be desired temperature, Soap is supplied to the washfountain hy a device which is part of its design glass Kither liquid containers of sturdy Drinking-fountain practice extended to the wash-room SCIENTIFIC nickel eceivers tf hold cuke soap ! be specified. The tlow of water, is lled either by a hand-valve or a ool-lever, a8 desired. Submarine Armor vertical b ger effort to inerenase the F radius of action of the diver is one | Iways have with us hich we sl the more so n view of the tantalizing fact that most of the sunken treasure of the late war is at a depth only mod- erately below the present limit of opera- tions For a good many years there has been no material technical advance in deep-sea-diving outfits. Kach designer tried to add further margin of safety, but all has, to be sure, added or sare attacks upon the problem have followed substantially the same line. If we can but make a suit that will stand up under the pressure and keep the water out of its seams, it is obvious that we can go depth for which these fo any require ments are still met If in the bargain we can make a suit with joints that can be operated at such depth by the mus- cular power of a husky man, we shall be able to work there as well as go there, illustrated herewith is not presented because of any The deep-sea-diving outfit claimed departure in fundamentals from its predecessors, but purely because of its fearful and wonderful appearance. Perhaps the nearest thing to actual nov elty which it shows is the frank admis sion that direct work with the hands is attempted, and its consequent artificial hands, not The ball-and-socket though motion wuater not to be provision of sensi tive to pressure, look, too, as they might joints permit considerable without change of volume of displaced, obviating one of the great diffi- that assumed the thereby culties of deep-sea work the fact us soon as the diver ones position in which his displacement is a further ugainst the entire pressure developed by the water at the depth in question. More found himself of minimum minimum, movement must be diver has position than one “frozen” in this volume and unable to move out of it French machine for rolling cigarettes with one hand A Machine for “Rolling Your ey Own Tact recent inventions few are 4 more clever than the cigarette-roll- ing machine put out by M. de Louven- Paris. Referring to the illus- band that extends upparatus from end to court, of tration, the white clear across the end is a strip of draftsman’s tracing paper his furnishes the background against which the rolling operation is carried on. A pinch of tobacco is lald upon this ground in the hollow at the right, the tobacco accommodating itself to the curve, French tobaceo, being stringy instead of finely cut, works best in this device. The handle is. then swung up and over the top of the ma- chine toward the left. The loose end of the tracing paper is picked up and bent over gradually, and at the appropriate moment a piece of cigarette paper is in- troduced. As the cigarette paper and rolled along by the former is looped double, the psychological the tobacco are handle, the with its end at just spot, so that continuation of the motion starts it rolling up on itself—with the AMERICAN tobacco inside all the time, of course. The completely rolled smoke is delivered at the left end of the “machine,” and has but to be extricated from its tracing paper entanglement, licked and sealed. The machine works admirably with the long, stringy tobacco prevalent in France. It is less efficient with our finer plug cut, but for the man who has but one hand and who has never been able to learn the trick of rolling his own with that hand it should still be a very happy solution of the problem, A Carriage for the Perspiring Drummer BASS-DRUM in parades and orchestras of the perspiring drum earriage which will r do away with the sight with an enormous drum has now been perfected. mer strapped around his neck, On this new device a drummer can now easily rest his large, bulky and heavy bass:drum, and roll it along any distance without being interfered with in his playing The wheels of this new device are 28 inches high and are very durable, and the carriage is made to fit all sizes of By A. H. Kolbe. large drums. The non-squirting orange peeler Juiceless Orange Peeler ry*O peel an orange so that the juice | escapes the fingers is a trick that few lovers of the fruit can Those of us who have eaten oranges in told that the flavor comes accomplish. native states are enjoyment and real eat the orange by quarters. their most when we A juiceless peel for oranges is now assured by the use of a new orange peeler. A groove is first cut around the center. After this is removed, the spoon end of the device is used to turn down the skin. It does so quickly and with- out letting any juice escape on the fin- gers.—By M. M. Hunting. Artificial Daylight for the Movies NHE thousands of movie fans who ‘I marvel at the wonderful photography as hundreds of feet of film are displayed on the screen and who perhaps know from their personal experiences with a camera that sunlight is so highly essen- undoubtedly that arti almost en- tial to good marvel still ficial illumination is tirely in the making of films. pictures were pro- pictures, will more when told used For years motion duced almost entirely in southern Cali- fornia because of the quality and dura- tion of sunlight Although sunlight is the brightest possible light, it does not meet present-day require- ments of the movie concerns. Within recent years methods of artificial illu- mination have been so greatly improved available, and developed that sunlight is being superseded by electric lighting. This form of illumination can be controlled and directed at will, a feature of no small importance. With the sunlight no special effects, so essential to the motion picture in its present advanced stage of artistic de- velopment, could be obtained. Even on a clear day light values do not remain throughout the day at the same inten- sity. At noon perhaps the light is very JANUARY, 1929 Lightening the drummer’s load bright, but as the day begins to wane about three or four o’clock in the after. noon, the photographie value of the light is very much lower. In the making of a film it may happen that part of a scene is filmed at noon, and because of some changes in scenes or need for new characters, there will be a delay of three or four hours before it can be completed, Under natural light the first part of the when screened would be very bright and clear, whereas the,other part would be darker and less distinct, caus ing confusing effect to the spectator. Thus the need for an even, unaltered light at all times of the day which can only be supplied by artificial means, and which is now being used almost entirely in American studios. There are several schemes for producing this constant illumination. One of the latest comes from the big factory and laboratory in Schenectady, and uses the new high intensity studio light, which in external appearances resembles a searchlight. It can be used as a spot or flood light, much the same as the searchlight where the light rays are focused and projected in a small beam, or as a prime flat light to illuminate the entire setting or scene, This can be done by removing the glass mirror at the back, which focuses the light rays, and thus allowing a general spread of the light from that end of the The light itself has a 24-inch mirror, its carbons are fed together elee trically practically no atten- scene projector. requiring High-intensity motion-picture studio light that is fast replacing daylight in this industry JA! tion. mos! base dian and abot light weig Tl ada] usef ing 1 of | valu a Sp the stan figu! bette not agai far are shac appé BE is u are raph to b too, light coun or t thei! natu a pe fecte mou gine SUpE pow stud A trici leng Islar proj are insic nect the that proj atta this wise mitt serte butt are mati wall Pr up ¢ a set take inch in di part chan whic and gage sufli alloy easil sigh refe: knw

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——_——__] ad oO Wane e after- he light king of t of a nuse of ‘or new f three ipleted, of the e very er part r, caus itor. altered ch ean 1s, and ntirely several mstant comes ory in high- ‘ternal ht. It _ much re the ted in - light : scene, glass Ss the eneral of the 4-inch r elec. atten- ene eee dio it JANUARY, 1922 The latest drawing pen opens like a knife, so that any clotted ink may be easily removed . and its entire operation is of the tion, : It is mounted on a most simple nature. base with rubber tired wheels of a large diameter, making it easy to move about. and can be raised to an elevation of about 10 feet, where an overhead spot- light is The entire device weighs less than 500 pounds. This light, one of the most studio, is particularly desired. powerful adapted to the useful where moonlight or sunlight com- ing through a window or the illumination of large settings is desired It is also valuable for back-lighting. By focusing a spotlight on the back of the heads of the principals the images are caused to stand out from the background and the figures are more pronounced and thus a better depth is obtained. If this were not done the figures would go dead against the background, no matter how far they stood in the perspective. They are also used a great deal to counteract shadows caused by other lighting apparatus, Even out of doors in the daylight there is use for artificial illumination. There are scenes, just as in ordinary photog- raphy, that are too dark even at midday to be taken without extra light. Then, too, there are times in the bright sun- light where artificial light is needed to counteract shadows caused by the sun when or to light up faces of persons their backs may be to the source of natural light. To meet such situations a portable power plant has been per- fected—an electric generating outfit mounted in a motor truck. A gas en- gine drives an electric generator, which supplies sufficient power to operate the powerful lights, the same as used in the studio. Testing Cylinder Variation N instrument that indicates 4 and accurately the size and concen- tricity of a cylinder throughout its entire length is being manufactured by a Rhode Island firm. In this device gage feelers project from the easing. are actuated by means of a inside the casing, which is directly con- nected by a steel rod running through the tube to a rack and spur movement that operates the dial hand. A button projecting through the knurled sleeve is attached to the steel rod. By pushing this button down the cone cam is like- wise lowered and the feelers are per- mitted to recede sufficiently to be in- serted in the cylinder. Pressure on the button is withdrawn when the are inside the bore, and they are auto- matically the cylinder walls. easily These feelers cone cam, feelers released against Provision has been made for building up one of the three feelers so that with a set of extepsions measurements can be taken of any diameter between 214 inches and 614 inches. Nipples are made in different sizes to cover any fractional part of an inch. The nipples fit inter- changeably into the extension rods, which vary in length by 1-inch steps and supported by thread bushings. The Sage dial is graduated by .001 inch with Suflicient between calibrations to allow variations of .0005 inch to be easily read. The dial is always in plain sight and can be set to any position with reference to the hand by turning a knurled bezel. A master is used, at space means for setting standard furnish a accurately to a times, to the gage diameter. In use, the instrument is rocked from side to and the smallest plus or the largest minus reading of the gage indicates the actual error at the point of application. A model is also constructed for meas- uring cylinders of a standard diameter. side SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN An altitude indicator that may clear the carbureter of unjust suspicion It differs from the other model in hav- ing three solid feelers of equal length centrally located. A centralizer, to hold the instrument in the center of the cylin- der, has a three-point bearing. To com- pensate for slight variations from the standard, the bearing surface of one of the three centralizer lugs is cut away and a flat copper spring is attached to it. The collar or depth stop is held by a set- screw and can be placed on the body to conform with the depth of the cylinder to be measured and thus prevents the feelers from being thrust beyond the bottom of the hole.—By Allen P. Child. The Art of Using a Drafting Pen NYONE who has an inventive turn 4 of mind has occasion now and then to make a drawing of some invention or device which he may afterward wish to have constructed, and yet the beginner in such efforts seems to experience great difficulty in the use of the drawing pen. Even persons who have practiced for a time are often unable to uniform thickness and considerable make lines of appearance. Troubles of such a nature usually re- sult from imperfect flow of the ink. As the pen points are but a little way apart the ink will cease to flow regularly as hardens or thickens to the least extent. Drawing ink is made to dry quickly to prevent blotting and smearing during the frequent shifting of the triangles or straight-edge. That is soon as it the reason that wiping the pen and cleaning it thoroughly is necessary at frequent intervals. The beginner does not appreciate this necessity for keeping the pen points free from clotted ink, and consequently he wonders at his frequent failures and becomes discouraged with his work. To make the cleansing process easier, some of the latest types of ruling pens open and shut like a knife, so that a cloth can be inserted between the points with- out any difficulty. The type shown in the figure is of this kind, and it is pro- vided also with marks on the set-screw for adjusting accurately the distance apart of the points and regulating the thickness of the lines—By H. OC. Ridgeley. For the Mountaineering Motorist ee the tourist or those who live in mountain country comes the automo- bile altimeter. It is a little instrument which sets into the dash of compact your car and tells you exactly what height you are above sea level. If your engine starts choking or sputtering, when your car is equipped with one of these altimeters, you can easily tell whether the carbureter or the altitude is to blame.—By F. G. Jopp. The New Rumpler Car HE most radical departure from ex- isting methods of motor-car design shown at the Berlin exhibition no doubt is to be found in the Rumpler “Drop” Car, a striking adaptation of the experi- ence gained in the construction of air- craft. The three innovations embodied are: First, the body as well as the chassis is drop-shaped, that is, has been given the shape corresponding to a minimum air resistance, as in the case of a falling drop. Secondly, the motor is arranged in the rear part of the car and is, with the gear, clutch and rear axle, combined Clean sleeves as well as clean hands follow the use of this glove in a compact system described as “motor- gear-axle.” The third, and perhaps most important, feature is the use of a double- sectioned rear wheel axle, oscillating round the center of the car and thus reducing to an unprecedented minimum the weight of hung up in springs. masses not The cruising garage—a friend in need on California’s main highway “Here Comes Help!” \ HEN you're miles from a garage and your car refuses to budge an- other inch, and maybe your gasoline is all gone, or a broken axle or a parted universal joint or a smashed gear-box or a differential that won't differentiate seems to have condemned you to an all- night stand, wouldn’t you smile if you suw a sign loom up in the distance, “Here Comes Help’? Patroling the highway, El Camino Real, which extends from San Francisco to Los Angeles, is a completely fitted-up wrecking car with this comforting sign on it, and its owner is kept pretty busy on Sundays and holidays, as the traffic on this highway is very heavy. Metallurgical Examination of a Broken Crank-shaft BROKEN crank-shaft from a 10-ton ammonia refrigeration machine was submitted to the Bureau of Standards for examination by one of the other Government departments. The material proved porous and showed evidence of not having received sufficient reduction in forging. The break which occurred was in the nature of a fatigue failure and had its origin in the angle between one of the throws and the bearing. A defect at this point had been filled in previously with are-fused metal. Such a procedure would not necessarily lead to failure had the defect been located elsewhere, but at the point in question the stresses are much higher than at other points on the shaft, and the break once started would be propagated rapidly owing to the unsoundness of the steel, Long Gloves Save Sleeves LONG-WRISTED glove for the use é. of automobile owners when making minor repairs about a car is one of the new accessories seen in automobile row shops. This particular glove is made of washable material, and has a strap and buckle at the top which aid in keeping the long wrist high on the arm, Pro- tection to:sleeves is provided with a con- sequent reduction in laundry and clean- er’s bills. The long-wristed glove is not only for the use of car owners, but can be used to advantage about the house, as for use in stoking the furnace. . For obvious reasons we show lying on its side this instrument for rapidly measuring the small variations found in auto- mobile cylinders. The dial is really the top of the apparatus

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64 | gues

+SESBS45

= | Not a phonograph, a heater for the parlor

*arlor Furnace That Looks Like Phonograph \ CLEVER designer i heater which many stove in the all of has developed a people who ob ject to a parlor will wel come, It has the appearance of a cabinet phonograph, yet it works as a furnace It ‘I plates, but they however made finished to pipeless of steel are look like mahogany, grained like rare old wood, polished to the fine luster of expensive furniture Starting with the name which ends with a “rola, the resemblance to a phonegraph is carried out in the design of the front, the sides, top and support- ing legs Ornamentation such as one finds on a wooden cabinet is used This affair is in reality a_ pipeless furnace which will heat from three to six connecting rooms It will burn any kind of coal and helds fire for fifty hours It is claimed fort this heater that housewives will find it more easily kept clean, as the polished mahogany finish requires but to be rubbed with a cloth furniture is handled by Goddard, just “as Charles A, High Temperature and Concrete | YIRES where temperatures are reached sufficiently high to the cause fusion of metal window frames, brick and con crete are rare. Therefore the high tem perature fire which took place last year in the chemical works of the Barrett r Philadel Manufacturing Company, ne: phia, is of special interest, The story building destroyed was a two structure used for the cooling of naphthalene, which was stored in tanks, some resting directly on the

The auxiliary lamps (see arrow) fol- tow the wheels on every turn

SCIENTIFIC In s of the upper story and others at té ediate levels on both stories. The ole structure was of reinforced con- ete ith the exception of two unpro ected steel roofs, and it should be noted floor was constituted by naphthalene tanks, no I The fire tarted in one of two naphthalene tanks nat the upper the beums and the flooring, in the ordinary acceptation « he term, having been provided. outside the building, and the flames rapidly spread to the interior tanks, the building having been gutted within 45 iinutes after the initial outbreak. It ippears that the steel roofing collapsed lmost Immediately after the fire started, bringing down the second floor Nat ullv, the heat was most intense neurest the exterior tank, and on the side facing he litter sal a ol the concrete Wiis fused, wired glass was melted, and steel Window mullions melted and ran down the frames in places From a consideration of all the data ivailuble the following conclusions have been drawn: the spalling of the concrete vas lurgely due to the use of coarse ag vregate containing a large percentage of quart the adoption of square columns wcentuated the amount of spalling the structural part of concrete should have protective couting, the thickness the construction may be idopted being governed by the the sprinkler installation was tetnperiu ture to which subjected breakage of the rendered inetticient by electrical circuit operating the pumps Finally, the engineers of the owners are suid to be of opinion that there is no material more suitable than reinforced concrete for use under conditions such is those prevailing in the building de stroyed, and that this material should be employed in the work of reconstruction. Sewing Machine for Furriers PECULIARLY sensitive machine for 4 sewing furs is making the life of the furrier easiet As it is highly un desirable that stitches should anywhere ippear on the outer or fur side of a

hee me |

The side-stepping sewing machine for furriers unusual construc- garment, a machine of tion is necessary The needle does not sew straight down and up in the cus- tomary way Instead there is a_ side- ise motion practically parallel with the urface of the material—By William Waish. Lamps That Turn with the Wheels \ MONG d knows that headlights is fact that the them. Particularly driver the don’t always shine where n making the things every about his he wants i sharp turn the wheels often get ahead of the lights nd one is in doubt as to ust where the headed. The auxil- jars lights ited herewith are ounted so that they swing with the wheels, and are therefore bound to hrow their beams as far around the corner as convenience could possibly re- quire. Incidentally they are right down on the road, where the light is wanted,— By F. G. Jopp. AMERICAN Home-Made Typewriter Ribbons fps mechanism takes in a piece of and turns it out a ribbon white typewriter ruw taupe finished ready to be inserted in a machine. The tape un- rolls from the flat holder or cylinder at the right around a series of smaller the crank is bottom of the which inks the eylinders or holders, as turned by hand. At the middle well taupe in the process, center is a The Torrent Dishwasher that cleared of und dishes in a housewife who insists her 5 ns kitchen equipment must be entirely not in actual use, she and will W ushes both who cooks welcome the latest into the is not kitchenette, dishwasher. It fits cupboard out of the way when it being used The fectly be« dishes like a machine washes hand-directed, hew per iuse it is vacuum cleaner; the 40-pound-pressure torrent of hot, soapy water from the washing nozzle can be concentrated on The housewife can il advantage the stubborn dishes see What she is doing—aa re:

Forty pounds pressure behind this dishwasher This washing nozzle, which attaches to the hot water faucet, furnishes by means of a small thumb lever either soapy or clear water. Specially designed wire baskets hold the dishes firmly in place. <A_ splash- guard which pulls up telescope style dur ing washing keeps the splash inside; it is because this splash-guard drops down out of the way that this washer goes into a cupboard. This machine has all the advantages over the old dishpan that a dishwasher it does the job more minutes): it is expected to have quickly (5 or 6 washes dishes cleaner and in a more sanitary way (by running water); it keeps mi- lady’s hands out of dishwater and so does its share toward keeping them soft ind white. And important, can see what she is doing and know the very she dishes are clean The Esthonian Cotton-Goods Industry Sa result of the unsettled conditions A in soviet Russia and the consequent loss of the market for the semifinished (unbleached) cloth manufactured there, the Esthonian cotton industry is pass ing through a crisis which has resulted in the practical closing down of the Kriinholm cotton mill at Narva, Estho- nia, one of the largest in Europe and the largest in the former Russian Em- pire, which before the war employed over 10,000 hands and manufactured yearly over 70,000,000 yards of semifinished cot ton cloth, which to Russia for bleaching and dyeing and then utilized in that country. During the war the importation of raw materials was sus pended, and the output of the mill was restricted to the stock on hand. During the German occupation raw terial was obtained, enabling the works to keep going to a limited extent. In 1920 the mill employed about 2000 hands, the output being 7,700,000 to 9,000,000 yards of cotton stuff. The administration of the mills stated was sent some na

JANUARY, 1999

Making typewriter ribbons out of plain tape that it was impossible to keep longer open, as all the capital was tied up in manufactured goods, for whieh there was no local market and for whieh they had been unable to find a market abroad. There were in storage in the mills on June 1, 1920, 3,240,259 yards of From June, 1920, to February, 1921, G521,01L1 vards were manufactured, during the same only 2% cent of the whole production wag sold. The Baltic Cotton Mills, Reval, ure still working on government orders, but when these are finished the question these mills will also have te continue mani textiles, while period per of closing be faced. In order to facturing the mills will have to obtain credits to purchase cotton from the United States, while they continue to until con- up a market for elsewhere is hold the manufactured goods ditions in Russia open them there or a market found A Better Mop Wringer N° longer is it necessary for a woman 4 to wring the household mop with her hands. This spiral mop wringer is made from one long piece of heavy wire. In use it is placed over a bucket as shown, with one foot of the user on the exten sion resting on the floor. As the mop is pushed down into the spiral-shaped wringer, the user turns the mop slowly to the right. The wires coming in con tact with the mop head threads and hold the mop securely, wringing all water out, as it is slowly pushed down into the tip of the spiral—By M. i. Hluntinag act as

A WRere

Getting the mop dry

them

Tot I the on. that whic sum! I to r that “Un beca mea: mea: the und reck but rem: “Int bett Al sim] chal intel you been say, stre! TI of s hull Gl To 1 deve sciet nent effici adve pecu ence conf trial in ri Indu

Page 65

IE oA pemere 1 tere JANUARY, 1922 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Our Readers’ Point of View The editors are not responsible for statements made in the correspondence column. Anonymous communications cannot be considered, but the names of correspondents will be withheld when so desired. Seaworthy Yachts To the Editor of the ScIENTIFIC AMERICAN: ; I have not seen the issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN in which the “Universal” Yacht Measurement Regulations are commented correctly reported as saying hesitate to stick to a rule were afraid to face a weight. however, you aré Yacht Club should which produced a of boats which summer breeze of more than moderate I agree that it was somewhat humiliating to find it injudicious to race on help pointing out that the remedy does not lic the other. The “Universal” rule can not be said to have produced the two boats, because they size except in one measurement, namely, They only measured for time allowance by the rule. To give the rule a proper chance, they ought to have been built to a class on. I presume, that the New York pair very the day referred to; but I can not in the one rule or design and unlimited ir length on were waterline. were “Universal” under the rule. (Of course, the fact that time allowance was reckoned by measurement under the “Unive rsal” rule could not but have an influence on the designs.) Had all the conditions remained the same, and the time allowance reckoned under the “International” rule, there is little reason to assume that any better sea boats would have been produced. All I want to say is that I think the desired result could very simply be obtained. The stipulation in the deed of gift that a challenger has to sail across the ocean was made with excellent vessel__the very thing know how that intention has taken to sail the course, intention, namely, to ensure a seaworthy you are after. Of course, we all been frustrated. But by limiting the time say, to three hours, or éven less, this would ensure the necessary strength in hull, spars, and gear, and a more moderate sail spread. The control of scantlings of the hull without any similar control of spars, sails, and other gear is as if Lloyd’s were to class the hull of a steamer without dealing with the machinery. Glasgow, Scotland. J. R. BARNETT. Industrial and Technical Photography To the Editor of the ScIENTIFIC AMERICAN During the last few years photography has more and more developed to be an important factor in industry, commerce, and science, and a number of large concerns have established perma- own as an aid to better research, buying, selling, many special purposes nent photographic departments of their efficiency in administration, engineering, advertising, peculiar to the individual needs of the All have been striving for the same result a help and not merely an added overhead expense. and technical photography not have come to stay but will get a much larger application in the future than heretofore, it would seem wise if all which use photography in one form or another could put their experiences together for the mutual benefit or all. It is, therefore, the purpose of this letter to ask every one using photography in their plants or organizations, to assist the writer in making a survey of industrial and technical photography by sending him different types of photographs used; a short statement of how and why photography is being used, as in field, office, plant or research; information as to how far an out- side photographer is employed; or if the users have photographic departments of their own, together with a history of the develop- ment of the same. Methods of mounting, filing and reference are important; also statements of the cost and upkeep of the depart- ments and the value and importance of them In case one has a photographic department of his own, would it be advisable to recruit his help from the photographic profession, or develop some of his men for this work? Should our technical schools develop men as photographical engineers to meet the grow- ing demand for practical, industrial photographers? The writer will compile all this data and information, and to- gether with his experience of eight years in the development of industrial photography, make a complete history of the develop- ment and uses of the same, to be published in one of our leading technical magazines. The more each one contributes to an article of this kind, the more valuable it becomes. Would a convention of the users of industrial and technical photography be of any value? If so, would you pledge your pres- ence and support to a convention of this kind, and where would you suggest this to be held? If enough interest and a large enough attendance for a confer- ence of this kind could be secured, the plan would be to arrange a conference with an exhibition of all forms of technical and indus- tria! photographs, and lectures on different photographic subjects in relation to industry, science, research and commerce. JOHN H. GRAFF, Industrial Photographer and Photomicroscopist, Brown Company, Berlin, N. H. The Deadly Exhaust in New Dress To the Editor of the ScIENTIFIC AMERICAN: The publicity bureau of the Department of Health seeks the aid of your publication and its readers relative to a rather unusual incident, and one which came very near being serious and causing loss of life. The practice that brought this accident about apparently has been overlooked by the designers of a special line of motor vehicles, and if continued will no doubt lead to future serious consequences. The Department of Health of New York City is therefore consider- ing regulation relative to this menace. The following case was reported on August 27, 1921, by the police of the 56th Precinct, New York City: W. H., eighteen years old, residing in Trenton, N. J., was over- come by inhaling the fumes of the exhaust from the motor truck, while traveling on the rear of the same from New Haven to New York as a driver’s helper to watch the load and prevent loss of goods while en route. The young man was removed to the Ford- ham Hospital immediately by ambulance. Recovered. An industrial sanitary inspector of this department investigated the accident and reported that the motor truck had the engine education, cooperation, and for concerns. to make photography As industrial only organizations samples of on the forward part of the chassis and the exhaust was immedi- ately in the rear of the flywheel. The motor truck body was an open one, carrying a load of boxes covered with a large canvas weather protector. The driver and his helper sat on the front seat of the truck and a second helper sat on the rear of the truck to watch while en route, and thus prevent loss of property. About halfway down he noticed that he felt sick, nauseated, clammy, and developed a headache. He thought it was incident to indigestion, and when nearing the city, still continued to feel ill, and fainted. The inspector reports that it is his opinion as the truck was speeding along, the exhaust from the motor entered the vehicle by air suction and the constant inspiration of these poisons gassed the helper in the rear of the truck. This is the first case of this character reported to the Division of Industrial Hygiene of the New York City Department of Health. The investigation is not completed, but the danger is so apparent that the matter is called to the attention of the scientific authorities in order that consideration will be given to the proper dispersion of the spent gas as we have observed that a large number of trucks have their muffler very close to the engine in the forward one-third of the chassis, whereas other cars and the closed type of automobile, ousine—have the muffler in the rear underneath the body, giving the gases an opportunity to escape to the rear of the machine and not be drawn up into the body of the passenger-carrying compartment. As it is the practice of a large number of merchants to have helpers on the rear of their trucks to aid the drivers in delivering the goods, also to watch the loads while en route, we have here a serious menace unless these gases are properly dispersed, which can be done by an extension pipe carrying the muffler to the rear of the vehicle instead of discharging the gases, as at present, in the forward part of the frame. This accident calls attention to the fact that in physical examinations made of a number of chauffeurs they found to be suffering generally from chronic carbon monoxide poisoning, as expressed by pallor, weakness, inertia, and a general physical breakdown. The attention of merchants doing large business and operating a number of trucks has been called to this matter with the request that engines on these trucks not be kept running while the rear helpers are unloading; also that gases be discharged in such manner as not to enter load if goods are to be shipped any distance, so the helper in the rear will not be gassed. It is also feared that probably a number of these helpers are suffering from chronic gas poisoning incident to the practice of improper disposing of these spent gases. Suggestions from yourself and your order to check this menace. Ss. Supt., Division of Industrial Hygiene. Department of Health, New York City. gases automobiles touring sedan and lim- also were readers are requested in DANA Husparp, M.D. A Question of Inertia To the Editor of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN : Your issue of October 1, 1921, contained a paragraph headed “Observing the Earth’s Movement,” wherein it was pointed out that this can be noted in a pail of water, the liquid turning around in relation to the pail. I tried this experiment, with some misgivings as to the result, and can observe no motion whatever. Nor would I expect to, for manifestly when the water had entirely “come to rest,”’ a condition admittedly necessary before starting this experiment, it will have in reality taken up all of the motion of the pail due to the earth's motion, whether of translation or rotation. However, I do observe a motion of rotation in a pail of water, observed for several hours after filling, which was imparted to it as the water escapes from the spigot in filling. I cannot but believe that this is the motion Mr. observed and erroneously ascribed to the rotation of the earth. Has Mr. Bastin, who contributes this curiosity, or the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN considered what turmoil would be caused in the oceans were there any tendency for water to “refuse” to rotate with the earth with enough force to show in a pail! Imagine the Indian Ocean, or the north Atlantic even, “‘trying’’ to rotate clear round in twenty-four hours! Montchanin, Del. E. Bastin has PAUL DU PoNnT. The Energy of Flies To the Editor of the SclENTIFIC AMERICAN : I wonder whether any of your readers can throw any light on the source from where flies get their enormous stores of energy! Here (South England) large numbers of a small dark kind take up their winter quarters under the roof of my house about October. Every sunny day they emerge and buzz energetically This they keep up till up and down the sunny side of the walls have to keep up their April or later. Thus for six months they vitality, expend enormous amounts of energy (for their size), have no visible food of any kind, and in the spring lay their eggs. As the sunshine seems indispensable for them to show energy, may it not be possible that in some way they have the ability to draw upon the vast stores of power latent in the atom? And what is true of flies seems true also of other insects. Torrington, Devon, England. Rev. CHARLES T. PARGITER. Escalators for Deep Tunnels To the Editor of the ScIENTIFIC AMERICAN: With reference to your recent editorial on Mr. Bolton's idea for low level rapid transit system for New York City, your objection to such a system on the ground that the elevating would prove very expensive is a valid one if the present method of ele- vating from the New York subways be used. It occurs to me, however, that the elevating problem in such a transit system might be cheapened considerably by a scheme some- what similar to that used by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad on the mountain divisions in Montana, Idaho and Wash- ington. On this railroad, trains are electrically braked on the down grade with regeneration of current which is turned back cost into the wires. My idea is that escalators in place of elevators could be installed to tap such a subway system, in comparatively small shafts driven on an incline instead of vertically. They would be driven elec- trically, automatically and would not require the continuous ser- vices of cperators as elevators do; and they could be so connected electrically so as to regenerate and turn current back into the wires or storage batteries when conditions of heavy down travel prevailed. This current could be used in elevating the same people to the surface at where the preponderance of travel was upward. I am quite well aware that such a system would involve consid- erable regeneration system, and that the escalators at best use a great deal of current. But I believe that the economy of labor in operating, together with such smal! pro- portion of current as could be would make escalators considerably cheaper than elevators. places loss of current in the recovered, Leo G. HALL. Chicago, Il. Sister Ships That Are Not Twins To the Editor of the ScieENTIFIC AMERICAN : Permit me to congratulate you on your editorial of September : 1921, “Is Airship Travel Profitable ?”’ I wish to call your attention to a minor error which, to my mind, does not affect the value of the editorial, but for the sake of future references thereto it should be stated that the R34 and R36 are not sister ships in the true sense, as the following table com- piled from official British sources will show: Ship R33, R34 R36, R37 Length 639 feet 5 inches 672 feet 2 inches Diameter 78 feet 9 inches 78 feet 9 inches Beer r tr Te 91 feet 7 inches 91 feet 7 inches 1,958,600 cubic feet 2,101,000 cubic feet Total lift .. ga 59.4 tons 63.8 tons Weight of hull and fittings 36.3 tons 37.8 tons Number of engines 5 5 Volume of capacity Total horse power 1250 1570 Maximum speed, miles ae 60 65 The differences in the two classes are very small since the impor- tant factor of disposable lift of R36 is less than three tons greater than R34, It is an interesting fact that the Controller of Information of the British Air Ministry issued the following on March 18th, 1921, for the information of the press: “Since September, 1917, many improvements in details of design and construction and economical use of materials have been ef- fected, resulting in the construction of rigid airships in Germany which have practically doubled the lift of L33 or R33 and increased the speed by 20 m.p.h. Thus, although R33 was only finished so far back as June, 1919, she was, at the time of her completion, already an obsolete ship, and of only about half the performance of the German rigid airships (L 70 class) in commission at that date " e Since the R33 class is only a little inferior to the R36 class, it would be of interest to know what the conclusion would have been if a comparison had been made with the L71 now in the hands of the British Air Ministry which has a disposable lift of almost twenty tons greater than R36 and, therefore, could accommodate at least double the number of passengers. Epw. SCHILDHAUER. Washington, D. C. The Flight of Birds To the Editor of the ScIENTIFIC AMERICAN : At different times I have seen statements attributing various rateg of speed to flying birds. Especially do I remember an artidhe which gave a maximum speed of 110-120 miles an hour to canvasback and teal ducks, otherwise a rate of 170 to 180 feet per second of flight. Having always been a keen autumn hunter of ducks and geese, wing shooting exclusively, it was necessary to know something of flying speeds and the approximate leads to be given various species in order to avoid a prodigious waste of ammunition. I thoroughly investigated this question during the hunting seasons of 1908-9-10 and 1911, on Long Point Bay on the north shore of Lake Erie. Windy days furnish best Lake Erie shooting. The prevailing autumn winds are from northwest and southwest, so that ducks travel usually eastward on such days. At point observations were made a narrow tongue of land projects into lake about one mile, ending in a rocky reef. Passing this, flocks usually veered directly northeast to a large inlet and marsh exactly two miles from reef at nearest point by survey. Varying inward or outward to direc- tion of wind, flocks usually followed an elliptical curve of average length of two and three-fourths miles. To cross this space the average time required for teal and bufflehead was three minutes 55 miles per hour. Mallard required four minutes in most cases, with an average of 45 miles per hour. The problem at issue was the approximate amount of lead to be allowed a duck at height of 35 yards and 40 yards horizontal distance. Allowing for much variation of ammunition and muzzle pressure, it is not safe to estimate of shot greater than 600 feet per second, or 50 yards for one-quarter second. In one- quarter second a mallard will fly 16 feet on average, faster ducks 20-25 feet at Apart from velocity of the projectile ex- tremely variable as it is, there is also wind pressure to up along with the moving target. Three to four gun lengths is the best lead for mallard passing in direction wind is blowing. Since ascertaining above facts I have not wasted so much in- effectual ammunition. I have tested speed of teal and canvasback and get good results ‘with lead 30 feet at 50 yards. The percentage of hits is about 65. This would disprove any speed of 120 miles per hour. Geese fly at varying rates, usually 40 miles per hour in open country. If the above facts are of any value to’ sporting readers they are welcome to them, At least they can easily verify them by actual tests. R. M, J. Saskatchewan. outset. measure

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SCIENTIFI( > AMERICAN JANUARY, ]

Pertaining to Aeronautics VARIABLI DIRECTION PROPELLING A PARAT R M Het K ra

Pertaining to Apparel

ADJUSTABLE HAT LINING OR BANDEATI M. I VAN Hvew } th A ve New Y N. Y The biject f the t ! j an adjustable hat linir I leau arrar it permit of securely and qui iju he linir and fastening it he adjusted t t hat Another i t i | id " ! hict is simple and d ible, adapted t } f ned a hat without ti ‘ f tehe it j 1 the fitting of any | ft b yearer's head DIAPHRAGM CONFINER KATHLY I Buens, 74 Sth Ave New \ N. ¥ rhe ir ve ' elat t lad " ha partic r t ad e | rw ulent women t th } i maint in au tT at : if f i | T surir the utine t ‘ r t< t t t t Line breathing fac i led use beneath the « not ! : shield, but confir he flesh i " the outline thar I I I A outside the et Electrical Devices ELECTRIC LANTERN l \. Ho H So th Street, ¢ ha, Net Ihe er lates to self nta t elect lant pa suitable f use " ailw d } lights. The object is to | cle n electric la which comprises a tal r | hol a battery, two elect unde nt ably red or whit« and ~a reflector t erve with each ligt nlac h contr and handle The device s durable, reliable and f expensive con- structior DUPLEX LAMP SOCKET \ J Kor deceased uddreas R. J. De R E rth trooklyn, N. ¥ An he the vention are t pre j la ict a commonly used ! i f ilient contact I ‘ lamp bans t pi ‘ \ ! b T cient contact truc i‘ t t arrier adapted | ct } lar Dp ' ‘ t the tw | contact design ELECTRIC FIXTUR I L. Br ; i0 E Mth St Chicago, Il Thi ntor has beer granted thre« tents [ nat ‘ The objects are to provide a sir device comprisit comparatively few parts which ca he rY bled and installed with economy in time and labor Since the insulating member is adapted to receive an ordinary tube formed with a

+} } f the tube may rh le comprises all } 1i assembled r ince [ 8 8 e cor li VITCH ivf, U. S. Naval Station H H A me he bject t tr le a itch f con l hick be used a i all tch } } } i e to be } + ! | r } } ‘) of ict +} ; } ; ll I I tne ELECTRI¢ rURE.—F. L. I E ( I as be , th i } 4 } lescribed that | th igh 4 al BATTERY CONNECTOR W S Ix Pros- K t oO} Ar r the object of the a tt connect« m i i effective connecting multiple whe " } A nothe biject to | le I ‘ which is simple and durable, } n-< P acid f. not ble t f rde and capable of being eu a if FLASHLIGHT W. S. Dor, Prospect St., Kent } r ion ha its particular object t t ch arranged to permit the user r and < y cldse pen the to light extinguish the lamp. A further bject i t de a switch which is simple 1 dural construction and composed of pa I fore not easily liable to get out ELECTRIC SWITCH.—W. D. Turorr, 198 I el Hill A Norwich, Conn The invention elate n t larly to the construction of a pender witch ur bject being to | de sucl tch I a longitudinally 1 able lide be vi } hen operated caus« the witch- ' ll le t l m f m ne | i the ELECTRIC CLOTH CUTTER I A. SCALFARO / | } f , 1 \\ Ra | ( I Ar I t the inve ni r 1 € I Sir | t r ! r i a I int a « Ade ' 1 of th ce i n « } stir t bl rt ! i } , th at r f the t Ik h cutt blade Of Interest to Farmers DISK HARPENER P Ri c/o H D P r I 1) Mi ( Cres« lowa Among the ot th nventior t ide 1 } n which the d m- t 1 ‘ i ha cultivat the be « sharpened while in " t f any motive powe b tr ‘ ad bs the act o! drawin } ‘ at head with a team « MIXER.—G. W. | rp, J 8 Vincent Ave I N ? l t ent T r | t t ct de a wherein a thorough l ired in a mini- time \ ‘ ob je de a mixer ida ir c al fertilize 1 pl lifferent { of stirring P ed t eak up the fertil it is l The wchine may be moved | ower man INCUBATOR J Kovar, address H Zaarl Taylor, Texas The invention relates to an auto- matic heat reculating unit, and more particularly to a device of this nature intended for use with

Recently atented Inventions Brief Descriptions of Recently Patented Mechanical and Electrical Devices, Tools, Farm Implements, Ex

: 7 ' i ' 5 - f f

in incubator. By this ystem the temperature! the like, so that the same will be retained in f the Incubator or other device with which it is| cool and sanitary condition in the same refts ociated ill be constantly maintained at a erator receiving the foodstuff, whereby both m edetermined point The device is extremely be kept cool and fresh with the same refriger mpl hence economical to manufacture, and ing medium with a minimum expenditure of ig r el automati » that a minimum of atten- PANTOGRAPH. R C. EMMERLING, & ‘ d Ann St., West Hoboken, N. J. Among the BOG CUTTER, GRUBBER AND WEEDER jects of the invention is to produce a pants | ( \ Ay 35 Carson City, Nevada fhe in- graph which shall be so simple as to be Withi j ntion is « cially designed to cut weeds and reach of everybody, and which shall lend itee A ter lil litche such as irrigati ditches, to any number of uses, such as engraving It hich become cl ed ul The device may be drafting and manifold, other uses for the pw i to ditche f different widths and depths pose of enlarging or reducing rhis form l eff l cut the owth alor the pantograph is particWZlarly desirable whe I id d f the ditch The device may economy is desired, . Rati - o ing io - : sme ; oe a paren HAT CONFORMATOR.—D. Freepwtne, 1% atin s ' asesun othe Gay deal Fulton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. The general obje of this invention is to provide a device k lighter and more simple form than the con. & Of Generel interest formators usually employed A further objec | s to provide adjusting means that will readij LADDER 1 uw. ip S 3 p Peer adapt themselves to the different shapes , Folding id ( Gree ille. S. ¢ This heads, at the same time may be locked j . step-ladders, which may | adjusted position, against the possibility ly collay d has s ject t changing its form i ladde Which the side stiles may BELT BUCKLE.—S. RosenTHAL and §, D folded mn each 1 house the 1 £8 A | BrIGHTMAN, 1517 47th St., Brooklyn, N.Y. Ap rther object is produce such a ladder &@8)| object of the invention is to provide a buekk ll have l pro legs idjustable and especially designed for concealing the expanding r dily lo« d € ed or collapsed ¢ ‘l- | mechanism of the belt and guarding it from con ind loct g means to prevent accidental | tact with the clothing of the wearer A furthe } llapse object is to provide a buckle which will be new METALLIC PACKING W. L. Ha S, ¢ and attractive, strong, durable, simple, and prac Roberts. 234 1 3d St... New York, N. ¥ rhe tical in construction. ject of the invention is to produce a metal CONDIMENT HOLDER.—D. Freep.ine, 1% lloy which is comparatively soft but has Bulton St., Brooklyn, N. Y. The invention odin rtain qualities especially desirable pack- | more particularly to a dispensing means for salt ing This packing comprises anti-friction metal an object being to provide a means which oper illoy in granulated form _ per cent, anti-| stes as an effective closure for the condiment friction metal in wool a rm 6 per cent, asbes/| cider when the latter is in its normal position s 6 per cent, grease 3 per cent, mica 1 per and which operates to effectually discharge a | cent, graphite 1 per cent, and water 1 per cent quantity of the condiment when the holder is CONTAINER J. Mrazek, 435 8S. S6th St.,| inverted and shaken. New York, N. Y. This invention relates more) waNHOLE COVER.—J. H. THomsen, 2014 ¥ particularly to condiment holders, perfume First St., Davenport, Iowa The object is to containers and similar small receptacles, an : 4 we : ; provide a cover plate having inner and outer object being to utilize an eggshell, partly filled _ , with plastic material, as the exterior of the spaced onmenr Se Samet co the de container, the eggshell readily lending itself cae aye ee extending throws on to painting, decorating and ornamentation of pe — ond a, he inner vite beng mah socscngsae I vided with openings slidably receiving the inne portions of the pairs of arms, pairs of latch ban COPY HOLDER.— A. N. Wooprvurr, 161 carrieds by the outer end of the pairs of arms, and Hudson St New York, N. ¥ It is the pri-| coiled springs confined between the arms for mary object of the invention to provide 4 separating and urging the latch bars outwardly. py holder in which a line. spacing mechanism HOLDER AND TIE aie s 1 d ermittently from the top to the es IE A. H. Eva, 206 Com koe ott aia acehilna tall iim dedi: amie berland Rd., ‘San Antonio, Texas. The object } he line being copied by the operator will of the invention is to provide a holdem chine the onal ed above the line indi-| °™82sement by the laces of shoes, leggings corsets and the like, wherein a simple, iner pensive attachment is provided, which m be INSECT PROTECTOR L.. W. STEVENS, Box easily connected with a shoe, and in mot f Everet, Wash. Among the objects of the the end of the lace may be engaged in such r ntion is to prevent insects from gaining access panne r that it cannot become accidentally t ting her or crawling up the legs of displaced furniture The device comprises a cup within . which a quantity of oil or the like is adapted to SWAB.—W. F. Lercu, 941 Glengule Place, Chh ce ‘ehetieal eo ob te sumalils aeeees te cago, Ill. More particularly the invention relates sonaiieni seasting the feet veut, or the ths to a device for use in connection with iodin © eile ai al ie te eal any other liquid, or semi-fluid. An object is to provide a swab which will be entirely sanitary, BAG HOLDER FOR TRUCKS.—E. E. DURKEE,

Deer River, Minn. An important object of the invention is to provide a bag holder for trucks which will not interfere with the use of the truck and which may be applied to a truck without elaborately altering the construction. A further object is to provide a simple means whereby the bag may be securely held on a hand truck and released when desired. COLLAR BUTTON.—R. A. Kant, 190 8 Main St., Wallingford, Conn. The purpose of the invention is to provide a button which vill permit of ready application and removal f a collar to and from the shirt without dis- rting, tearing or in any manner injuring the buttonholes of the collar Furthermore the invention provides a button and means for preventing the accidental displacement of collar ends having worn or loosely fitting buttonholes BOTTLE REFRIGERATOR.—R. J. Sourtu i, c/o R. W. Shaw, Terminal Pharmacy, N. W. Beauregard and St. Joseph Sts., Mobile, Ala. The invention relates to a bottle container and refrigerator adapted for use in stores or homes, which will permit the removal of the cotton after application. A further object is to provide means for holding absorbent cotton on the end of the swab which preferably forms a portion of a bottle stopper which handle SPRAYER.—J. T. Piumer, North End Detroit, Mich. The apparatus for spraying The device sprayer operates as a Station, to an or the relates to & spraying tical axis invention relates lawns, gardens, , like. more particularly employing laterally extending mounted revolve about arms to a ve The general object is to provide a ayer with a view to effect a proper distribution of the spray in the gradually increasing zones covered by the sprayer arms and their appurtenances. WALL BRACKET.—R. F. Perkins, 29 Wer ster St., Middleboro, Mass. Among the objects of the invention is to provide a hanger for hot water bottles and the like, having means whereby the flexible tube of the bottle may be supported in such manner that it A further object is to provide a hanger having 4 single will not crack | hook provided at one end with an attaching Joop and at the other end with a bill adapted to engag® to receive bottles containing milk, soft drinks and | a hot water bottle. a ———— ee

lo ot or s ae = 4 - « S&S %&S

Page 67

JARY, 199m ts, Eye —_____f retained in, same refrig eby both m ne refriger: liture Of ice ERLING, §y8 nong the @] Panty | to be with I] lend itge + engraving for the py form Wher ice a SR yo his “able DLINE, 13% neral objee t device the ex rther objer ' Will readij Shapes of locked j sibility in and §, D N.Y. Ap e a buckk | expanding from con. } A furthe § rill be neat and prac LINE, tion relates 1s for galt hich oper. condiment il position scharge 2 holder is | 1254 y, 2014 W. ject is to and outer le, spaced | ugh and eing pro the inner latch bars arms, and arms for itwardly. ‘06 Cum 1e object lider for leggings le, inex may be n whieb in such dentally an rape eee OR AR, Chi n relates iodin or ace ct is to sanitary, on after i e means of the a bottle Station, to an or the os to a praying al axis. or with of the rovered es. | Web- ects of water by the ted in urther single g loop ngage G22 JANUARY, 1922 HORSE COLLAR.—B. C. Winston, Orr, ! N. D. The purpose of this invention is to “ eollar constructed in the main provide a horse coiled contractile springs so associated with each other as to provide a collar of durable and efficient construction, and having the re quired flexibiilty to render it self-conforming of as with respect to the horse’s neck, PROTECTOR FOR DESKS. R. H. MASTERS, $6 Glendale Road, Webster Groves, Mo. The in- vention has for its object to provide a rubber protector to prevent scarring and splintering of desk edges and the desk chair when they are struck together, the protectors being ar ranged at such point on the desk edges that they will be engaged by the chair, to prevent injury to either the desk or the chair. MOUSE TRAP.—N. H. W. A. BALDWIN, 413 Sixth Ave., This invention has for its object to provide a trap in ALBRECHT and Dawson, Ga. the form of a sleeve which may be connected with an ordinary fruit jar at one end, and wherein the sleeve has mechanism in connection therewith for pe rmitting the free entrance of a mouse or rat to the jar, but for preventing the escape of the mouse or rat from the jar. HAND NUTCRACKER.—H. C. AtTwoop, Box 362, Ardmore, Okla. This invention has refer- ence to a simple nutcracker adapted primarily to be operated by hand. An object is to provide means whereby pressure can be easily applied with sufficient power to crack various kinds of small nuts quickly and without breaking the same into small parts. The device is provided with means whereby it may be detachably mounted on the edge of a table or the like. PHONOGRAPHIC NEEDLE.—T. FL etcner, 125 No. Flores St., San Antonio, Texas. An impor- tant object is to provide a needle which by being turned upon its longitudinal axis will function as a soft, medium or loud needle. A further ob- ject is that by making the shank of the needle more flexible in one position than it is in an- other it is capable of absorbing most of the strong vibrations communicated to it, and by so doing cut them out from reaching diaphragm, at the same time preserving the overtones which are often lost in reproduction. LIFEBOAT OR RAFT.—W. Stewart, 18 Tay- lor St., Newark, N. J. One of the principal objects of the invention is to provide a lifeboat or raft of identical construction on its upper or lower sides whereby the same will properly func- tion irrespective of its launching, thereby elim- inating the necessity of expensive tackle for lowering the same into the water. A further object is to include a plurality of water-tight compartments, rendering the same non-sinkable and providing storage room for provisions and water. UMBRELLA HOLDER.—C. A. Cooper, c/o Mrs. R. Dynes, 676 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y. Among the objects of the invention is to provide to hold such an umbrella holder designed individual manner will be of the floor, and the umbrella umbrellas in erect position in that any drip water from conveyed along the the holder, so that the not and yet come as little as possible into deteriorating tip into interior water will reach the contact with the crown of the umbrella. SANITARY FLYTRAP.—A. B. He.tier, Ham- burg, Pa. The general object of the invention is to provide a structure provided with locking means and adapted to be set up from a flat form to present a bottom and sides, together with means to retain flypaper supported on the bottom of the structure. The trap is so constructed that the flypaper can not possibly contact with sur- rounding objects, and the trap may be burned, SCIENTIFIC provide a simple and efficient flue cleaner which shall operate in such a manner as to automatically conform to varying widths of flues, so that upon through the flue the latter will be | A further object is to provide | being moved efficiently cleaned. a device in which those portions subject to wear | may readily be renewed. WINDOW.—L. LANng, P.O. Box 1066, Habana, More particularly the invention relates to which the with the guide members engaged thereby The object a construction arrangement members of the frame and the to insure the line contact and be capable of em- sliding Cuba. windows in sliding sashes have line contact the is to provide of the jamb sash members on window frame. and bodiment generally in windows having sashes. BAG Boulevard, SUPPORT.—Mary C. Spraccins, 1924 City, N. J. An object of the provide a_ bracket Jersey to device which may be readily mounted on the table invention is or clamping or other support so that the bag will be held in open position for receiving any desired article. Another object is to provide a support for a scrap bag in a sewing-room, general utility bag, or a trash bag, arranged to be supported with its mouth open when in use, and the mouth section folded when not in use. (See Fig. 1.) ANIMAL TRAP.—A. F. RENKEN, Crete, Neb. This invention relates particularly to a trap which is primarily designed to catch pocket gophers. An object is to provide means for maintaining the trap at various positions of adjustment when the trap is in set position so that it may be suited for use in holes of different sizes. A further object is to provide a metal trap which is simple, strong and practical in use. FASTENER FOR HANDBAG.—M. SLoane, 228 Roebling St., Brooklyn, N. Y. The general object of the to which reliance may be placed to hold the bag in invention is provide a fastening upon closed position, and make the surreptitious open- of the with when placed difficulties the bags ing than clasps or the top. ARTIFICIAL Coal Co., of the with bag attended greater reliance is solely the catch upon usually provided on at BAIT.—J. FRAME, c/o Penobscot Maine. The general object is to provide an artificial bait more in of a minnow and by to one Searsport, invention means for simulation of the flexing the articulated tail fins to the bait to and rise toward the surface, and to the opposite side and diving action. The hooks have flexible guards concealing them, but yielding to the attack of a fish. Fish oil may be caused to exude from the bait through its tail and sides giving motions less natural motions or by portion, novel cause turn side produce a asa lure. (See Fig. 2.) ALLOY.—F. MILLIKEN, 18th floor, 110 .. New York, N. Y. The object of the is to provide an acid-resisting alloy William St inven- tion capable of being rolled, in other ways while being cold, to form rods, plates, } sheets, the like. The alloy consists ingredients: Copper, nickel 9-12 drawn, forged, or worked wires, tubing and of the per following 19-24 per 60-70 cent, zinc per cent, iron 1-2% cent, and manganese cent. P. GARDNER, 240 53rd St., Brook- of the up of a per cent, copper 1 MATTRESS. mM. Es is to provide a per lyn, Among the objects invention mattress made plurality of sections which are in a very simple and effec- tive manner completely interchangeable, whereby the supporting surface of the mattress may be very readily changed so that the entire surface of the mattress is uniformly worn out and thus the life of the mattress is greatly lengthened. CURTAIN SUPPORT.—H. -H. Dterkes, 853 95th St., Woodhaven, L. IL, N. Y. The invention relates to means for supporting a panel curtain on a door or window. The general object is to AMERICAN in the nature of a continuous twisted wire adapted to be applied to a window door frame or separate frame, and having hooks for engaging the curtain at intervals on all four sides so as to give an even support, and nails to fasten the wire to the provide a device or loops to receive door or window. CHRISTMAS 3449 objects TREE STAND.—E. A. WILSKE, Greenwich Chicago, Ill Among the of the to provide a stand which will serve to rigidly support a tree in up- right associated with the stand for throwing light up- Ave., invention is position and to provide illuminating means wardly on the tree. A further object is to pro- vide a varicolored translucent revolving element which will serve to give a constantly changing illumination to the tree. (See Fig. 3.) REEL.—R. Cassipy, 12 W. Ist St., Mansfield, Ohio. This invention relates more particularly to reels designed for use in connection with clotheslines. An object is to provide a device which will permit the clothesline to be reeled or unreeled without any portion coming in contact with the ground to soil the line. A further object is to provide a reel which is portable and can be conveniently supported in one hand and manipulated by the other. LETTER SHEET.—D. D. ScHULMAN, deceased ; address Florence R. Schulman, 416 W. 33rd St., New York, N. Y. The objects of the invention are to provide a commercial letter sheet adapted to carry a display advertisement of goods, such display being of pictorial character and of fixed standardized by the manufac- but which sheet reserved form, such as that publicity, picture for turer in obtaining shall not written ADJUSTABLE JAR COVER OPENER.—J. McLeop ELtA A. Davutor, 744 S. Ave., Chicago, II. the objects of the invention to provide a jar cover that ean be readily and quickly adjusted to positively grip the top of any bottle, the like, to remove the same. A further object is to provide which construction operation, and which to out of order. SHEET METAL BACKING FRAME.—J. MAn- DEL, 1805 Ist Ave., New York, N. Y. The vention relates to backing frames for advertising has for an object to provide a in which a plurality of sheet members are telescopically arranged for receiving trespass upon the communications, A. and Campbell Among is opener jar, or simple in and is not likely a device is easily get in- con- metal cards, and struction a single card or a plurality of small cards with- out changing the of the device, and giving a uniform edge so as to have general appearance the appearance of a complete frame for each card. FLASHING.—O. Bout, 416 Stevens St., West Hoboken, N. J. This inventor has been granted two patents of a similar nature. They flashings such as are employed on a building at the siding, on a roof, at a window or door frame, with a chimney. The general is to promote facility in proper of a flashing the of the same in position and provide for the flashing to the sweating of flashings at the to provide a flashing that may be wholly or par- relate to in connection object of the invention the securing or installation and ventilating the space beneath owing interior and making MEANS in repairs. FOR CAMERAS.— H. H. Berry, 2 Webster Ave., N. Y Among the objects of the invention to means for causing the turning of the wind- tially removable FILM WINDING Bronx, are pro- vide | vide | | connection 67 at all times adjacent to its receiving mouth and has at the same time a flexible portion adjacent of as to the user’s body to avoid the discomfort rigid, unyielding or still bag mouth time. to supports The comfort commonly used at the present inven- is particularly intended (See Fig. 4.) tion provide for the user. COFFEE CAN AND ATTACHMENT.--W. 5S. MILLER, 1135 4th St., San Diego, Calif. The in- vention has for its object to provide means for delivering a predetermined quantity of the con- tents of a can without opening the can, and thus preserving the aroma of the coffee or other con- tents. Another object is to provide an airtight removable cover for the receptacle, a zontal bottom in which is placed a measuring de- vice in the form of a _ rotatable with openings for filling the cylinder from the contents of the can and closing the same that the contents of the cylinder may be emptied. TRAP NEST.—J. F. Coox, 846 Brunswick St., San Francisco, Calif. An object of the invention is to provide a poultry nest which can be so ar- hen to the keeping provide a raised hori- cylinder a certain nest of nest train a use which will facilitate Another to capable of use as a trap of such character when the hen the will prevented, or it may be arranged to permit fect freedom of ingress and egress. ROLLING CRUTCH.—M. D. Scorrt, Tremont St., Kewanee, Ill The invention to what is known as walking having therewith a the may propel himself along and readily and easily The is to provide an arrangement by ranged as to records. which is that be object is enters nest egress per- 214 No relates chairs, in seat whereby user ob- ject the seat is readily shiftable and horizontally adjusted, rest between walking periods. primary which and in which the arm rests may be conveniently adjusted to the body of the REMINDER.—W. H. Summit, N. J. The invention to provide a construction which will be applicable as a kitchen reminder any other place, and to provide means for user, Co.tuns, 200 Boulevard, has for its object or as a reminder in presenting large number of other the indicating members being slidingly in slots formed with a of fer holding the members at any desired point. HOLLOW TILE.—J. V. Ciose, 74 Franklin Ave., Norwalk, Conn. Among the objects of the invention is to provide a hollow block or tile con- to view in a classified manner a articles needful in a house or place, mounted series depressions struction which will make it impossible for moisture to pass through the wall, following the courses of the mortar. Another object is to pro- combination hollow adapting it for such as cor- what may be termed a tile having peculiar facilities for the formation of special ners, turns or walls of irregular length. TABLE.—G. E. ToMLinson, An of this is to tional or collapsible table composed of a minimum number of parts, which can be quickly and readily structures, Ky. provide a sec- Winchester, object invention put together to form a strong, compact table. The table comprises a top which may be in one piece or may be composed of pieces, and the device is fastened with resilient locking means the entire structure being collapsible and com- posed of parts which can be quickly dismantled |} and stored in the smallest possible space. ing spool by a slidable actuating device accessible | from the well means to vary winding action to accord with the increasing diam- exterior, as as eter of the spool as the film is wound thereon. FRUIT PICKER’S BAG.—W. F. Keewtne, de- ceased; Mrs. W. F. Keeline, 445 Main St., El Centro, Calif. The object of the invention is to provide a bag whose upper portion is held open the | Hardware and Tools 92 “0 MINNEY, E. Freemont The object of this invention WRENCH.—-A. W. St., Stockton, Calif. is to provide a wrench which is simple and dura- ble construction, reliable in operation, readily adjustable, which is adapted grip the object or work and to apply a powerful in and to powerfully torque thereto without distorting or breaking the elements of the wrench. making it thoroughly sanitary. FLUE CLEANER.—W. MEcHVILLE, R.R. No. 4, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. This invention aims to | | | j invention of Mary C. Spraggins, of Jersey City, N. J. Fig. 1.—This bag support is the Fig. 2.—An ingenious artificial bait, patented by J. Frame, of Searsport, Me. Fig. 3.—-This elaborate Christmas tree stand with flood lights and motor-driven color- wheel for providing varicolored lights, is the invention of E. A. Wilske, Chicago, Ill. Fig. 4.—A fruit picker’s bag whose upper por- tion is held open at al! times—the invention of W. F. Keeline

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SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

JANUARY, 1929

KY f =o! pot

— Fig. 7.—This simple tool serves to engage the Fig. 8.-_New method of making piston rings, impart a grinding : : which causes the density of the grain to take

Fig This ingenious scheme for heating i water and generating steam as by-products of Fig. 6 A safety split set collar which pro- a slag furnace, is the invention of E E. tects persons working around machinery the James of San Francisco, Calif | invention of J. ©. Field, of Lutcher, La. .\W-FITTING BOOT ( f i ' inte Ming \ N } attl Was} Among tli b liferent classe f wor ob jex r r dle 1 ad A f he Cot of re t h tr t I nt f the ra tooth tame ¢ 4 C} : ll — a wheret h ir 1 ow point will not interf hes { } o1 lead . —_ —_ in the ‘ I coming in contact with t) 1 ‘ a | the like and the spok op! . th | t mut thereon ¢ mit peration « the latte RPOILER TUBE BRUSH J. Berorst : without ibject he device to a lateral stress. 261 | t St., Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention A further object to é e that can has particular reference to a type of brush which be qui ad é ind easily « with work is adapted to be forced, in a well-known manner f various é which contains comparatively by means of any suitable fluid pressure, through few pa und is therefore durable and inex- the tubes of a boiler to clean the same An pe e to manufactu object to provide means whereby the brush) DOOR OPENING AND CLOSING DEVICE will not ant o am in th tubes, and to provide G | CIRAC, « R \ Cahalan, Evans and means for clamping the bristles on the brush in| Railroad Ave., San Francisco, Calif. The inven- such way that they can be ery easily removed. n has reference more particularly to a manu- TOOL HOLDER B. T CARSO Kinderhook | a! yperate levice which is adapted to be Knitting ¢ Kinderhook, N. Y The invention | mounted in association with a door for openir relat« lathe tools The de wists of an and closing the same and further is a con- attachment in the nature of a locking or retaining nient means for locking the door closed when device which se« for its object to provide occasion § arises The invention s especially positive means for clampi the yoke in its ad-| adaptable to the doors of ice boxes and like com- justed position and lockir the tool against rela-| partments. tive movement with respect to the holder. The) TRAPPER'S TOOL.—W. R. Lazensy, Box 451, attachment is simple and inexpensive Hardin, Mont. Among the objects of this inven- SAW SET 1. W. InGiEeToN, Box 962. Astoria, | tion is the provision of a combination tool which Ore The invention relates more particularly to | will greatly facilitate the setting and removal of a readily adjustable device of this nature which | @ trap, and which will afford convenient means is of imple construction, F be conveniently | for preparing the ground to permit of the posi- utilized and will be durable and effective The tioning of the trap and trap anchor. Another device is adaptable by virtue of its adjustments | object is to provide a tool which may be folded t« to both crosscut and hand saws, and may be | occupy a minimum amount of space when not in utilized with but slight change for saws of | use, whereby the same may be carried easily as various types a part of the trapper's outfit. PACKING TOOL.—K. Bereskavuc, 309 Warren TWISTING TOOI J. ScHNeEmer, 412 Walnut St.. Brooklyn, N. Y. The invention relates to a/| St.. Rochelle Park, N. J. The invention relates packing tool particularly adapted for use in con-| to twisting tools generally used for splicing wires nection with the packing of tubes One of the| or strands. An object is to produce a tool having principal objects is to provide a device which | special facilities for rendering it capable of use shali be simple in construction and may be/| on splicing work where various sized splicing operated by. relatively unskilled labor in the ap-| sleeves and strands are necessarily employed. It plication of packing material to the ends of | is also an object to produce a tool having con- tubes and heads applied thereto, by means of | venient clamping means for mounting the device which the tube will be evenly and correctly| on parts to be twisted. packed. = WINDOW OR KEY LOCK.—B. Leicurer, ¢/o Heating and Lighting Davis, 52 Smith St., Brooklyn, N. Y. The inven-/ pisH COOKER.—A. S. Davies, 44 Garfield St., tion relates to builders’ hardware. Among the! canta Cruz, Calif. An object of the invention is objects is to provide a safety device for cooperat- ing with a locking member or catch which, when in adjusted position, will serve to prevent or materially reduce the likelihood of the catch or lock being moved or released to permit the open- ing of the window or door by any unauthorized person WRENCH.—A. W. Minney, Stockton, Calif The objeet of the invention is to provide a tool which is especially adapted for use as a wrench and adapted, when so used, to powerfully grip either round or polygonal objects irrespective of the position of the wrench with respect to such objects, and which is of simple and durable con- struction, reliable and easy to operate HUB FOR GEARS, PULLEYS AND TOOLS J. L.. Guenpenon, R. No. 1, Box 75, Ensley, Ala The invention relates to gears, pulleys and the like r tools, and more particularly to a hub construction therefo by which the body or rim of the gear, pulley or tool detachably fixed to the hub, so that the part subject to wear and tear may be removed for repair in case of break- age, or for changing speeds where the same hub may be weed for different sizes of gears or the like MICROMETER CALIPER.—G. Covstns, 178 W et S Oswego, N. Y An object of the invention to provide a readily adjustable, easy reading arrangement which will obviate the neces-

to provide a cooking apparatus to be used in con- nection with fish canneries, an endless belt travel- ing through a cooking chamber being employed to fish. Another porous material continuously cook the of between the fire chamber and cooking chamber to and to convey object is provide a screen hold down the flames and absorb the oil dripping from the fish as it cooks. SLAG FURNACE,.-—-E. E. James, 221 Mason St., San Francisco, Calif. The invention refers particularly to an apparatus for heating water and generating steam by means of utilizing the existing heat in the slag of blast furnaces An object is to produce an apparatus which will be capable of utilizing large quantities of slag. The apparatus comprises a team boiler and means for confining a quantity of hot slag around the same the lower portion of said means being capable of removal from the bottom of the boiler to release the exhausted sla See Fig ) ARCH FOR FIREBOXES ] J. SPImLLane, uidress Mac Engineering & Supply C« 123 Liberty St., New York, N. Y. The invention relates to oil-burning steam boilers. Its object to provide an arch arranged to permit of readily assembling the sections at the ends of the fireboxes and to allow of readily removing or replacing a burned-out section Another object i to provide a protecting means for the joint formed by the firebox with the back flue sheet

this invention is to provide means for supporting

ontal or vertical position, and to produce a ma- EE

ATTACHMENT.—D, More particularly the invention relates to an attachment adapted to be connected HYDROCARBON the extension board when the latter is folded, and is capable of deliver to provide a burner FROM WAVE ACG PORN pn to a means of discharging air upwardly breaking up the waves, a further object being to provide means for dischargin

PISTON RINGS.—H. invention particularly relates to hammered piston blows are liable to cause slightly raised and hard ened spots on the outer peripheral face. hammer blows are received.

the density of the grain Machines and Mechanical Devices producing the hardened J. GENUNG, 904 10th SILK THROWING MACHINE.—P. H. Bonner, 104 E. 25th St., New York, N. Y. the invention is to provide a machine arranged to form from two or more raw silk ends a crape or high twist thread in one continuous operation on Another object is to produce a large amount of crape thread in a compara- tively short time, and one having a uniform twist throughout its length. JACQUARD DRUM.—G. C. The object of this invention is to provide a construction wherein 8 drum or wheel structure is used for holding the instead of an ordinary object is to provide knitting machines with means for carrying a series of pins capable of acting on the needle bars correctly, and pre venting any appreciable tilting or motion of the pins. *COLLAPSIBLE CORE.—P. De Marta, ton, N. J. This inventor has been granted three patents of a similar nature, the objects being to specified, for permitting the accuracy of surfaces to be determined, wherein small openings of con- surface of a long hole of relatively small diameter or to reach into a small aperture of a jig or any other piece of machinery to be tested. SAFETY SPLIT more particularly clothes thereon and clothing thereon, due to the fact that the device screws or bolts as in the ordinary set collar. and affords an absolutely smooth produce a collapsible core comprising a plurality constructed and con nected together as to afford a maximum of move ment to the pivoted parts and thus greatly facili- tate the removal of the built-up without subjecting the same to distorting stress A further object key section with means to move the same radially and in an oblique direction, and to provide means whereby the key section may be entirely removed within convenient reach a pump especially adapted for use in deep wells, wherein other means is provided with the piston plunger or piston and between the packing thereof jects of the invention is to provide a valve and grinding mechanism therefor which may be moved PNEUMATIC TIRES. The object of this invention is to

in both directions during the grinding operation, for which purpose the inventor provides a special | cylindrical tire blanks may be pressed and shaped (See| by means of and vuleanizing takes place, and a further object is MA-| to effect the simultaneous expansion and lateral An object of ' compression of the cylindrical tire blank, and to

Page 69

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JANUARY, 1922 provide means and a process whereby, if desired, a reinforcing inner lining may be applied during the process of expanding. VALVE CONTROL FLOAT.—C. EIMKE, Brooklyn, N. Y. This to a float construction especially with the of large is to provide 1909 Sixth Avenue, Invention refers particularly designed for for ink presses. One of the | a float const ruction of extremely buoyant material, to the use in connection supply valves reservoir tanks printing principal objects and to provide means prevent sticking or adherence of the same to the sediment on the top Another object is to pro- and bottom of the t nk. shaped to induce its lifting as vide a float so power under all conditions. GUARD FOR PUNCHING MACHINE.—S B. WoopwarpD, 213 Rosemount Ave., Trenton, An important object of this invention N. J. ; provide for punching machines which may is to ts . be attached to either side and which will ef- fectively prevent the operator from being in jured when the movable die member carried by the ram descends A further object is to guard having whereby the the same may be adjusted. provide a means zone of action of FRUIT SIZING MACHINE.—A. H. McIn- Tyre, Dunedin, Fla This invention has for its object to provide a machine particularly adapted for sizing peaches and similar fragile fruits in which relatively operating machine shall have a relatively large capacity and in which the fruit shall be gently support- a slow ed, transported and separated into lots of sub- | stantially uniform size, without the liability bruising and injuring the fruit. AUTOMATIC TRIP MOTION.—M. pin, ¢/o Dr. Van Schuck, 472 West End Ave., New York, N. Y. The invention relates partic- ularly to a trip motion applicable to use with printing press. An object is to provide a sim ple compact and readily attachable means for any ordinary printing press whereby the paper- feed roll may be moved to a non-printing po- sition whenever the paper is not gripped and moved to the printing position. MACHINE FOR MAKING HAT LINING TIPS.—R. Be.u, 27 Bond St., New York, N. Y. An object of the invention is to provide a ma will moisten part lining immediately before the tip A further object to formed with moistening and pressing means acting in certain relation to other for the adhesive to flow into the body or covering of a lining tip and thereby dispense with the use of stitching for holding the together. PUMPING MECHANISM.—E. LIDSTONE, Box 203, Gatun, Canal Zone. Among the ob- jects of the invention is to provide a pumping mechanism of chine which automatically of the hat is manually provide a pressed. is machine each causing parts Ss capable being quickly assem- bled and disassembled and packed in a small space when disassembled, which is particu- larly advantageous when the pump is to be used in connection with automobiles. Another object is the provision of a plurality of cylin- ders so that the pumping action may be rapid. BOX FINISHING MACHINE.—A,. BELL, 319 Teaneck Road, Ridgefield N. J. Among the objects of the invention is to provide a finish- ing machine for paper boxes which will function to obtain a more perfect finish to the box than is possible by hand labor, in which means is pro- for the great variance in the which means Park, vided to compensate size of the boxes and lids, of adjustment can be obtained whereby the same will handle and lids made from material of different thicknesses. BORING MACHINE.—W. F. McCarty, c/o De- fiance Machine Works, Defiance, Ohio. Among the objects of the invention is to provide a ma- chine to quickly and rough bore and ream or finish single units or a plurality of units cast en bloc. Another object is to carry out several boring operations simultaneously on a of the at- machine finished to and in properly boxes designed accurately while the casting corresponding number castings of the and tendant product be removes replaces it by another bored. UNIFORM MOTION UNIVERSAL W. J. Francke, Highland Park, N. J. is to JOINT.— An object uniform motion universal joint to insure a uniform of power from the driving shaft to the driven shaft irrespective of the angular position of the shaft. Another to positively shaft from the other with the angular advance of the hubs or flanges uniform. WEAVING MACHINE.—J. L. ReyNoups, 625 Broadway, Astoria, Ore. The particular object of the invention is to produce a machine especially adapted for making screen fabric from relatively heavy metallic rods. A further object vide a weaving machine which is extremely simple, inexpensive to manufacture and maintain and which is capable of speedy production of a high- grade metallic fabric at a minimum cost. provide a arranged transmission is drive one object is to pro- | and BERNAU- | | known of | SCIENTIFIC GRAIN DRIER.—W. Putnam and G. D. Lone- | MAN, c/o Longman Bros., Thorrswell, La. The invent relates to an arrangement of racks consisti each of a series of revolving screens or cylisaers which serve to propel the grain through the drier and allow a free circulation of air to thoroughly dry the grain, the air being heated at one point in the circuit and after passing through the drier returns to such heating point, so that the same air can be utilized in a continuous circulation. FLEXIBLE COUPLING.—W. J. Francke, Highland Park, N. J. invention is to provide a flexible coupling arranged to for driving Among the objects of this compensate angular or parallel misalignment of shaft shaft. A further object is to reduce the error of transmission to within the of the thickness | of the lubricating film between the working parts. COLLAPSIBLE SHAFT.—H. T. Rice, L.B. 375, Norfolk, N. Y. An object of the invention provide shaft which of and contraction and the means employed for ad- readily a and a driven} limit is to a is capable expansion justing the diameter is positive in its action. A further object shaft which dispenses with the necessity of springs and | is to provide an expansion like devices, and which is of extremely simple construction, strong and durable in use. APPARATUS FOR MAKING ORNAMENTAL ROPE.—C. A. Reep, Williamsport, Pa. The in- vention relates to an attachment for sewing machines. The purpose is to provide an ap- paratus which simultaneously stitches and cuts strips of paper comprised in the ornamental rope, so that when the strips are subjected to twisting operation, by a device separate and independent from the present invention, the ornamental rope is produced. WHEEL AND SHAFT.—J. C. Hupson, Box 486, Gorman, Texas. An object of the invention | is to provide a wheel and shaft of the character as ball calf wheels drilling oil and gas wells, wherein the shaft is provided near each end hub section, and the wheel body, consisting of a hub the polygonal

and used in with a or polygonal cross portion, rim and connecting spokes, has hub portion to fit upon the hub of the shaft, the parts being secured together to provide a rigid structure. DYNAMIC SYSTEM ADAPTED TO IMPART TO A MECHANICAL SYSTEM A_ RAPID MOVEMENT OF OSCILLATION.—L. L. B. DeNIs, 116 Boulevard Paris, This invention relates to a dynamic sys- a shaped de Manilmontant, France. permitting to impart to a non-rigid mechan- tem ical the system a rigid movement of oscillation, with | minimum of loss work by effects of inertia | by avoiding the prejudicious effects of reso- nance. The system is characterized by the com- bination of an elastic system through the medium of which the to be actuated to a fixed point. CHECKING MACHINE.—F. R. WaAtnwricHr, 223 7th St., Jersey City, N. J. An object of this invention is to provide a checking machine which will permit of the making of a permanent record, so that slips may be tallied with this record, as system is connected well as with the cash on hand. The machine includes a plurality of projectable type-carrying members, movable inking strips adapted to nor- mally bear against the type to permit the same to render an imprint, the type carried by the members moving the strips out of their path of travel upon being projected. I-BEAM TROLLEY.—WwW. Dover Hotel, Dover, N. J. Its object S. HALsey, care of The invention relates to overhead trolleys. is to provide an I-beam trolley having means partly disposed be- tween the web of the I-beam and the adjacent end of a truck wheel for supporting the latter for roll- ing contact with the lower flange of the I-beam. A further object structed that the journal pin for supporting the wheel can be reduced to a minimum and the fric- tion reduced without the necessity of providing anti-friction bearings. is to provide a device so con- PRINTER’S CHASE.—E. Jackson, c/o C. J. O’Brien, 22 N. William St., New York, N. Y. The object of the invention is to provide a printer’s chase arranged to hold securely the type suspended without danger of dropping out. in handling the chase. Another object is to permit of filling the chase completely with type and without requiring the use of quoins and other filling and locking furniture. LABEL FEED DEVICE.—J. Q. Leavitt, ad- dress H. L. Harrington, Utah Canning Co., 29th and Pacific Ave., Ogden, Utah. The invention relates more particularly to devices for feeding labels to be fixed to the ends of cans on which a daub of paste or adhesive has been previously located so that the of the adhesive on the can with the label will remove from the feed device. St. contact a single label WAX MELTING MACHINE AND SEAL MAKER.—J. A. CLIFTON, Nos. 9-11 Edisto Bldg., Orangeburg, S. C. The object of the invention |

AMERICAN is to provide a container for holding a quantity | and friction be reduced to a minimum. of wax, and having means for heating the wax to the tities when desired on to the object to be sealed, for package, and having for making to the melt same and for delivering small quan- instance, a document or as, means operable at will an impress the delivered on object be sealed. STAYBOLT . Oswego, erally to the removing the same The object on wax to =9 Cousins, 173 W. relates Ist gen- CHUCK.—G. N. Y. The manipulation of staybolts St invention in serew- ing and from operative posi- tion wherever used. is to provide an effective, strong and durable implement by which | to engage and rotate a staybolt in either direction, and a still further object is the provision of an which the readily actually forced implement in jaws may be adjusted and into operative con- nection with the projecting portion of a staybolt. BLOCK MOLDING MACHINE.—J. S. NARD, ¢ The Continental Asphalt & P Co., 1615 American Exchange Bank Bldg., Dallas, Texas. The to a machine for molding blocks or bricks from viscous of the pur- Dow- o etroleum invention particularly relates materials such as asphalt or mixtures thereof both above and below The machine the type wherein dies operate to compress of the invention to effects the granulation the period which the thus it toa gravitate into and molds material. provide a of the charge pose is which during the mold, that it will evenly fill the mold. PUMP.—M. E. Among the objects material in overlies state so and reducing uniform completely Box 8, Wilder, Minn. invention to each cylinder Foss, of the double cylinder pump, which is double acting, thus providing what in effect a quadruple acting pump, fluid being drawn into the pump and ejected from each end the each stroke of the plunger in direction. are pro- of is vide a of barrel at each REPRODUCER FOR TALKING MACHINES. W. T. Lakin, Long, Md. One of the foremost objects of the invention is to provide a reproducer having balanced needle bar capable of lateral adjustment in the direction of vibration of the diaphragm to vary the pressure on the diaphragm A further object a and consequently alter the pitch. is to provide a reproducer having a _ balanced | needle bar fulcrumed in the plane of the dia- phragm. PRINTING PRESS.—A. ANpeERsoN, Lincoln, N. J. The primary object of the invention is to provide a mechanism for reciprocating the bed of a printing press. It is a further object to so | construct the mechanism that the bed is recipro- cated by power which is supplied in a continuous It is a still further object to so construct a device that the or transverse braces of the bed frame as commonly constructed rotary direction. lateral have to be changed. do not CINEMATOGRAPHIC MACHINE. Italy. The invention E. PLupDERI, Turro Milanese, especially | relates to machines for films having several pho- tographs on horizontal sets and provides the means for a step by step horizontal displacement

of the car or slide, said means serving also as a the displacement of the car. The both to obtain the photographs and to project the film photographs guide during machine serves on the film on a screen. TURBINE.—F. E. Kvuee, 614 10th Ave., Clin- | ton, Iowa. The particular object of the inven- tion is to provide a steam turbine having a con- struction of rotor in which the steam is admitted axially, then directed radially, and then circum- ferentially in contact with the blades in a circular series so as to utilize the full kinetic energy of the steam passage in order to impart motion to the rotor. A further object to provide an arrangement and valves for automatically obstructing the the OF or vanes in its is of governors passage of steam in starting MANUFACTURE rotor. | BRICKS.—F. Brett- | Raitz, Moravia. The invention re- lates to a device for molding solid hollow bricks from plastic material, especially chamotte. The process renders it possible to produce bricks SCH NEIDER, or of uniform shape and dimensions with level sur- faces exactly corresponding to the mold, the pos- sibility of expansion or distortion of the surfaces after removal from the press being eliminated. CUTTER BLADE GRINDER.—C, F. Rossins, 17 Taylor St., Keene, N. H. An object of the invention is to provide a machine which is espe- cially designed for grinding cutter blades of irreg- ular shape, such as are used in the woodwork in art, where the cutters must be of an exact shape and ground repeatedly without altering the shape. A further object is to provide a machine which will grind blades of reverse shape ; that is, blades which are designed for use as right and left CLOCK ESCAPEMENT.- Wyo. The invention has for vide a clock escapement so arranged that a smooth of the parts will result cutters. H. C. Sau, Douglas, its object to pro- and accurate operation | without any delay and confusion. 69

The in- vention is characterized by a novel device func- tioning imparting impulses to the pendulum in response to the operations of the scape wheel. More especially the invention embodies means to adjust the impulse device to regulate its engage- means to manu- of the and of with the wheel the ment scape ally movements vary amplitude pallet. PROCESS OF RENDERING FATS AND OILS. Cc. F. Kamratu, Box 691, Denver, Colo. An object of the invention is to provide a process by means of which fats or oils may be so ren- dered as to effect a neutral product, at the same eliminating much work that ordinarily required. A further object is to provide a means by which the low temperature, and simultaneously with the removal time is rendering is conducted at a of moisture by evaporation under a vacuum. AUTOMATIC BALL MILL FEEDER.--H. H. BuRHANS, 11 So. 14th Ave., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. The invention relates to a rotary crushing or grinding device and a motor for driving the same, a feeder connected with the device for delivering material to be ground, and means actuated by variations of power consumed in the motor inde pendent of the for automatically varying the quantity of the feed. motor speed TUFT YARN SPRING CLIP.—-A. T. THomp- SON, Rogers Ave., Hightstown, N. Jf. This in- vention relates more particularly to looms for weaving tufted fabrics such as tapestry, and particularly Axminster rugs. An object. is to provide means for permanently securing the springs in position adapted to be used in con- junction with the end members of the tuft yarn frame bar and prevent them from working loose during the of the A further object is to provide a spring which requires no extra attaching parts or guards, being a complete itself. operation loom. spring in

Medical Devices CLASP FOR TEETH.—E. R. Nese.inc, 8 Windsor St., Woodhaven, L. LL, N. Y. The in- vention relates to dental appliances Among the objects is to provide means for attaching artificial teeth to natural teeth. It a further object to provide means by which the artificia! teeth may be The de is removably secured to the natural teeth. vice comprises an enlarged body portion provided with an opening and a reduced tongue projecting from the body portion. DENTAL COTTON HOLDER AND WASTE RECEIVER.—N. T. Woo.sey, 408 Elliott Ave, Tottenville, S. L, N. Y. An object of the in- vention is to provide a cotton holder and waste receiver more especially designed for use by den- tists, arranged to enable the dentist to keep a supply of bunched dental cotton on hand for a day's work, and to permit of readily disposing of the soiled cotton without exposing either the dental cotton or the waste. A further object is to keep the in a sanitary to use. cotton condition prior

Musical Devices SHEET TURNER.—W. A. Lucke, General De- livery, Albany, N. Y. The object of the invention is to provide a device more particularly adapted for use in connection with instruments of various types by means of which it for the operator to effect a turning of a sheet of music A further object is to construct a device which shall be practically automatic, in that it will be necessary for a per- former to exert a minimum of effort to effect a turning of the sheet. PIANISSIMO DEVICE FOR GRAND PIANOS. J. A. Hussey, 25 Lisle St., East Braintree, Mass. The object of this invention is to reduce the hammer stroke without changing the position of the key, to so construct the pianissimo mechan- ism that it can easily be applied to any standard make of action, in which a normally inclined thrust rod is arranged for move- ment into upright position between a key and an action support, to move the latter toward the strings, and to make a simple and durable device. is possible to provide a device

Prime Movers and Their Accessories INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE.—L. B. Joyner, c/o L. 8. Haas, 204 S. Main St., Chicago, Ill, An object of this invention device with means for parts associated therewith and the pistons with the cylinders. carried by the water supply pipes serve to reduce the noise the of the cooling fluid through the fluid-conducting passages. SIGHT FEED DEVICE.— 0. C. Norton, Rood house, Ill. This invention has for ‘its object to provide a device of the character specified adapted for use with internal combustion engines to feed water to the manifold, wherein the amount of water fed is under observation, and can be easily regulated to the required amount. The device is is to provide a the pistons and for reciprocating Air chambers are - cooling and occasioned by rush

Page 70

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN JANUARY, 1929 to retain the magnetos in good! A VEHICLE, HAVING BOTH WHEELS AND > the necessity of spinning the ENDLESS TRACKS.—E. RIMAILHO, 12 Rue de la the clutch spring, ILLUMINATED SIGN.—J. H. Ketty, 5014 Fre a sign particularly adapted, prominently dis- Rochefoucauld, Paris, France. The invention pro vides a construction of apparatus in an autome bile or other vehicle, having wheels and endleg tracks and capable of drawing directly or by toy. age, or of carrying a load over any kind of ground, whereby either of these two methods of progression may be brought into use at will, one of the vehicles are con- vehicle. A a simple and detachably supporting the same STEERING WHEEL LOCK.—R. T. Brnper, 231 inventor has Railways and Their a steering wheel lock steering removal, and unauthorized | of its being wilfully accomplished. mutilation. MOTOR VEHICLE. invention | cjally adapted for use with motor vehicles, and to a vehicle wherein the| be attached permanently in place on the axles, in the same manner as a bicycle, with an enclosed | capable of being brought into operation when de and wherein | sired, merely by the movement of the jack in its vehicle and | normal operation. motor operable from the seat in the supporting the body in up-| P, 0. Box 665, San Juan, Porto Rico. An ob sings which compels the being suitable for roads and permitting of rapid speed, the other being suitable for various kinds of ground to be traversed away from roads, CLASP.—O. GEHRKE, Meyers Falls, Wash.—The invention relates to a fastening element in the inex- nature of a clasp, which is primarily adapted for use in connection with anti-skid chains, and by means of which an element will be provided which will permit of an instantaneous association of the anti-skid member with the wheel, and prevent any nature, accidental detachment thereof, although permitting ee a JACK.—H. A. THORNDIKE, 205 No. Main St. : Orlando, Fla. The object of this invention ig t ) East | provide a device of the character specified, espe in line | and to be normally out of operative position, but RESILIENT WHEEL.—A. NIN Y Martinez, moving | ject of this invention is to provide a construe tion wherein resiliency is secured through the 1087 | use of compressed air operating at the end of Se primary | reciprocating spokes. Another object is to provide s to provide an auto-|@ comparatively stiff rim having hinged spokes E wheel lock which will prevent unauthor- | @nd means associated with the hub which will wheel and also act as an | take up the shocks and resiliently limit the swing | extended AUTO TREADMILL.—C. E. ANDERSON, 514 of the | ing movement of the spokes and the movement fast to | of the rim. 7 2nd Ave., Superior, Wis. Among the objects spreader invented by of the invention is to provide a treadmill on which an automobile can be conveniently run | as to position the drive wheels in frictional en gagement with pulleys for generating power which may be utilized for any desired purposes \ further object is to provide a device whic ean be readily moved from place to place. Designs DESIGN FOR A COLLAR FASTENER.—S, L GepNey, 33 Clinton Ave., Maplewood, N. J. DESIGN FOR A _ SIFTER TOP RECEP. | TACLE. M. Wor, 1186 Trenton Ave., Bronz, New York. DESIGN FOR A LAMP.—C. W. La Rocue, § rim 2432 W. York St., Philadelphia, Pa. ; DESIGN FOR A HANDLE.—P. M. Marko, 1402 : Atlantic Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. traceable DESIGN FOR LACE.—H. BIncu, 102 5th Ave, New York, N. Y. accompanied DESIGN FOR AN UMBRELLA AND PARA- operator will be notified when which pr SHOCK ABSORBER.—P. F. HAtrerty, Aber- DESIGN FOR A PIN.—M. MAnrrepy, 1359 relates more particu- Forty-third Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. snubber type for DESIGN FOR A STORAGE BATTERY TER vehicles, am MINAL.—P. M. Marko, 1402 Atlantic Avenue, utilizing air Brooklyn, N. Y. ANTISKIDDING DEVICE device is Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. attached stake which carries a spring for automatically locking common inconvenience caused by the stake jolting RUELLAND, 63 E. 79th St., New York, N. Y. A further DESIGN FOR A ROSARY.—G. THBAvLt, object is to provide a self-locking stake which Whitehall, N. Y. comparatively presIGN FOR A REFLECTOR.—E. Zier relates to coupling means for when traveling over rough roads. conveniently thrown t BICYCLE STAND OR SUPPORT.—A. DONATI, » The primary ob- stand for objectionable extent whether going up grade or is auto- n its inoperative posi- inoperative position when device may Pertaining to Recreation change to bicycles or motor- particularly, of an air intake and expulsion of air oceurs at each stroke of the piston, whereby the MUNN & CO., Solicitors of Patents pumping capacity of the pump is doubled as com- | woolworth Building, NEW YORK pared to that of the ordinary pump. ACTION OF | Hobart Building, SAN FRANCISCO, CAls ing the strain from the main bearing produced by ear | SOL TIP.—B. O. Wricut, 91 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. _— DESIGN FOR A STAND.—J. D. Homes, 316 DESIGN FOR A HANDKERCHIEF.—C. L SUMNER, care The William Sumner Co., 926 Broad way, Tacoma, Wash. DESIGN FOR A BAG FRAME.—E. NorMAs, 386 East 139th Street, Bronx, N. Y. DESIGN FOR AN ELECTRIC IRON —A. Great is to very MANN, JR., P. O. Box 142, Hudson Heights, N. J. We wish to call attention to the fact that |} we are in a position to render competent serv ices in every branch of patent or trade-mark work. Our staff is composed of mechanical, electrical and chemical experts, thoroughly trained to prepare and prosecute all patent applications, irrespective of the complex nature of the subject-matter involved, or of the specialized, technical or scientific knowledge required therefor. We also have associates throughout the world, who assist in the prosecution of patent and trade-mark applications filed in all coul- tries foreign to the United States. device auto- Har- tire Tower Building, CHICAGO, ILL THE Scientific American Bldg., WASHINGTON, D. ©

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Y, 1922 ELS AND Rue de la sntion pro nN automo nd endless or by tow. y kind of nethods of t will, one of rapid ious kinds ads. ‘ash.—The nt in the lapted for s. and by ded which ion of the event any ermitting Main St, tion ig to ied, espe S, and to he axles, ition, but when de ick in its [ARTINES, An o& construe. ugh the > end of 9 provide d spokes hich will e swing. 1ovement ON, 514 objects imill on run 9 onal en power purpose e which

._S. L J. tECEP- Bronx, RocHeE, <o, 1402 h Ave. PARA- New 1359 TER- \ venue, es, 316 Broad- RMAN, N.—A. BAULT, that serv- mark nical, ughly atent ature the ledge atent “oun- ORK ILL. », C. AL.

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January, 1922 Miscellaneous Notes y Air.—The first baby in arms ‘ontinental airways left the Lon- Paris on the Baby Travels b to patronize the ¢ don Air Station for express rece ntly. New French Coins. the value of 20,000,000 francs-are being by the Bank of France to replace paper condemned as unsanitary. For the Lazy Bather.—A novel sea-bathing ac- sessory is in the form of an easy chair made of aa cork-like balsa wood, in which the bather lounges half-submerged while reading, smoking or chatting. Light, Airy Blocks. block style, 2 contractor is turning each house at an angle of 45 degrees, giving the block a saw- tooth facade and admitting light and air from distributed money Instead of building in city- four directions. Human Flies in Rome.—Our students at the American Academy are scaling the Trajan Column and crawling over the rotunda of the Pantheon ; they are studying, measuring and drawing the details of these masterpieces. Reconstruction’s Progress.— Ninety of the devastated area in France is now restored to cultivation ; half the de stroyed manufactories have been reopened, and 99 per cent of the damaged per cent railway lines are again in use. Dogs and Horses as Pood.—In the second quar- ter of 1919, the meat of 3642 dogs was passed upon by inspectors of the German imperial slaugh- ter houses; horse meat also was in great demand, and the number of horses slaughtered for food was double that of peace time. | British Competition in Bolivia is placing Amer- | jean goods at a great disadvantage. A British company is missionizing the country in favor of | English-made goods, and is forcing customers to buy any American goods through Liverpool, thus | doubling the freight. | President Harding’s Finger Prints.—Delegates of the International Association for Identification, | persuaded | recently convening at Washington, President Harding to be finger-printed for their | records. The Association seeks the registration of | all Americans, the records to be kept at post} offices. Swiss Watches Not Wanted.—Largely because Americans are now buying their native product, industry is in the dol-| the gov-| | the Swiss watchmaking drums, and has despairingly appealed to ernment for a subsidy; 32,000 watchmakers are idle in spite of the fact that watches are being | offered at practically cost price. Rubber Production Falls.—In parts of Brazil plantations have been abandoned and rubber eannel ufacture reduced almost to zero. Some of the rub- | ber land is being planted to cotton, a little is being | worked barely enough to keep paths open between | the trees; it means practically no rubber from} this territory for the fiscal year ending April, | 1922. Meteors and Forest Fires._-France has been suf- fering from forest fires of mysterious origin; the careless cigarette smoker has been blamed, but foresters and some meteorologists now incline to the belief that falling meteors were the cause. In one flame-swept area of a thousand acres were found great meteoric fragments, still hot three days after the fire. Two Wonderful might see nothing especially books exhibited by the Smithsonian yet they are unique in that they were written and made by one man, the late Dard Hunter, of Chilli- cothe, Ohio, He manufactured the paper, designed and cast the type. it up, printed the volumes on a hand press, and bound them himself. Watches with Two Hour-Hands.—The latest fad is the timepiece with two hour-hands. The com- | muters started it, that they might have railroad | time and daylight saving time before The casual observer remarkable in Institution ; Books. two set them at a glance; but the girls with lovers in foreign parts are calling for watches that enable them to vis- ualize what “he” is doing in London or elsewhere. One such call was for a watch showing the time here and in Shanghai. Why Germany Can Undersell Us.—Using the mark as a basis of comparison, of 2,300,000 Ger- man metal workers 63 per cent receive 8 times the wages of 1914, 36 per cent from 5 to 8 times as much, and the rest less than 5 times the 1914 wages. Since, in the same time, the cost of living has increased 15 times, the actual wages are but from one-third to one-half those of 1914. No won- der German manufacturers can undersell the world. Farming in China.- -For 4000 years Chinese methods have maintained the fertility of the soil. Despite obsolete equipment, China is probably, after the United States, the foremost agricultural nation; intensive cultivation grows several crops on the same plot of ground. The farmer gener- ally owns his land, though the average farm is but am acre in extent. No less than 80 per cent of | the foreign trade of agricultural and allied product s. | Germany’ Book Output.—The German literary | mill ground out 32,345 books in 1920, an increase | of 6151 over 1919. Political economy fell off from | 8490 to $200: art, music and the theater from 589 | to 495 ; and military science from 243 to 176. In-| creases appear under theology, 1847 to 2302; phil- | esophy, 654 to 950; medicine, 1072 to 14389: ped- ee 2600 to 3149; literature and Haguisties, | 954 to 1726; history, 966 to 1390; trade, 1499 to 2015; juvenilia, 1016 to 1451. In giving these fig- | ures, the New York Evening Post expresses thankfulness that the increase in belles-lettres ad | hot been large!

consists 12.30 airplane | Bronzed aluminum coins to |

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN The difficulty of many a task is largely deter- mined by the fitness of the tools with which the worker is equipped. On this job, for example, the Starrett Universal Dial Test Indicator used with a Starrett Vernier Height Gage is enabling the machinist to quickly and easily set his boring bar for this exacting job. Without precision tools such as these, metal working operations within close limits could only be accomplished slowly, laboriously and inaccurately, if at all. The latest Starrett Catalog No. 22 B, describing and illustrating 2100 time and labor saving Star- rett Tools, will be sent free on request. Write for copy. THE L. S. STARRETT COMPANY The World's Greatest Toolmakers Manufacturers of Hack Saws Unexcelled ATHOL, MASS. Cur Quicnee « ~~ +, 45, * 2 con® :

SOME TOOLS USEFUL IN CONNECTION WITH DRILLING Starrett Steel Drill Blocks and Clamp Of case-hardened steel. May be used singly or in pairs, together or separated, and are kept line by a spindle passing through fric- tion bushings. The blocks are 1% inches square and will hold round stock to 114 inches diameter. close in Starrett Machinists’ Center Punch Of fine tool steel, knurled, tempered ends, and points carefully ground. Made in five sizes. Starrett Time-Saver Tap and Drill Gage Gage show: right sized drill to suit machine serew top, leaving just enough stock for top to cut as near a full thread as is practicable for one top without breaking. Tested after harden- ing and warranted accurate. rre

Starrett Toolmakers’ Steel Clamps Made from drop forgings, case hardened. Take-up blocks slip on and off end of screw. A hole in the block permits the insertion of a serew so that clamp may be fastened to a bench and used as small vise. Starrett Improved Scriber Points are made of fine grade steel, well tem- pered. Stock knurled and nickeled of sufficient size to be easily held without cramping All parts are inter- is and or turning in the fingers. changeable. Starrett Steel Rule Made of light or heavy spring-tempered steel, flexible and semi-flexible, graduated in the Eng- ! lish or Metric systems.

eres 42-267 ae . a Starrett Toolmakers’ Dividers Made of round with lege drawn down, making them hard and stiff. The fulerum nut is hardened, bows made extra strong. Made with solid nut only. tool steel Starrett Automatic Center Punch A knurled adjustable screw working in conjunction with a spring regulates the stroke, which may light or heavy. Made of tool steel, carefully hardened, with ground, renewable cap be points. Starrett Spacing Attachment for Center Punches with the Center Punches, the locating point is on the principle of a spring plunger, held in its lowest position by a light spiral spring. The attachment has a capacity of from 1/16 inch to 1% inches. Designed for use Automatic

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FOB. Chicago Guaranteed fh 4 MOTOR Think of it--a new, lat- est type ‘4 h.p. single phase alternating current motor, guaranteed for one year, for $13.50! This is lower than the before- war price. Motor is 110 volt, 1740 rpm. 60 cycle, split- phase, fan-cooled in- duction type. Suitable for running washing machines, churns, cream separators, ven- tilating fans, blowers lathes, drills, etc. Furnished in two styles--with cord and plug as illustrated; or with binding post terminal (reversible type Motor weighs 24 Ibs. bare, 33 Ibs. boxed. It is the latest type of a large, responsible manufacturer, who. guarantees every motor shipped for one year, and attaches to each a guarantee 50 service tag, serially numbered which entitles owners to a new motor ° by express prepaid, should defects develop within a year. Repair parts are always available at low cost; but motor is so sturdy and has so few parts that repair expense is negligible. Price complete: F.o.b. Chicago QUANTITY DISCOUNTS— On 3 motors ordered in 1 shipment, price is $13.00 each; 6 motors $12.50 each; 12 motors $12.25; 25 motors $12.00 each: SEND CASH WITH ORDER or we will ship by express C.O.D. if you prefer. GRINDER and BUFF #25.00 Above motor, equipped with 6 in. Norton No. 60 abrasive wheel; and 6 in. Hanson & Van Winkle Cotton Buff; complete with off and-on switch and cord and plug. Machine weighs 38 Ibs. bare or 52 Ibs. boxed. It 1s idea! for the home garage or workshop, for grinding tools and cutlery and for polishing silver and plated $ 00 ware. Also adapted to the heavy work of hotels and . restaurants for the same purposes, and for general 25 machine shop service. Price f.0.b. Chicago This price is less than half the usual charge for a tool of this size and capacity. ee aie SEND CASH WITH ORDER for either motors or grinders, or we will ship by express C.O. D if you prefer. Descriptive circulars on application Northwestern Electric Company ‘“" Sy;,fze4"° JUST PUBLISHED The iInema andbook By Austin C. Lescarboura Managing Editor, Scientific American An instruction book for the non-theatrical worker who uses motion pictures for pleasure or profit; the industrialist the naturalist, traveler, microscopic worker, teacher, engineer ; those who desire the best form of entertainment in club, school or church It is a handbook, small only in size—is well illustrated, and contains the latest information on the selection, operation and application of motion picture apparatus. 517 pages, 221 illustrations, bound in flexible fabrikoid, price $3; by mail insured, $3.10 Scientific American Publishing Co. Munn & Company 233 Broadway New York City 72 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Electrical Notes Summaries and Excerpts New York’s Water Power Bill became law when Governor Miller of New York signed the Gibbs Vater Power Bill, providing for the licensing of the undeveloped water power of the State to pri- ite interests, under the supervision of the State The measure was introduced in the Legislature by Senator Leonard W. M. Gibbs of Buffalo. A New Direction Finder.—According to the Electrical World, a new method of finding direc- tion has been developed by the engineers of the Marconi company. The advantage claimed for this new method is that it is less seriously af- fected by the reflection and refraction phenomena which are usually known as night effect. The ts of the well-known combination system cons of the Belli aerial and an open aerial ad- usted to give a heart-shaped diagram with a c ero. It is indicated that a receiver of this type may give very inaccurate results, but if the signals are so strong that the minimum is sharply defined there should be no difficulty A High-Voltage Fuse.—The problem of fusing a high-voltage circuit is a difficult one to solve, for the reason that after the fuse blows through one cause or another, the are formed must be immediately extinguished to break the circuit. A recently-introduced high-voltage fuse consists of a fusible element held in tension by a spiral spring within a glass tube, which is filled with a non-inflammable liquid of extremely high di- electric strength. This liquid will not freeze in any climate, the freezing point being lower than 65 deg. below zero F. A current greater than the fusing value of the fuse results in the melt- ing of the fusible element, instantaneously re- leasing the spring which establishes a definite large gap. This clearing of the circuit requires less than one cycle. The Toggle Switch.-The toggle or tumble switch, long a favorite in Europe, is slowly making its way into the best American homes, due to three reasons (1) Handsome appear- ance; (2) simplicity of installation and opera- tion (3) the fact that once installed they re- main permanently fixed in position and require no further attention. To introduce the toggle switch in this country, radical changes over the European type of mechanism were necessary. An instantaneous — and break had to be substi- uted for the sk make and break used abroad. \ flip of the fingers or a movement of the elbow ll that is required to operate the teggle switch. One American manufacturer has provided his toggle switches with a luminous tip, so that they may be located in the dark. Why Use the Arc System?—For unfailing reg- ular communication by radio over long distances the are system should be employed, so we are in- formed by followers of this method of radio trans- mission. Generating continuous waves, the are system has all the advantages of: Maximum power input to a given aerial system due to uniform electrical strains on the insulators, enabling a cheaper and smaller aerial system to be employed to transmit over a given distance, or increase of range of an existing station by substitution in place of a damped wave generator. Greater selec- tivity in reception with consequent greater free- dom from jamming and atmospheric disturbances, thus rendering the service less liable to interrup- tion. Heterodyne reception, giving improved sig- nal strength and choice of audio-frequency to suit the operator with still further freedom from in- terruption. Development of the Flashlight Battery.—In a re- cent paper dealing with flashlights and flashlight batteries, prepared by E. H. Mathews, we learn that the flashlight was invented in 1898 by David Misell, who also developed the first flashlight bat- tery. Great difficulty was experienced in market- ing the early batteries due to their short life and ‘lack of facilities and the unwillingness of lamp | manufacturers to make miniature lamps with car- bon filament taking 4 watts per horizontal candle- power. The efficiency has been increased far be- yond the expectations of the pioneers in flashlight manufacture. Over 580 patents have been allowed covering flashlights, hand lamps, and combinations involving flashlights. During the past year the business totalled $20,000,000. It is estimated that there are over 10,000,000 active users of flash- lights in the United States, and that over 5,000,000 are sold annually. Over 25,000,000 batteries are manufactured yearly for use in these flashlights. Reversible Electric Valve Tube.—-For some pur- poses where one-way electric valve tubes are used it would be desirable to reverse their valve action without any change in electric connections, we rather from Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift. This | has been made possible by a new valve tube de- signed by H. Greinacher of Germany. The tube consists of a spherical glass bulb with two cylin- drical ends, containing each a short leading-in vire. Between the two cylindrical ends an alu- minum tube, insulated from the two electrodes, is stretched. Within this metal tube is a small alu- minum ball. If this apparatus is tilted to the left side, the ball rolls down to the left and makes con- tact between the left leading-in wire and the tube, so that in this position the left electrode is large and cylindrical and the right electrode just a short piece of wire, resulting in a certain valve action. A slight tilt in the opposite direction makes the from Current Periodic ‘als ball roll over to the other side, when the charg, teristic and valve of the tube will be reversed, The Weston Standard Cell.—Invented by ward Weston, Ph.D., LL.D., and first market in 1892, the Weston Standard Cell rapidly sup. planted the Clark and other preceding cells pm pared for standardization purposes. For 29 yeay it has been considered the standard cell becayp of its constancy of voltage, negligible tempen. ture coefficient error and its portability. The Weston cell is made in two forms: (1) Th Weston Normal Cell, which is a saturated for which has been adopted by the National Standar ization Bureaus of the world as the standard ¢ electromotive force. (2) The Weston Standayj Coil (unsaturated form), which is recommends by National Bureaus of Standards as a practial standard because it has no appreciable errors dy» to temperature changes, whereas the normal ej or saturated form has a temperature coefficient which, though much less than that of any pre ceding form of cell, must nevertheless be take into consideration. The Negatron is a new form of vacuum tik which has made its appearance in England. Th principle on which this device works is briefy as follows: A thermionic valve is arranged with two flat anodes, one on each side of a filament, according to The Electrician. Each anode is co nected through an anode battery to the filament so that the electrons emitted by the incandeseem filament are distributed equally between the twy anodes. A control electrode, e.g., a flat grid, also arranged within the valve between the fi ment and one of the anodes. This latter anok is called the diversion anode, while the first on is called the main anode. By suitably arranging the relationship between the electron emission and the anode voltages we may obtain a satum tion effect. When the main anode voltage is i creased the grid potential is increased, electron are diverted from the main anode and the mair anode current decreases. Hence the negative m sistance effect. The main use of the negatrn is as a generator of continuous oscillations fo the transmission or reception of continuous wave Radio Central Progress.—By the time this i read the Radio Central wireless station at Rocky Point, Long Island, N. Y., some 50 miles east of New York City, wil! probably be in operation. & the present writing, the latter part of November, news comes to us that two of the wings or spoke of the wheel-like arrangement of the antenm towers have been completed. Twelve steel towen each 400 feet high, compose the two wings or om operating unit. The total distance between th first and the twelfth towers of the complete uit is approximately 3 miles. In the center of thee twelve towers is the central power-house, whi is now completed, and two of the 200-kw. Ale anderson high-frequency alternators have bea installed and are ready for operation. The recei- ing station designed to operate in connectim with the Radio Central is at Riverhead, L. L about 17 miles away. This receiving center # capable of intercepting six different message simultaneously. The control system is so arranged that there are no actual receiving operator present. The aerials pick up the signals, special apparatus in turn direct these to a regular land line, and finally the messages are received in New York City. A complete description, together wit a collection of photographs of the Radio Centnl station, appears on page 8 in the present issue this journal Signalling by Invisible Rays.—Many months & fore the United States entered the war Dr. Lau Bell and Norman Marshall of Boston attacked th problem of evolving a suitable invisible ray s# nalling system. From a recent issue of Electrial World we learn that they met with success it utilizing ultra-violet rays and that their syste® was actually tried out at the front. In the pat there have been several attempts to signal by ma normally invisible, but all previous efforts had been either with the extreme ultra-violet, usiit the carbon or mercury are or even sparks be tween metallic electrodes as a source, oF else they had drifted toward the infra-red in the belief that the ultra-violet was so quickly absorbed by the atmosphere and so difficult to obtain in qua tity as to be impracticable for portable serviee, and even less attainable in suitable transmitting apparatus. As far as Messrs. Bell and Marshall could ascertain, every previous effort to utilise the ultra-violet had employed quartz apparatas this, of course, being utterly impracticable { production in quantity as required for military use. These inventors at the outset abandoned te traditional ultra-violet, which has been persis ently championed in some academic circles. They turned to the region just beyond the visible oe trum, hitherto neglected, and immediate and ine success resulted. The screen to cut oft th visible spectrum was finally evolved by & com bination of glasses produced by Dr. H. P. Gast of Corning, N. Y. For receiving purpose a pair of field glasses is employed, provided with a barium-platinum-cyanide fluorescent screen mounted near one eyepiece. In practice the dit tance between the transmitter and_ receiving ~~ paratus ranges from a few feet to 6 m more, JANUARY, 192 simian wil on the eal vol dire to als its mol stet and mal SM } — oan nt = oe P aut boo ame desi ful % mot bile edg to ; the wir sig! thr cial! thei the diet devi A’

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|ARY, 199 ——___ n the charap. rev ersed, ented by Ra irst marketa) rapidly sup. ing cells pre For 29 y > temper. ability. The 3: (1) Th turated for nal Standard standard of on Standar recommended sa Practica] le errors due normal ¢elj re coefficient of any pre ss be take vacuum tube igland, Th “Ss is briefly ranged with @ filament, node is con the filament incandescent -en the two q flat grid, is | en the fi © latter anode he first one y arranging nm emission n a sature Itage is in d, electrons d the main 1egative m e negatron llations for uous wave, ime this is n at Rocky miles east nplete unit J or of thew whieb Alex- have been The receiv- connection use, ~kw. ad, L. L. center is messages ) arrange operators Is, special rular land d in New ther with io Central t issue of ronths be f Dr. Louis acked the ray sig Electrical uccess in ir system the past I by rays orts et, using arks be or the belief orbed by in qual service, smitting Marshal! o utilise )paratus, able for military yned the persist 5. ‘They le spec 1d. strik- off the a comr Pp. Gast urposes, yrovided , screen the dit ing 8 niles JANUARY, 1922 Book Reviews MANUFACTURING INDI STRIES IN “Fundamental Economie Factors. By Malcolm Keir, A.M., Ph.D. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1920. Svo.: 29 a TF bestness and students of economics will have noticed the recent increase of works on our industries, unfortunately these are for the most part written either in highly techni- cal language or in journalese ; Professor Keir’s volume avoids both extremes, addressing itself directly to a practical clientele. Thoroughly to know your own industry. you know also those industries that supply it and make Among AMERICA. must its existence and success possible. more general material, the chapters treat of steel, cotton, wool, leather, and paper, 1 consider some effects and tendencies of our shoes an¢ manufacturing practice. Smatt Motors, TRANSFORMERS, ELECTRO- macNnets. By H. M. Stoller, B.E., M.S.., | F. E. Austin. B.S., E.E., and E. W. Seeger, M.E. Chicago: American Tech- nical Society, 1921. 8vo.; 320 pp.; il- lustrated. By cutting theory to bare essentials, the authors compress into one simply worded hand- book three subjects of interest to engineer and amateur. The latest and best practice in the design of small motors is described with care-| ful attention to detail, and many types up to} \% horsepower are offered, including a starting motor and a charging generator for automo- biles. The book also conveys accurate knowl- edge of the low-tension transformer, from 116 to 220 and down to the lower voltages, and of the construction of transformers suitable wireless. The work concludes with typical de signs of electromagnets, carrying calculations | through to final results; the material on in- duction coils includes a concise description of the Tesla coil. By William S. Bethle- LESSONS IN MECHANICS. Franklin and Barry MacNutt. hem, Penn.: Franklin and Charles, 1919. S8vo.; 221 pp.; illustrated. This text is arranged to meet the needs of the two-year schedule in elementary physics re- cently adopted by some technical schools. und emphasis is placed upon “the mathematical bottom of the subject." Hence differential anc integral calculus appear, though previous study of calculus is not demanded. The course brings mathematical and physical elements into close cojperation, facilitates classroom work, and leads each topic into illustrative problems. THE ENGINEERING DRAUGHTSMAN. By E. Rowarth, A.M.I.E.E. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company. S8vo.; 245 pp.; 96 plates. Many branches of engineering are represent- ed in this course for students already in touch with elementary principles. Its method of in- struction is by illustrative plates of machines, augmented full, clear explanatory text Frequently, sufficient information is supplied to by a enable the student to finish sets of working drawings covering such machines as the stean hammer, single ram pump, hydraulic press oil pump, steam engine governor, and lathe Altogether there are more than 150 examples interestingly and lucidly. presented; with ta- bles of threads, keys, and decimal and metrical equivalents. By Bertha American pp.; illus- AN INTRODI-CTION TO SCIENCE. M. Clark, Ph.D. New York: Book Company. 8vo.; 494 trated. LanonaTtory MANUAL FOR INTRODUCTION TO Science. By Bertha M. Clark, Ph.D New York: American Book Company. 8vo.; loose-leaf, 203 pp.; illustrated. This introductory text and laboratory man- ual have in for have proved successful in their aim of benefi- cially interesting young high school students in their present, as well as better fitting them for the future. The scientific projects include dietary standards, fuels, lighting, labor-saving devices and hygienic facts, been use several years and | A TREATISE ON ReINFoRCED CoNcRETE. By W. Noble Twelvetrees, M.I.Mech.E., ete New York: Isaac Pitman and Sons, | . é | 1920. S8vo.; 264 pp.; illustrated. From a vast field the author has selected | Such material as best discloses the character- istics and properties of reinforced concrete and its constituents, the principles underlying the design of homogeneous members, and the ap- Plication of these principles to the evolution of formule. The work has distinct claims upon attention; one, in being the first work in English to use the Standard Notation of the Conerete Institute; another, in its sur- Prisingly complete set of formule for the re- sistance moments of reinforced concrete beams. for | | 15 nounce another great sale. and positively—at 12 o’clock, March 30. order before midnight of March 30 you can get any of the famous books listed below for only 10 cents each. After March 30 the regularly advertised price of 25 cents a copy | Rubaiyat of Omar | Khayyam. | Oscar Wilde’s Ballad of | Reading Jail. Eighteen Little Essays. Voltaire. De Maupassant’s Stories A Liberal Education. Thomas Huxley. Lady Windermere’s Fan. | Oscar Wilde. Shelley. Francis mpson. } Debate on Religion be- | tween John Haynes Holmes and George Bowne. Poe’s Tales. Is Free Will a Fact or Fallacy? Debate. What Every Girl Should Know. Mrs. Sanger. Balzac’s Stories. On Walking. Thoreau. Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow. Jerome. Nietzsche: Who He Was and What He Stood For. Let’s Laugh. Nasby. Carmen. Merimee. The Kiss and Other Stories. A. Chekhov. 5 Rhyming Dictionary. On Going to Church. Bernard Shaw. Last Days of a Con- demned Man. Hugo. Toleration. Voltaire. Dreams. Schreiner. What Life Means to Me. Jaci, London. Pelleas and Melisande. Maeterlinck. Poe’s Poems. Brann: Smasher of Shams. Case for Birth Control. Maxims of Rochefoucauld. Soul of Man Under So- cialism. Oscar Wilde. Dream of John Ball. William Morris. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Stevenson. | Did Jesus Ever Live? Debate. House and the Brain. Bulwer Lytton. Christmas Carol. Dickens. | From Monkey to Man. Marriage and Divorce. | Debate by Horace Gree- | ley and Robt. Owen. Aesop’s Fables. Tolstoi’s Stories. Salome. Oscar Wilde. He Renounced the Faith. Jack London. Bacon’s Essays. Three Lectures on Evo- lution. Haeckel. Common Sense. Thomas Paine. Bruno: His Life Martyrdom. Voltaire. Victor Hugo. re ee ee | — 33 34 35 37 38 | 39 40 41 43 and SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Sale Closes March 30 World’s Best Books | The priceless treasure of the world’s greatest literature is ottered to you at a price so trifling you'll never miss it. The close of our last sale brought us such a deluge of re- quests for a repetition that we virtually are forced to an- This Sale will end—promptly By mailing your will prevail. price possible for introductory’ purposes. practicable to continue the rate permanently, however. Get your order in before March 30. Seize an opportunity that may never be repeated. Order as few or as many of these Appeal Library volumes as you please. Specify the books by numbers. down “21.” speed up deliveries. 73 ONLY 10c EACH Enormous production has made the ten-cent It will not be For instance, if you want “Carmen,” write Take Your Pick at Only 10c a Book Order by NUMBERS only—not by Titles—because we handle all our book orders by numbers 53 54 56 57 58 59 60 61 65 68 71 72 73 75 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 a ow 92 93 94 95 96 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 Insects and Men: In- | stinct and Reason. Darrow. Importance of Being | Earnest. Oscar Wilde. Wisdom of Ingersoll. Rip Van Winkle. Boccaccio’s Stories. Epigrams of Wit. Emerson’s Essay on Love. Tolstoi’s Essays. Schopenhauer’s Essays. Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Lamb’s Essays. Poems of Evolution. Anthology. Color of Life. E. Haldeman-Julius. Whitman’s Poems. On Threshold of Sex. The Choice of Books. Carlyle. The Prince of Peace. Bryan. How to Be an Orator. John P. Altgeld. | Enoch Arden. Pillars of Society. Care of the Baby. Common Faults in Writing English. Marriage: Its Past, Present and Future. Besant. Love Letters of a Portuguese Nun. The Attack on the Mill | Emile Zola. On Reading. Georg | Brandes. | Love: An Essay. Montaigne. Vindication of Thomas Paine. Ingersoll. Love Letters of Men and Women of Genius. Manhood: The Facts of Life Presented to Men. Hypnotism Made Plain. How to Live 100 Years. Cornaro. Trial and Death of Socrates. Confessions of an Opium Eater. De Quincey. Dialogues of Plato. How to Love. Tartuffe. Moliere. The Red Laugh. Andreyev. | Thoughts of Pascal. | Tales of Sherleck Holmes. Pocket Theology. Voltaire. Battle of Waterloo. Hugo. Seven That Were Hanged. Andreyev. Thoughts and~ Aphor- ism. Geo. Sand. How to Strengthen Mind and Memory. How to Develop a Ibsen. 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 135 136 137 138 141 et ett et or Orr Ot on CSaennues _ a = 161 Healthy Mind. How to Develop a Strong Will. How to Develop a Magnetic Personality. How to Attract Friends. How to Be a Leader of Others. Proverbs of England. Proverbs of France. Proverbs of Japan. Proverbs of China. Proverbs of Italy. Proverbs of Russia. Proverbs of Ireland Proverbs of Spain. Proverbs of Arabia. Debate on Spiritualism. Conan Doyle and Josepn McC Debate. Vegetarianism. War Speeches of Woodrow Wilson. History of Rome. A. F. Giles. What Expectant Mothers Should Know. Julius Caesar: Who He Was and What He Ac- complished. Rome or Reason. Debate. Ingersoll and Manning. Controversy on Chris- tianity. Debate. Inger- soll and Gladstone. Redemption. Tolstoi. Foundation of Religion. Principles of Electricity. Socialism for Million- aires. G. B. Shaw. Child Training. Home Nursing. | Studies in Pessimism. Schopenhauer. Would Practice of Christ’s Teachings Make for Social Progress? Debate. Bismarck and the Ger- man Empire. Pope Leo’s Encyclical on Socialism. Was Poe Immoral? Sarah H. Whitman. Great Ghost Stories. Cromwell and His Times. Strength of the Strong. London. Man Who Would Be King. Kipling. Foundations of the Labor Movement. Wendell Phillips. Epigrams of Ibsen. Maxims. Napoleon. Andersen’s Fairy Tales. Marx vs. Tolstoi. Alice in Wonderland. Lincoln and the Work- ing Class. Ingersoll’s Lecture on Shakespeare. | Country of tue Blind. H. G. Wells. 162 163 164 165 166 16 168 a 169 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 183 185 186 187 iss 189 190 191 192 195 196 197 198 201 Karl Marx and the | American Civil War. | Sex Life in Greece and Rome. Michael Angelo’s nne | Discovery of the Future. H. G. Wells. English as She Is Spoke. | Mark Twain. | Rules of Health. | Plutarch. Epigrams of Oscar le. | Church Property Be Taxed? Debate. | Has Life Any Meaning? | Debate. Evolution of Love lien Key. | Vision of Sir Launtfal. | Lowell. Free Speech Trial of Wm. Penn. Science of History. | Froude. | Four Essays. Havelock Ellis. Subjection of Women. | John Stuart Mill. | One of Cleopatra’s | Nights. Gautier. | Constitution of League of Nations. Epigrams of Bernard aw. Realism in A t and Literature. Jarrow. Primitive Beliefs. H. M. Tichenor. History of Printing. Disraeli. How I Wrote “The Raven.” Poe. Whistler’s Humor. How Voltaire Fooled Priest and King. Darrow. Eugenics. Havelock Ellis. Psycho-Analysis — The | Key to Human Behavior. | Fielding. Evolution vs. Religion. Balmforth. Book of Synonyms. How to Keep Well. The Marquise. George Sand. | and Reflec- De Witticisms tions of Mme. Sevigne. Majesty of Justice. Anatole France. Ignorant Philosopher. Voltaire. Satan and the Saints. H. M. Tichenor. Survival of the Fittest. H. M. Tichenor. Rights of Women. Havelock Ellis. Sun Worship and Later Beliefs. H. M. Tichenor. 5 Artemus Ward, His Book. Debate on Capitalism vs. | 229 | 231 We handle all book orders by numbers to Socialism. Seligman and Nearing. Olympian Gods. H. M. Tichenor. Debate on Birth Control. Mrs. Sanger and Winter Russell. Aspects of Birth Con trol. Medical, Moral, So ciological. Dr. Knopf. The Stoic Philosophy. Prof. Gilbert Murray. Idea of God in Nature John Stuart Mill. Life and Character. Goethe. Lecture on Lincoln. Robt. G. Ingersoll. Speeches of Lincoln. The Miraculous Revenge. Bernard Shaw. Wit of Heinrich Heine. Geo. Eliot. four Essays. Jean Jaures. The Human Tragedy. Anatole France. Essays on the New Testament. Robert Blatchford. Women, and Four Other Essays. Maurice Maeterlinck. The Vampire and Other Poems. Rudyard Kipling. 207 208 210 21 212 213 214 215 216 2ie 219 222 223 Essays on Swinburne. Sir Arthur Quiller- Couch. 224 God: The Known and Unknewn. Samuel Butler. 225 On a Certain Condescen- sion in Foreigners. Jas. Russell Lowell. Professor Bernhardi: A Play. Arthur Schnitzler. Keats, the Man, His Work and His Friends. Aphorisms of Thomas Huxky. Diderot. Havelock Ellis. The Fleece of Gold. Theephile Gautier. Eight Hamorous Sketches. Samuei Clemens (Mark Twain). The Three Strangers. Thos. Hardy. Thoughts on Literature and Art. Goethe. MecNeal-Sin.iair Debate on Socialism. Five Essays. Chesterton. The State and Hear* Affairs of King Henry VIII. Pomes in Prose. Baudelaire. Reflection on Modern Science. Huxley. Twenty-six Men and a Girl, and Other Tales. Maxim Gorki. 226 227 230 Gilbert K. 237 238 239 Entire Library—239 Volumes Worth $59.75—Only $16.90 until March 30 These books are recognized masterpieces. Many of them, purchased in the ordinary way in expensive bindings, would cost $1 to $3 each. Think of getting an entire library for the usual price of a dozen books! We have plenty of books on hand at present, but some But 30. 239 vols. for $16.90. Sale Ends March 30—Send Your Order NOW numbers may be exhausted before the sale ends. safe, send your order at once, enclosing draft, money order or cash under registry. If personal check is sent, add 10c We guarantee the books. them, we'll refund your money. All books clearly printed on good paper, 64 to 160 pages each. Pocket size; bound in More than 6,000,000 of these books E. H. Julius, Pres., Appeal Publishing Company, 89 Appeal Bldg., Girard, Kansas for exchange. heavy cover paper. If you don’t like | your order must be mailed not later than March have been sold, indicating the popularity of the library. To be | Get your selections before this ten-cent price is withdrawn. Remember the sale closes at midnight, March 30. order is postmarked later than that hour, we reserve the right to fill at 25c per book or return it. Take no chances— send it NOW. We prepay postage on cash orders. riage charges collect on C. O. D. orders. If your Car-

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74 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

JANUARY, 19%

“If Winter Comes” in combination with a new yearly subscription to The Outlook for only $5.50 HIS year, on wintry nights, it is comforting to reflect that the bookworm has a rare treat in store for him in this extraordi- nary book. This novel by A. S. M. Hutch- inson will give you many hours of continuous enjoyment. It dwells with tolerance and taste on the realities of human life. Its humor is persistent and singularly adroit. It is a revelation and a solace to read this book. More than 120,- 000 copies of “If Winter Comes”’ have been sold during the few months since its publication. The leading critics are unani- mous in praise of it. William Lyon Phelps says: “Seldom can one praise a novel unreservedly; but I have no hesitation in thus praising this. I read it with un- mitigated joy. The story is ab- sorbing, the characters original and unforgetable, the humor is spontaneous and genuine, and the The Outlook “Ambassador from Everywhere” revelation of human nature truly amazing. ‘The philosophy of the book, is, in the highest and best sense, Christian.”’ R. D. Townsend, in The Out- look, says of its central character: “Mark is whimsical and natural: the reader enjoys him, believes in him, and suffers with him. The story is both humorous and spiritually arousing. It leaves a good taste in the mouth.” By special arrangement with Little, Brown & Co., its publish- ers, we are able to offer “If Win- ter Comes” in combination with a new yearly subscription to The Outlook for only $5.50. Fill in and mail the coupon to- day with remittance of $5.50, re- membering that the regular year- ly subscription price of The Out- look alone and that the publishers’ price of the novel is $2 net. This special offer saves you $1.50. —. 32

Science Notes A Digest of Everything of General Interest Appearing in Current Literature

The Saber-toothed Tiger, according to recent evi- dence, roamed the earth 200,000 years ago. Scientific Congress.—The third Pan-American Scientific Congress will be held in Lima during July, 1923. The Weevil and the Market.The recent the price of cotton has been directly traced to the ravages of the boll-weevil, which caused a shortage rise in in the crops. A Hardy Alligator Pear.—<A hardy variety of avocado has been found in Ecuador; the fruit weighs as much as 18 ounces, and the tree will stand some frost. Doubling the Life of Plants.—A Viennese bot- anist has been able to double the length of life in certain annuals by suppressing their blossoms. This was done by withholding moisture, oxygen and other necessary substances. Peru Protects Her Relics.—Except by permis- sion of the Peruvian government it is forbidden to disturb or export archaeological relics, instru- ments, mummies, or other remains of the ancient Inca and pre-Inca civilizations. Bamboo.—It is now proposed to import bamboo from Chile, and establish this plant in California. The South American self-propagating species thrives equally as well in the drier, as the more humid, climates. It is an excellent cattle-food. The Secret of Eskimo Health.—The Eskimos are naturally one of the healthiest peoples in the world ; why this should be so is not as yet appar- ent. The School of Hygiene of the Johns Hopkins University will send out an expedition next May to study dietetics and nutrition among the Eskimos. A Monument to James Orton, the American ex- plorer, has been erected on Esteves Island, Lake Titicaca, where he was buried, by a Vassar Col- lege alumnae committee. Orton was professor of natural history in Vassar in 1869, and led several Amazon expeditions. The Tsetse Fly and Big Game.—<An investiga- tion is under way in Rhodesia to determine the source of infection carried by the tsetse fly, which causes sleeping sickness. It is now suspected that the primary host of the blood parasite, known as a trypanosoma, is to be found among the herds of wild antelopes and other big game. The “Laurentic” and Her Gold.—The Laurentic, sunk off Lough Swilly in 1917, went down with $20,000,000 in gold bullion, about half of which has been recovered. She lies at a depth that makes diving operations extremely difficult, and a diver likens her appearance to that of a long street of houses which has collapsed in the middle. The Pitcher Plant.—It has been found that the digestive agency of the insect-eating plant, Ne- penthes, is sterile when taken aseptically from the But, according to Nature, it unopened pitcher. | becomes more effective after exposure to bacterial “The Outlook has done the most of my refereeing for the = WENTY-TWO football players are at it cheek by jowl, they go to it hip and thigh, and the twenty-third man, cool headed, maybe a little fellow, does the ref- ereeing. The Outlook has done the most of mv refereeing for the last thirty years.” Picturesque and bracing language this, in which one reader describes what The Out took means to him. We rather like his fig- ure of speech. It has life and go to it. It smacks of good sportsmanship, flexible mus cles, and a ruddy compiexion. There are stiff-backed periodicals that set thernselves up as sort of supreme court jus- tices of current questions. In dusty gran- deur they sit in judgment. The Outlook will never count itself among them; its place is down among men, in the thick of life. last thirty years” significant. They recount to you with tongues of authority the running story of current life. They come to you from the inner cir cles of world politics, from boards of direc- tors of great corporations, from the sober councils of labor leaders, from the smudge of factories, from the frontiers of the fine arts, from tents and battlefields, from the dizzy heights of airplanes, from the orches- tra-pits of Broadway. Here is a periodical that has never fallen into the detachment of most of opinion, nor into the superficial sentimental- ity of journals published merely to please. The majority of those who subscribe for The Outlook soon discover that they cannot do without it. They know of no substitutes for it. They need its rigorous fare. They like it because it cannot and will not make journals It is not a passive bystander. Its editors advance announcements of cut-and-dried and its contributors are men of action, as editorial programmes, They stick to The well as men of reflection. They come to you Outlook because it is exactly what its name from every swirl of life that is vital and implies. THE OUTLOOK, 381 FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 8C.A for one year and a copy ot “If Winter Comes’ WOE pcocsonsadesees 9 EEE This septic condition, together with the enzymes contained the bodies of the captured insects, are presumed to cause digestion. Our Paper Mill in Siam.—A duplicate of the experimental paper plant with which the Bureau of Standards successfully produced paper from rice straw, banana tree stems and lalang grass was ordered by the Siamese government, and is now on its way. It has a capacity of 1200 pounds a day, and will be to supply the Siamese army with writing and printing paper. City of Lendon Is Just a Mart.—The City of London (proper), bounded by municipal and parliamentary lines, is not a dwelling-place, but a vast market. In 1896 it had 31,000 inhabitants ; to-day it has but 13,706. During business hours it is the humming hive of a million human bees, but night finds it deserted save for a garrison of caretakers. Wild Life Investigations.—The Roosevelt Wild Life Forest Experiment Station at Syracuse, es- tablished by New York State as a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, is pursuing field investiga- tions in the 7000-acre Allegheny State Park, south of Buffalo. Birds and fishes are being studied there, and funds have been provided to remedy the present rather precarious status of the beaver in the Adirondacks. A field party is also in the Yellowstone studying wild-life problems. War Declared on the Rat.—In the hope of ma- terially reducing our annual loss of $200,000,000 due to the depredations of rats, the Biological Survey is starting a great campaign in the eastern asking the hearty cooperation of We have already called atten- in the West, where invasion. in used States and is every householder. tion to a similar campaign convict labor was used in distributing poisoned bait over the fields; one farm that had to re- plant twice last year has this year a fine, prom- | ising stand of corn from one planting. I enclose $5.50 for which send me The Outlook

The Cause of Goitre.—Sodium iodide has been administered as a prophylactic in goitre with marked results. E. R. Hayhurst of the Ohio State Department of Health believes that lack of iodine in the body is a cause of goitre, and he warns us against the commercial practice of eliminating iodine from table salt. Although goitre is prevalent in salt-mine districts it is probable that time has materially changed the composition of these deposits, and as sodium ee iodide is freely soluble, it would be the first the halogen compounds to disappear. The First Medical School.—According to Greg egend, the founder of the first medical S8cho, was Chiron, the centaur. Aesculapius was th only one of his many pupils -that equalled th master. He studied the curative Properties gf plants and the treatment of diseases and wounds If we can believe Homer, the two sons of Aesey. lapius, Machaon and Podalyre, organized the fire army medical corps, which functioned during th siege of Troy. Greece made demi-gods of be scientists and doctors, and the Iliad remarks thet a physician “is worth many men.” In Gorilla~-Land.—Carl Akeley, sculptor and @. plorer, is now in the Belgian Congo to study the gorilla at close range. The women of the party will each carry a camera and a smal Winchester. Mr. Akeley was with Roosevelt in the African expedition of 1911. He hopes & obtain some worth-while scientific results for the American Museum of Natural History, to aceum, late a series of striking photographs, and, luck being with him, to bring back a gorilla family. Asked about trouble with natives, he declard savage man was much less terrifying than th civilized product. St. Paul’s Whispering Gallery.—Lord Rayleigh explained this phenomenon by the curviliney propagation of sound; that is, the tendeney of the waves to cling to the wall-surface of th dome and creep tangentially along it. Recent ip vestigations seem to show that he was right ip assuming that the waves travel in a comperativey narrow belt skirting the wall, the thickness of the belt decreasing with the wave-length, bit that he was mistaken in holding that in this be the intensity is maximum near the wall and & creases rapidly on receding from it. The exper ments located alternate zones of intensity an comparative silence between the sound-source near the wall and the center of the dome space. Excavations in Ascalon, which have already dis closed Herod’s famous cloisters and a statue of the great ruler himself, may eventually clear » many of the ethnical, geographical and theological mysteries that cluster about the site. Ascalon, one of the five great cities of the Philistina takes us back to the 15th century B. C., and discoveries have already yielded evidence of thre prime civilizations, the Philistine, the Roman, and the Crusading. The Philistine culture pr sents alluring and baffling aspects: whence i came, whither it went, are questions awaiting more light. Fertile Ascalon is being buried by the sands of the sea; unless this encroachment can be arrested the place will become a desert Meanwhile further disclosures are awaited with tense interest. Sensitiveness in the Sensitive Plant.—According to the Journal of the Botanical Laboratory d Pennsylvania, the propagation of stimuli i Mimosa pudica and Biophytum sensitivum is cer tered in the endodermis. It is stated that the con centration of oxylate of lime in these tissues is supposed to be associated with the phenomenon of sensitiveness, and that the sensibility of the plants was proportionate to the amount of crystals com tained in the cells. Each crystal was found to be contained in an envelope of protoplasm, which latter were connected throughout the cells by threads of protoplasmic matter. The analogy of these conductors for the transmission of stimuli to the nervous system of animals, is interesting in view of recent theories which propose that plants have the germs of mind. Psycho-Analyzing Alice.—Andre Tridon, who # the extension of Freud’s shadow over America, has been saying a few words about Alice, of Alice-in-Wonderland fame. Alice, it seems, has grossly deceived us; she is, as her creator wa a dangerous paranoaic, and should not be allowed to play with nice little children. Tridon give overwhelming arguments in proof of these assem tions, their only weakness being that they apply with equal force to psychoanalysts themselves, and he leaves us with the impression that Lewis Carroll should have been placed in an and deprived of pen and ink. The creator of Alice has passed on, but the Ouija board is very much with us; it would be delightful to have Lewis Carroll’s candid opinion of the Wonder land created by Freud and Tridon. Giants.—_From Nature we learn of a recent meeting of the British Association, wherein was brought out that the popular conception ® untrue regarding power of giants and the mag nificent types of masculinity which they are su posed to be. Statistics were presented to show that giants were relatively feeble, usually short lived, and, in the majority of cases, devoid of those features peculiar to masculinity. Gigante ism was said to be identified with abnormal cot ditions of two small organs located at the base of the brain—the thyroid gland and the pituitatY body. The over-activity of these, preceding bed near the period of birth, is the primary cause: Sometimes, however, their over-activity comes ref play after the individual has attained his rowth of the growth, and, as a result, an overg extremities takes place.

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JanuARY, 1922 DELUXE PISTON See Those Reinforcements? You don’t have to be an engineer to recognize the advantages of such construction. These ribs make DE- LUXE pistons stronger where strength is needed and 40 to 50% lighter than stock factory cast pistons. DELUXE pistons have less expan- sion, greater cooling surface and can be fitted closer than other pistons, eliminating oil pumping, piston slap and vibration, and saving gas, oil, re- pairs, and depreciation. They make old motors run like new ones, and new ones better. DELUXE pistons increase power, speed and flexibility and have made good under the most strenuous con- ditions. Your dealer can get DE- LUXE piston for any model motor in 24 hours or less. See our exhibits at the New York and Chicago Automobile Shows. LIGHT WEIGHT CAST IRON PISTON — — “The Successful Light Weight Piston © Patented and Manufactured by Clark-TurnerPistonCo. Los Angeles .'““ California Weber Crank-Pin Re-Turning Tool This Unique Tool al Re-Turns Crank-Pins ow 33-0 ope | Without Jigs, Filing | BR =&.~ or Offsetting ef eS =} The Weber Crank- * =e Pin Re-Turning Tool ; An enables you to save Ss more time in fitting - A the bearings to the round pin than it ~~ takes to true up the pin with the < Weber Tool. Only one set-up is necessary for the entire shaft, yet the work done by the Weber Toul is guaranteed as accurate as by any known method The Weber Tool keeps your customers satisfied and puts big, quick profits in your own pa kets. Send for our free booklet ** Proof’ which tells how to keep the profitable jobs in your own shop. SAWYER-WEBER TOOL MFG. CO. 353 So. Alameda Street Los Angeles, Calif.

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| | operator | entirely and the machine goes on with the remain- | of sawdust, | and trimmings, etc., is widely used throughout the | water-tube boilers of 7500 square feet each. The | fuel arrives on barges and is handled by a 5-ton | clamshell bucket and a system of conveyors. | chamber, draws air at slow velocity through this SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Mechanical Engineering A Simple Preventive of Burst Pipes is to cover | them with a good thickness of slag wool or other | non-conductor. Various pipe-sections have been devised to alter their shape and permit the ex- pansion of water without detriment, but after the first expansion these become just as liable to future fracture as the ordinary pipes. The manufacturer of a lead- is advertising the results of a recent engineering test made of three different pulleys: paper, cast-iron, and wood. At 2 per |} cent belt slippage, which was assumed to be the normal condition, it was found that the paper pulley had 24% times the transmitting capacity of the iron one. The advantage fell off at greater belt slips, as might be anticipated. In these tests the wood pulley showed up slightly better than the metal one. Pulley Analysis. |ing paper pulley Perforated Tape Control for Machinery.—A re- cent writer in American Machinist, with the suc- cess of two such diverse bits of apparatus as the player piano and the monotype before him, makes the suggestion that this principle is deserving of an effort to extend it more generally into machin- ery practice. He thinks that automatic lathes of all descriptions a particularly promising field for the innovation, and points out that theoretically at least there is not the slightest limit to what the tape can constrain the machine to do. The Deterioration of Rope used for power trans- mission is held to a minimum when the sheaves over which the line runs have a pulley diameter |; equal to at least 40 times the diameter of the rope for speeds of 4500 running feet per minute, | or of 27 times the rope diameter for speeds around | 3000 feet. A 45-degree-angled V-shaped groove is recommended as the best compromise between a shallow groove, which results in slippage and ex- cessive wear, and a very steep groove, which grips the rope too well, and on this account uses addi- tional power because of the tendency for the rope to stick. Valve Grinding on any sort of internal combus- tion engine would be robbed of its terrors by gen- eral adaptation to general use of a grinding outfit now made mostly, if not altogether, for use with the popular small automobile. A spindle fits into the hole on each valve tappet, and these are all with a single operating handle. The works this handle back and forth in a horizontal plane, and the motion is communicated to the valve tappets as a rotary one. When one valve is finished before the others it is removed connected ing ones. “Hog fuel,” consisting edgings, slabs Lumber Waste for Fuel. shavings, ground-up

There’s no comparison— In hot water or cold; In hard water or soft. OR that luxurious moist lather that means an easy shave—there’s nothing like Colgate’s Shaving Stick, and in the “Handy Grip” there’s nothing like it for Conve- nience and Economy. Colgate’s Shaving Stick not only produces the most sooth- ing lather forthe averageman but it is a little more economi- cal than cream. As we make all three, we can give you this impartial advice. COLGATE & CO. Dept. 40 199 Fulton St., New York The metal “ Handy Grip’’ containing a trial size stick of Colgate’s Shaving Soap, sent for 10c. When the trial stick is used up you can buy the Colgate “ Refills,”” threaded to fit this Grip; thus you save 10c on each “ Refill’” you buy. There are 350 shaves in a Colgate Shaving Stick—double the number you can get from a tube of cream at the same price.

Stick —_

northwestern lumber fields, but only as an inci- dental ; and the disposal of this material is usually

a charge against the mill. A central heating plant has now been erected in Tacoma, designed especially for the burning of this fuel and with no provision for handling any other. The ultimate capacity will be taken care of by four vertical Full details of this interesting installation appear in Power due November 15th. Powdered Coal Preparing Machines are nothing new, but one recently put out is perhaps rather novel in the manner in which it combines impact pulverization with air separation. The pulverized material is discharged by centrifugal force directly into a large separating chamber. An exhaust fan, in the discharge duct leading from the separating chamber, removing the fine coal and allowing the oversize to return to the machine for further pulverization. Adjustment as desired is possible by virtue of the fact that the air velocity through the chamber determines the line of fineness be- tween the delivered product and that which goes back to the hammers. Edison’s Snow Rémover.—Winter brings back the old problem of snow removal, and at a forum on “Snow Removal in Cities,” held in the Engi- neering Societies Building, it was pointed out that Edison turned his attention to this question 40 years ago. At that time he built a big truck carrying a steam engine and compressor ; this, going as fast as a horse could walk, gathered the snow up in front, passed it into the compressor, and left it in its wake in the form of little blocks of ice taking up but one-tenth the room of the snow. While success attended his efforts, the undertaking was dropped in favor of other inven- tions. Mr. Edison can not recall the horsepower of the engine or the size of the compressor, but believes that a larger compressor would have given even better results. Oil Coolers on Marine Turbines.—In the lubri- cating systems of small units, filters not being used, remarks The Practical Engineer, it is im- portant that means be provided for returning the circulating oil to the bearings at the appropriate temperatures. Passing the oil through a coiled tube contained within the sump tank has certain definite disadvantages. By far a better method | is to provide a separate oil-cooling tank. This should be constructed like a steam condenser, but with baffle plates to break up the oil stream and provide a more effective and extensive cooling surface. The water circulation through the oil cooler should be by pump and. not by gravity or | thermo-siphon, and the water pressure should aiways be less than that of the oil, so that in the event of an internal leak the oil will merely es- | SCRIBNER BOOKS

My Brother Theodore Roosevelt By CORINNE ROOSEVELT ROBINSON An intimate picture of his childhood, boyhood, youth and manhood “It makes Theodore Roosevelt live before me as nothing yet printed can, or ever will. I marvel at the skill with which Mrs. Rob- inson has passed through all the history made in that crowded life without ever forgetting it or failing to use it as a background and yet never for a moment allowing it to distract attention from the man himself, whom she has painted and described with the vividness that only the deepest love and closest knowledge could give. tifully done.’’—Senator Lodge. It is beau- Illustrated. $3.00 The Americanization of Edward Bok This autobiography of a Dutch boy fifty years after, winner of the Pulitzer prize for American biography, is now available in a $3.00 edition. the United States, England and the Netherlands. has termed it the best biography of our time. It has passed through 17 editions in three countries— Lord Northcliffe Profusely illustrated. $3.00 The New World of Islam By LOTHROP STODDARD The author of ‘“The Rising Tide of Color,” which attracted wide

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attention, here reviews the steadily increasing ferment throughout the Mohammedan world—a con- dition of sharp portent for the white races, confronted by the in- tense dynamic force of the Islamic faith and peoples. With map. $3.00 Charles Scribner’s Sons, Fifth Avenue, New York

cape, rather than being diluted with water.

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76 What’s Coming 1922? Will we see a real bull market? How about money rates? What will happen to bond prices? Babsonis Reports 7 Special Barometer Letter — off ae press January first — gives you the plain, unbiased facts on the present situation, and forecasts coming con- ditions with remarkable accuracy. It contains information of vital im- portance to every investor. REPORT ON REQUEST This Barometer Letter and booklet, “Getting the Mast from Your Money are available for distribution to interested investors, gratis Tear out the Memo — now — and hand it to your secretary when you dictate the morning's mail. Merely ask for Bulletin No. Aso Roger W. Babson Statistical Organization Wellesley Hills, 82, Mass. (Buburb of Boston) The Lag@® Orgs pootantion af Ste Character he

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Think of it! sound boys, electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic engineering surveying, practical carpe 4 all in one finely illustrated book The greatest book for boys in years Send us 10 cents today THE A. C. GILBERT CO. 337 Blatchley Avenue, New Haven, Conn EAR SF YOU KNEW: That the Megniphooe is the finest and most wonderful aid for DEAF ears; That nothing can help you HEAR like it; Thatit is the latest triumph of Science: That with the Magniphone you can hear better than with anything else made; And if the price and everything suits you, Would you buy it? If so, you may try it FREE and oe ee itall foe ourself. EVERY PERSON HOISH RD OF HEARING Ssnevio Now ABOUT THE MAGNI. PHONE, Ask for a Free Trial and say, “I will buy it if it satisfies me otherwise I will return it and owe you nothing It will come te you promptl we pay the delivery charges. Beconvinced ; without cost- The Magniphons Ce., 29 E. Madiscn St., Chicago. Dect. 31 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

Patents and Trade-Marks General Principles, Current Comment, and Interesting

Decisions Trade-Marks Under the International Bureau. tn ‘ i nterstate commerce. It must be ! Habar th isk nted tamped, otherwise attached to each " | Pat Offic rh ‘ < t 1 i ircel the w The Federal law make he Off } n lieu of an al r I n for the registering of names used as f } Bu f ) in ir tic 1| trade-r s on commodities that are shipped only Y fort ‘ type r eed within the State Although it is thought advis- 10 th 1 et with 30 repro-| able, it is not necessary that the names be ar- duct f « d'stinetive element ranged into any distinctive desigr Under the a stat ' f wT } and addre th: number! trade-mark act of 1905 it was not possible to und I j tates registration and a egister a name that is merely geographical, or Spa h t sl r f the particular description | merely descriptive, or is merely a surname not of is a ted in the certificate of registration. | displayed in some particular or distinctive manner. Volume of Business in the Patent Office. —The Such regres however, can be registered under business of the Patent Office for the last six the act of 1920 .f they have been in use by the months was the heaviest f any half year in its applicant in interstate tay sant for not less than Matire hint The receipts for applications ‘or | °@* 7°! in this way Congress sought to give eatente amounted to $45,066, as aemmneel with | Tecosnition to a comm« n-law right in 6 name used e149 @ ¢ 148 and $31,568 for the first six| **% ® trade-mark on the ground of ‘ts use. Officials ceaniiiin ae i wit 19 1919 and 1918. The of the Patent Office point out that the mames of caaliadee ; tea a trade-marks totaled | V@tieties of seeds or viants can not be trade- $8,369 in this time ‘ compared with $7,940 marked. For instance, a seed grower may develop $5.447 and $3 ) for th corresponding periods ye — of waesermnt lon, which he chooses to call of 1920, 1919 and 1918 The gain in applications the Excelsior, and to sell the seed as such. for patent received in the half yearly period just Even though the seed goes into interstate com- clnead ever the feet che months of 1618 wae s21, merce its name can not be registerean and any per cent while the wain in trade-mark applications buyer who reproduces that variety or seed can sell cisgunteh ty 100 wer oun, ta ealie of he tadew it under the same name. Excelsior” is the name Saiak demindiom the Genetank of tncbtees nemenial of the variety, it is pointed out, and no matter ca ailas Minitene: Gaditiee tic densa’ When Hace ania who produces it the seed is still of tuac kind, and ceaae aie ho wane S060 and te temee Gal can be offered for sale as such by any one produc- oe Hesshealn ments thet Patent Gen ann pr Ral oe also applies to strains and breeds beyond revious figures in its history, with Ts . no recession in sight, and are far in excess of the The Importance of Preserving a Trade-Mark : - Unchanged.—-A trade-mark is, in fact a _ trade capacity of limited and practically stationary , force to properly handle. signature, for in most cases the trade-mark is the only means by which a retail purchase: may iden- Canadian Patents...A report of the Canadian tify the merchandise which is offereg for sale. Commissioner of Patents recently published shows | when this means for identifying the merchandise a very great increase in the number of applica-| jg changed confusion often arises in the mind of tions filed for Letters Patent. During the fiscal | the purchaser, and this is especially true when the year 1912 the patent applications filed numbered! merchandise is offered for sale in a foreign 8293 ; during the fiseal year 1920 the patent appli-| market. Of course, a manufacturer is not likely cations numbered 11,198, and for the fiscal year|to change his label in what he may consider to ending March 31, 1921, 13,446 patent applications | he jts important features, but that which may were filed. The activity of inventors is a pretty! seem to be im.naterial when considered by a good barometer of the industrial progress which group of men, with more or less the same point is being made and the filing of a great number | o¢ yiew, is sometimes looked on as such a material of patent applications is evidence of commercial) .jange by other people under different conditions growth. This is so, for each group of inventions! ang in another environment that the merchandise

is a step forward in the effort which is being | on which the modified labels are used is not recog- made to make this a happier world, and patent) nized as the merchandise which has built up a applications would not be filed on the inventions! favorable reputation in the past. While one per- unless a valuable return on the patent grants was| so, when looking at a trade-mark label will be reasonably anticipated When considering the re-| attracted by a particular feature, another person port it is very interesting to learn to what extent| may overlook the said feature entirely, as his residents of the United States are patenting their) attention will be fixed on quite another feature inventions in Canada as a preliminary to the ex-| shown on the label. Still another person will tension of their commercial enterprises in that) have fixed in his mind only the general arrange- country During the last fiseal year 7744 patents) ment as shown. It will therefore be seen that if were granted to residents of the United States as/ the said features are altered or removed from the ompared with 1645 patents which were granted jabel, or if the general arrangement is changed, to Canadia esidents some of the manufacturers’ customers may be con- Presumption Against Infringement Because of fused when attempting to purchase goods similar Grant of Patent.—The Patent Office, in passing| to those previously used. Not only is the above upon an pplication for patent never takes into! true with reference to the difficulty of the retail lerati the question of whether or not the| public in recognizing the trade-mark label when subject-matter of that application infringes any | altered, but very often a material change in a existing and unexpired patent. The sole questions trade-mark label raises a question of trade-mark determined by the Patent Office are those of nov- infringement. In many cases a change is made elt usefulness and operativeness, and patent- which removes the only feature which distin- ability Naturally a great many entirely valid guishes the trade-mark from a label used by a patents are sed, the subject-matter of each of competitor, and sometimes the rearrangement of which may infringe one or more of the claims of the features on a label, or the inclusion of a new un earlier and broader patent However, from feature, so changes the trade-mark as a whole me to time the courts have held that the grant) that it so closely resembles the label of a com- a p nt rise 4 presumption of non-infringe- | petitor that confusion is sure to arise. There is ment of the invention covered thereby, though of still another reason why trade-mark labels should course such presumption may be rebutted by the not be altered when a manufacturer is offering swctual fact of infringement. Frequently the in-| his goods for sale in foreign countries, for a r wh does not understand the situation is! public unfamiliar with the English language will the opinion that because the Patent Office hae | often fix its attention on a word or other feature ranted him a patent he is free to make, use and | which is relatively unimportant to one acquainted d the invention without liability for infringe-| with our language and environment, but which, ment Despite th fact that the courts have at | because of some resemblance or suggestion to a different times held that there is such a presump-| foreign word or situation, is perhaps the only tion of fringement, owing to the issue of a| feature which will readily remain fixed in a for- pa n prominent patent attorneys are of) eigner’s mind It is also necessary to consider the opinion that there is no real warrant under | the fact that in some of the foreign countries the ir patent pr e for such a holdin Never-| laws require that a trade-mark be used in the thele the Supre Court of the United States| exact form in which it is registered. itself (Hildreth \ J. M. Mastoras, 51, October Condition of Patent Office Work.—The serious re » 19 decided, November 7, 1921), recently | eondition of the work of the Patent Office was aid The ¢ uit Court of Appeals held that recently pointed out by Commissioner Robertson th issult of the Langer patent after the Dick-| jn a statement showing that the arrears of work o nt ra i the presumption of a patent-| jn the Office have increased from 15,000 applica- ible ence between that patent and the Dick-| tions two years ago to more than 56,000 applica- on patent, and against infringement It is not| tions at the present time, the Office running necessary for us, however, to discuss that question, | behind about 400 applications a week. This situa- to the very large increase in the work for we think that whatever presumption against | tion is due nfringement may attach to the issuing of the| of the Patent Office and the numerical inadequacy second patent, if any, the evidence here is quite| of the Patent Office personnel, which, in turn, sufficient to overcome it.” can be very largely ascribed to the insufficient pay ; » under the present law. Obviously, highly trained Parmers’ Trade-Marks.—Attention has recently and specialized workers, such as Patent Office been directed to the use and registration of trade- Examiners, can do far better for themselves by marks by farmers for their products. That such| j.aving the Patent Office and entering private trade-marks are registrable has long been the practice. The result of the existing conditions is practice. There are certain requirements, how- | that in about 2% years the Patent Office has lost ever, that must be met as in the case of other| one-half of the Examining force by resignation. sorts of names used as trade-marks under the| The obvious solution is better pay and an in- Federal trade-mark law. The farm name, for| creased force. It is to be hoped that the bill one thing, must be used by the farmer as a trade-| already passed by the House and now pending be- mark on his products that he ships to points out-| fore the Senate, to remedy the situation, will side his own State; in other words, a commodity” become a law without delay.

JANUARY, 1929 Witty THI) HULU

{NHN ag PATENTS |" YOU HAVE AN INVENTION which you wish to patent you can write fully and freely to Munn @ Co. for advice in regard to the best way of obtaining protection. Please send sketches or a model of your invention and a description of the device, explaining its operation, All communications are strictly con- fidential. Our vast practice, extend- ing over a period of seventy years, enables us in many cases to advise in regard to patentability without any expense to the client. Our Hand- Book on Patents is sent free on re- quest. This explains our methods, terms, etc., in regard to Patents, Trade Marks, Foreign Patents, etc. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Contains Patent Office Notes, Decisions of interest to inventors—and particulars of re- cently patented inventions. MUNN & CO., 33)iSitors Woolworth Building, NEW YORK Tower Building CHICA 0, ILL. Scientific American Building, WASHINGTON, D. C. Hobart Building, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL,

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Page 77

RY, 192) rs} TIO TION you can lunn & he best Please f your of the ion, ly con- xtend- years, advise rithout Hand- on re- thods, atents, etc, ES RS CT RR Og . additional | additional i der, bank WHS 1h sts January, 1922 —OLD KENTUCKY — oul SPUN a awit = that only the more satisfying your life. day is lik chemicals taste and soll, cut selected, stead se 75 We Pay All a noe trae twists. With SEND NO MONEY Pay only w tobac- co arrives. Ter ft for ou have never tas on, if ing tobacco in all iii te, Rich, Old - no more like een conceal imperfections, delude Grown and natured in Kentucky’s finest “sweated” b: fathers used in poraesies tobacco for their or parch your mouth your taste. Mellow as the light—fragrant as rose. Like old ne from the cellar ite Fieh h fragrance rmeates the ands of lovers the world over swear by its inimitable wing quali “Fi etzteen years I used 4 on e he farket but yours now Tewlisa bow foctiah 7 rage 8 O foe @ i ReduceYour Tebacee | ow CS. . men, your is best Ihave ipaidicriegerkee oe Sonn F. ‘Libby, Mont. sell none but siiminates « Geet Scparative mareetoe ar ae gee conte more. Sere Money Savin 5 Ibs. $2.98 — 10 to make fashion chewing Seaiten elas clnaie, ott cel post Bret iil th weal it I as eae aoe 1b DA BAY Hila” i of Sir return e: Name....... eeccccccecccee eeeccccercce eocccecccccoccece Adtrens Sait neccnn cs cocsnscnssenesoeonasebeebesncsvcese ) pounds each grade wanted SMOKING —mild —medium —eweng EWING —mild —medium --—strong TOBACCO Direct From Our Farms to You The Cream of the fi ce—ripe that rare old-fashioned @avor and fra- nest crops Kentucky’s bountiful , rich leaves—smooth and mel- ** can produce.We ea finer flavored, proper “‘agin HOMESPUN \ ad | TOBACCO aaned nw = Fashion Leaf Kentucky Homespun is tobacco en e night—guaranteed free and all other adulterations ‘thet sense of undermine the health at the proper time, carefully aged, mellowed, cured and the same method our grand- WB. Srrives. St. Marys, Penn. tn every wav, ¥. pave boen— on iddlemen ~— the grow: thereby Prices s. $5.85 Shipping ms 8) sacks of smoking, or 65 chewing order we send oingiete illustrated euching. We Pay All Shipping Charges ’ Mayfield, Kentucky Old Kentucky Homespun Tobecco REDUCED PRICES 26°*“f.ttnes Redection SOUTH BEND LATHES 9° Lathe . $176.00 11" Lathe. 220.00 13” Lathe. 292.00 =a iS” Lathe. 360.00 16" Lathe. 420.00 South Bend Lathes can be furnished with either Plain Change Gears or with Com plete Qyiel J ri — yay South Bend Lathe Works 421 Madison S'reet South Bend, Ind. ttf STEEL STAMPS METAL STE CHECKS NCILS SEALS Res SE - | NO FOR CATA HWERDTLE § GLPORT, ¢ TAMP ONN SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Notes and Queries maintained for the benefit of our readers who desire infor- to the scope of the technical formulas and sim- The Notes and Queries column is mation on subjects germane paper, together with ilar information. Matters requiring profound re- search or searches in a library cannot be under- taken. In connection with Notes and Queries proper, we maintain a “Service Bureau,” which is able, in nearly all cases, to supply addresses of manufacturers whose articles have sufficient nov- illustrated in the Correspondents are elty and merit to be of this periodical. news pages requested to write their inquiries in all cases, making the subject of the letter entirely separate from the correspondence relating to patents, subscription, books, etc. This will greatly facilitate the an- which in The full name and Our full “Hints gladly mailed on re- answered by mail and only swering of these questions, many cases have to be referred to experts. address should always be given. to Correspondents” will be quest, All letters are a very few of them can be printed in the limited space at our disposal. (14379) W. A. R. asks: At some time in the near past, while reading a scientific maga- zine, I saw where a number of scientists had taken a quantity of platinum, one pound if I remember correctly, and had stretched it into wire 1800 miles long. It was so thin as to be almost invisible, and to prevent breaking it was covered with gold. I told this to the class, but was ridiculed for what they thought an absurd statement. Will you verify the above statement? or will you, if it is untrue, tell me what is the greatest length to which one pound of standard platinum can be stretched; A. Platinum wire has been drawn so fine as to be invisible excepting when held in strong light. The light reflected from it could be seen. It was not drawn quite in the manner you describe. Nor do we suppose a pound of it was ever made. It is used in the eye-| pieces of telescopes for the cross wires to locate the line of collimation through the center of the field. This wire was made by drawing the plati- num directly by the draw plate till it was as thin as it would hold. This fine wire was then plated with silver by electroplating and the compound wire was then drawn to the limit of its strength. After this the silver was dissolved off by nitric acid, leaving the platinum wire as we have described it. It could still sustain several grains (14380) N. L. T. asks for a rubber rust . ‘ | A solution of pure unvulcanized has been used for years as a} protector. A. rubber in benzine coating for steel, iron and lead, and has been found a simple means of keeping them from oxidizing. It can be easily applied with a brush, and it is as easily rubbed off. It should be made about the consistency of cream. (14881) A. A. H. asks: Can you me principal dates of the invention of the cycle, which I need for a paper that I am preparing? A. Four-wheeled velocipede invented in France by Blanchard and Magurier in 1779; pedals applied | to a tricycle by a Dumfriesshire blacksmith, Mc- | Millan, 1834; rubber tyres for iron, 1868; bicycles | made in England by Coventry Sewing Machine | Co., 1869; improved by J. K. Starley, 1874; Star- | ley’s “Rover,” with nearly equal wheels, 1885; | first C. elub in world, Pickwick Bicycle Club, fd. give |in London, 1870; Cyclists’ Touring Club, 1878; cycles first manufactured in America by A. A. | Pope, 1878. (14382) J. E. K. says: I would be greatly obliged if you can afford me details of an experiment performed in England. A chemist | asserted the success of the experiment which had | to do with demonstration of theory of the ultimate composition of matter, and declared it a widely | known fact that under the influence of radio- activity gold had successively been degraded through lead, iron, etc., to hydrogen and then into negative ions and finally into intangibility. A. We have not noticed, even in the daily newspapers any such announcement of the transmutation of metals as you describe, much less in the scientific papers. Had it taken place we can but believe it would have had large headlines in all the papers. We wait for further particulars, and mark the item “Interesting, if true."” Now, the electron theory, upon which this story is based, considers the electron to be the unit of the material of the universe, and that of it, all things consist. The hydrogen atom contains about 1000 electrons. Other elements contain more in proportion to | their atomic weights. Oxygen has 16 times as many, or 16,000, and uranium has 238,500 of these particles in its atoms. Now radium has been known to give off particles which became helium. There are other evidences that there is a founda- tion for the belief held by many scientists that the various elements are thus related to each other and it is possible that hydrogen is the origi- nal “stuff” out of which the universe was built. But we do not believe that any man has unscram- bled the universe in the manner which you de- scribe. The last step is inconceivable. When everything had been evolved backward into hydro- gen, it is unthinkable that this mass of hydrogen could by a wave of the wand be made to pass into nothingness. Works of the Western Electric Ci 1; the uf 77 J, d, rt; t of the Bell System Economical Equipment Forty years ago the manage- ment of the Bell Telephone System organized for a supply of the ap- paratus which it foresaw would be required in the development of its new industry—telephone service. The telephone in some countries is the luxury of the rich, but in America it is used by practically all the people. This universal service is due in large measure to foresight in engineering and manufacture. Switchboards with millions of parts, other apparatus of highest ef- ficiency, and all necessarily of com- plex and intricate design, cables and wires and a multitude of tech- nical devices enable our country to lead the world in telephone service, All this telephone equipment is BELL SYSTEM” AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES toward Better Service One Policy, One System, Universal Service, and all directed inade in a factory which is recog- nized throughout the world as hav- ing the largest production and the highest standards of workmanship and efficiency. This factory, controlled through stock ownership by the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany, has been for forty years the manufacturing department of the Bell System; with the result that the associated companies secure equipment of the highest develop- ment, made of the best materials, produced in accordance with the requirements of the public, and with the certainty of moderate costs, Economy in the Bell System begins with the manufacture of equipment. MONARCH JUNIOR LATHES "The Biggest Little Lathe Built” A sturdy small engine Lathe built with the same quality ec construction that has made MONARCH E LATHES standard the world over. An accurate, dependable machine tool especially designed for ‘and guaranteed to do any small work that any other lathe will do with speed and accuracy. MONARCH JUNIOR fits any shop or work- room in your own home. Especially designed for beginners—easy to learn to operate and equipped the same as any larger lathe. The Greatest Achievement in Lathe Building History Monarch Junior 9 in. $ With Bench Engine Lathe 225 Legs , Full particulars and a Monarch Junior Catalog will be sent you on request THE pegmances MACHINE TOOL Co. 230 Oak Str Sidney, Ohio END FOR CATALOGUE describing an oil engine with all the advantages of a steam engine and none of its short-comings, an engine built to endure by combin- ing the cross-head principie, gov- ernor control within 2% from no load to full load, and ample weight properly placed, an engine that operates on the cheapest of fuels. The BESSEMER GAS ENGINE COMPANY 14 York St., Grove City, Pa. BESSEMER OIL ENGINES © Horse Power

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“1 oo SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN What’s Your Machine Good For? Good for its line of work—but that’s merely the first uestion. Good for how much daily production under the right manner of operation? Good for how much improvement in the record of the machine operator? Read that from a | MALT | COUNTER The large Set-Back Rev- olution unter al right ‘ te tnan rctual ise. The small Revolu- ton Counter et ts ) n nearly full sise The Set-Back Revolution Counter above rec- ords the output of the larger machines where the revolu- tion of a shaft registers Counts one for each revolution, and sets back to zero from any figure by Supplied with from four to ten an operation. turning knob once round figure-wheels, according to purpose. figures, as illustrated, $10.00 (subject to discount). The Small Revolution Counter at left records the output of smaller machines where a shaft revolution rice, with four indicates an operation. Though small, this counter is very durable ; its mechanism will stand a very high rate of speed, making it espec ially adapted to light, fast-running Will subtract if run backward. Price, $2.00. mac hines. Write for the Veeder booklet of counters for all product-recording purposes. It’s free—and you need it in developing machines (or machine workers) into better producers. The Veeder Mfg. Co., 18 Sargeant St., Hartford, Conn. Recent Advance in Lighting (Continued from page 27) SONNEBORN PRODUCTS | WhattheUsers Say! about UTH - The Liquid Chemical Dustproofer and Wear- » TRADE MARK proofer of Old and New Concrete Floors Continental Can Co., Chicago, IIl., writes : ** Over 125,000 square feet of lapidolized concrete floors receive wear daily, such as heavy trucks, etc., and we find them in excellent con- dition. (On above satisfaction we treated over 160,000 square feet at Jersey City plant).’’ Standard Oil., (Indiana) Minneapolis, Minn., writes: ** Lapidolith has proven very satisfactory but we have used Lapido- lith for the past five years constantly.”’ Chalmers Knitting Co., Amsterdam, N. Y., writes: ‘We are pleased to learn by experience that Lapidolith is all you claim for it."’ Bethlehem Steel Co., Lebanon, Pa., writes: * The application of Lapidolith é at our plant is entirely satis- factory.” SONNEBORN PRODUCTS Are your floors dusting or wear- ing? Flush on Lapidolith the durable Mill White. Washable, fire- resisting, and of exceptional covering capacity. Gloss, Flat and Eggshell standard for ten years. = L/GNOPRO Over 200,000,000 square feet of bat ‘euidied ncaa aatioaien _— concrete floors have been la- 1 Soames Ge hl er aaue waeden heart pidolized thus far. = Write ror sample, circulars = and testimonials. L. SONNEBORN SONS, Inc. ’ Dept.!, 264 PEARL ST., NEW YORK E- | Stormtight the protective roof coating for all kinds of worn or new roofs. Saves labor and material cost of new roofs SONNEBORN) sau q lee } lights. JANUARY, 19% | quate lighting is a great factor in the prevention of accidents and in the conservation of Vision Even insurance companies are contemplating , mirrors and reflect images of light-sources into! lower rate of insurance in factories which an the visual field even though the sources are hung | well lighted, for, as one of the insurance experts high. has put it, “during a one-year period in this In the design of fixtures for stores, offices,| country the number of accidents due to inade. and similar fields there has been a strong tend-| quate or improper lighting exceeds the yearly ency toward dust-proof fixtures. As a result a rate of our casualties in the recent war.” Owing number of fixtures are available with enclosing | to the lack of proper and adequate lighting over glassware of ingenious design. They possess clear 100,000 men are continually absent from work jp and diffusing areas properly located so that the | this country owing to disability. Thus it is seen lamp is sereened from view but there are clear | that even though science contributes much towani areas for the emission of light. Such units, if| the production and distribution of light, then well designed, are more efficient than a mere still remains the necessity of an awakening enclosing globe of diffusing glass. Installations of | the part of the public to proper utilization of such units have widely multiplied during the past | these developments, few years, illustrating the rapid advances in lighting In the design of such a fixture it is Liquefying Coal also aimed to have the clear areas in such a posi- : tion that dust cannot easily settle upon them. T the Chemical Congress recently held in Attention is also given to the design of ventilated Stuttgart, the well-known technical expert, fixtures in order that they may not be dust- Dr. Friedrich Bergius, gave an interesting account traps. The importance of dust-proof fixtures is of an important new process devised by him and apparent when it is realized that the output of his associates by means of which it is possible ty a Mebtine installation in an average location transform gas oil, crude oils containing large pep may decrease 25 per cent if not cleaned for a centages of asphalt (e.g., Mexican petroleum), ieee andiiin ete., almost completely into light oils without the Ten years ago, if one lived in the country out formation of coke. ‘ ; : te alr teas ; The development of this transformation of heavy of reach of electric service, as most farmers oils into light oils, such as benzine and gasolj did, the: acetylene plant was the only isolated has been conside red one of the snnat impel lighting plant available. During the past few problems presented to petroleum technologists. Af years a number of country-home electric-lighting the present time in this country the light oils used plants have been developed. These generally = n for driving motors are prepared by the so-called consist of a gas-engine, an electric generator, cracking processes, which are based upon the fact and a storage battery. These plants have been that when the crude oils are heated at a high tem very widely installed during the past few years | perature under increased pressure, the heavy oils and have reached beyond the frontier as far as break up into light oils, this action being accom Kodiak Island, Alaska. What cheer science has panied by the formation of coke and gaseous hy brought to those long winter nights! drocarbons. One of the best known of the crack The number of outlets in the modern electrical ing processes is that formulated by Burton. This home has greatly increased recently. A few is suitable, however, only for medium heavy oil, years ago wall-switches and convenience outlets especially for gas oil, since in the case of very were rare In fact, in any large city today | heavy oils and of those rich in asphalt there an there is only about one base-board outlet per | serious losses of gas and coke, and also because residence on the average. Today the middle- | the large amount of coke formed introduces tech class home is not properly wired without 15 to 30 | nijeal difficulties. For these reasons the cracking such outlets. process is not applicable to those oils which com There is still a tendency among fixture manu-/| tain large amounts of asphalt, though these com facturers to use unshaded frosted lamps or glass- | stitute a large part of the world’s output. ware which is insufficiently diffusing. Glare is The formation of coke during the cracking pn. the result, and as the public becomes acquainted ess is due to the separation out of hydrogen and with the finer things in lighting it demands of gases rich in hydrogen during the process of subdued light-sources. heating. Consequently many attempts have been With the advent of the modern tungsten lamps made during the last few years to overcome this it has become possible to produce accurate arti- | difficulty by the introduction of hydrogen, and ficial daylight of sufficiently high efficiency to be | naturally catalytic methods suggested themselves practicable. Of course, science hopes for the |as appropriate for this purpose. Since, however, day to come when daylight quality will be pro-/| it was found impracticable to make use of catab duced directly by the light-source, but until that | ysers for the hydration of impure crude oil, it was day arrives the modern color-matching units will | necessary to devise a special method of accom do the work required. Now accurate artificial | Plishing this reaction. noon-sunlight and north skylight are available In 1913 such a method was devised in the lab through the development of glass color-filters. | oratory of Dr. Bergius, a method, that is, for pre Such units have been widely installed where accu- | Venting the impoverishment of the oils in hydre The public be door or Lib- dyers rate color-discrimination is necessary. where without little under finds them in stores, merchandise can as to color going to a but the realizes that bonds examined them, that depend upon them when dyeing millions of dollars of that the artist under that cigars are sorted under and they serving in hundreds other examined window layman erty are paints them, of worth textiles, them, that ways. Color lighting, to are in but not the now own fields, into its other artists is gradually coming long in of lighting it generally used the best manner. With advent of the gas-filled tungsten lamp it possible to obtain colored light of adequate inten- has ago lack in as it the is owing is sities; however, the lamp colorings which were satisfactory for the vacuum lamp do not with- stand the heat of the gas-filled bulb. Only re- cently have superficial colorings been developed for this purpose, therefore various colored media have been devised as accessories. Colored glass plates and caps, also colored gelatines, are now being used in show-windows to obtain colored light. In the larger moving-picture theaters spec- tacular effects of colored light are to be seen. Much can be done by the lighting artist who understands what might be termed the language of color. Colors have many phychological influences which can be utilized. A theater in the summer- time seems cooler if illuminated by blue-green light instead of ordinary light. Conversely, a warm tint, such as that of the candle-flame, makes an interior more cheerful except in very hot weather. It beginning to dawn upon of light that light is an expressive medium of great potentiality. It can produce a certain mood in a room which can be altered instantly by switches. This realization evidenced in modern homes, restaurants, theaters, show-windows and many other places by the many lighting effects which users 1s are installed. It interesting to note that in many of the is elaborate signs of the great white ways the lamps of low wattages are rapidly being replaced by large gas-filled tungsten lamps. Many signs which were designed for 10-watt lamps now con- tain 75-watt lamps. This is evidence that light is gaining in prestige even in advertising. No bet- ter indication of the widening interest in lighting is available than that of lighting legislation. Until recently Iaws contained at best only meager ind incidental references to lichting. Today sev- eral states have separate codes pertaining to fac- tory, school, and emergency lighting and there many laws pertaining to automobile head- These codes show that proper and ade- gen during the cracking process. This is accom plished by performing the cracking in the pres ence of hydrogen under a high degree of pressure With a sufficiently hich pressure and a suitable temperature, it was found easily possible to obtain the effect without the of catal ysers. Dr. Bergius states positively that this reaction has been found applicable to the most various kinds of oil residues, and even to coal. It is this prim upon which the commercial tech process known as the Bergin process. This also be adapted to such products # brown coal or lignite generator tar. The loss of material through the formation of gas is trifling; moreover, by suitable alterations in the duration of the reaction, greater or smaller amounts as d& sired of benzine and petroleum may be obtained Because of this adaptability of the process, the crude oil can be broken up at will into light @ medium products, according to the demand of the desired presence oils, ciple is based nical process can market at any given time. Dr. Bergius goes still farther. He states that by the use of this same method of operation the hydration and liquefaction of mineral coal ® possible. Berthelot, indeed, proved that coal is reducible, by treating the carbon with hydriodie acid. Because of the experiments made by Dr. Bergius and his colleagues with regard to the production of coal from cellulose and the resultant views formed by them as to the chemical nature of coal, they came to the conclusion that under the proper conditions a reaction could be obtained betweet coal and hydrogen. Such a reaction was diseo¥ ered in the summer of 1913 and a patent was applied for on August 9th of that year—it is de- scribed as follows: By heating coal in the presence of hydroget under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres, the coal can be almost entirely decomposed. If the proper conditions of operation be observed, about 85 per cent of a specimen of coal yielding 85 P& cent of ash can be liquefied. It was necessary, of course, to spend years of work in order to obtain a practical method of making use of this brilliant achievement. The first commercial plant for this purpose has bee@ erected in Mannheim-Rheinau during the last yea? or so. Convincing proof has been given, says Dr. Sergius, that the very great difficulties at first encountered in the endeavor to obtain a practi commercial development of the results obtained in the laboratory, are capable of being overcome that if the high pressure apparatus required be properly constructed the process is both simple in operation and certain in results from the com mercial point of view. | F rer SI ing! rito! Ave BI We spar for | Sehe S ratl bra $20 Bal reta Y¢ earn corre week with quire Step! SL Buy « moti’ AR Cloth for li ton, I FLA delici from miss lake-) busin Lake enue, IN\ ufacti inven parts mach plete | both 1 ings ¥ 1055 R WE chine Small can & basis. mate. ville, INS Geode bonus tained nounc ASI Write Bristo $100, Provec Compe demar Lock ( TRA SANT F. V. | offers | in the: _.

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RY, 19% l€ Prevention nn Of Vision emplating , 8 which are ANCE expert riod in this 1e to inade the yearly ar.” Owing ighting ove om work jp US it is seep nuch towan light, there yakening on tilization of tly ical LIN account by him and } possible tp z large pen petroleum), without the on of heavy nd gasoline, important ologists, At ht oils used he so-called on the faet a high tem heavy oils ‘ing accom. gaseous hy. the crack. irton. This heavy oils ise of very t there are Iso because duces tech ie cracking which com these con- ut. cking pr irogen and process of have been ‘reome this rogen, and themselves », however, e of catab oil, it was of accom in the lab s, for pre in hydro is accom the pres f pressure, a suitable : to obtain of catak “action has s kinds of this prin cial tech This roducts as he loss of s trifling duration nts as de obtained. ocess, the » light or nd of the "eSS. »s that by ation the coal is t coal is hydriodie . Bergius roduction nt views > of coal, 1e proper between s discov tent was it is de hydrogen eres, the If the d, about x 85 per years of sthod of nt. The nas been ast year ays Dr. at first practical ained in yme and iired be simple he com- held jp i expert, | BERT ee rRETETE TM me care, AR JANUARY, 1922 Classified Advertisements advertising in this column is $1.00 a line. No less than five nor more than 12 lines accepted. yar ‘seven words to the line. All orders must be accompanied by a remittance, 7 AGENTS WANTED AGENTS $60 to $200 a Week, Free Samples. Gold Sion Letters for Store and Office Windows. Anyone - do it. Big Demand Liberal offer to general ants Metallic Letter Co., 431 X N. Clark St.Chicago Our agents mak- Exclusive ter , 21 Myrtle 100% profit. Splendid seller Iroucland Rug Co SELL FELT RUGS, ing $50 to $75 weekly. ritory. Something new Ave., Newark, N. J. BECOME A DRAFTSMAN BIG DEMAND for our graduates at excellent salaries. We teach you Mechanical Drawing at home in your pare time; no previous training required. Write today pooklet “Your Future tn Drafting.”” Columbia Schood of Drafting, Dept. 1588, Washington, D. ¢ ~ BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY SUBSTANTIAL manufacturing corpo- ration wants capable men to establish branch and manage salesmen. $300 to ¢9)00 necessary. Will allow expenses to Baltimore explained. Address, retary, 343 St. Paul Place, Baltimore, Md as YOU CAN have a business profession of your own and earn big income in service fees. A new system of fo) correction; readily learned by anyone at home in a few weeks. Easy terms for training ; openings everywhere with all the trade you can attend to. quired or goods to buy, no agency or soliciting Stephenson Laboratories 23 Back Bay, Boston, No capital re- Address Mass. STOP Daily Grind I Start You Silvering Mirrors, auto headlights, tableware, etc. Own your business, be independent. Sure income Plans free. Outfits furnished Clarence Sprinkle, Dept. 113, Marion, Ind FOR SALE TRUNKS, Bags, Suitcases. Why pay two middlemen profits? Buy from factory direct. Send for free catalog. Monarch Trunk Factory, Spring Valley, Ill. PATENT for a labor-saving device for outright sale or on a royalty basis. A one-man furnace. Suitable for aluminum foundry, die casting, aeroplane manufac turers, etc. For full information and particulars address Box 136, Scientific American SLIDE RULES. Highest quality Lowest prices. Buy direct from Importer. Circulars on request. Auto- motive Engineering Co., Castle Hill, Indianapolis, Ind. ARMY-NAVY surplus camp equipment. Blankets, Clothing, ete. Everything for farm, house, shop. Send for list. N. Frank & Sons, 322 L St. S. W., Washing- ton, D.C FLORIDA oranges are most profitable as well as most delicious. Grow your own in a land of sunshine, away from winter blizzards and coal bills. Money you'll not miss will buy you land for a grove in a high, rolling, lake-jewelled land of many golden groves. If you mean business, write today for Book of Facts and Photos. Lake County Land Owners’ Association, 343 Arbor Av- enue, Fruitland Park, Florida FOR INVENTORS INVENTORS—WIiI! buy outright or arrange to man ufacture on liberal royalty basis, patented or patentable inventions which meet our requirements. Principal parts should be of brass or steel and adaptable to scwer machine production up to one inch in diameter. Com plete factory fully equipped with going organization for both manufacture and sales Submit models or draw- ings with complete description. F. H. WELLINGTON, 1055 Riverside Drive, South Bend, Ind. WE HAVE a first-class foundry, pattern shop and ma chine shop, and are continually adding to our line. Small machinery requiring some castings preferred. We can manufacture and sell on royalty or other equitable basis. Send us your prints and specifications for esti mate. Connersville Foundry Corporation, Conners ville, Ind. HELP WANTED INSTRUMENT MAKER in the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Position pays $1,400 per annum plus bonus of $240 perannum, Full particulars may be ob tained by writing Civil Service Commission for an nouncement No.134— Amended. A SPECIALIST designing small special machinery Write Employment Office, New Departure Mfg. Co., Bristol, Conn. REPRESENTATIVES WANTED $100,000 Corporation; manufacturing a Lock Guard ap proved by Police Departments and Burglary Tasurance Companies, wants capalle representatives. Unlimited demand, without competition. Write today. Herculo Lock Guard Company, Baltimore. Md. TRADE-MARK REGISTRATION TRADE-MARKS, registration in PORTO RICO, | SANTO DOMINGO, HAITI and VIRGIN ISLANDS. F. V. Mandry, P. O, Box 993, San Juan, Porto Rico, offers services to attorneys for prosecuting registration in the above countries Experimental and Model Work | Fine Instruments and Fine Machinery, Large experience. | nventions Dev elope ° a | Special Tools, Dies, Gear Cutting, Ete. | HENRY ZUHR, 489-93 Broome St., New York City INVENTORS Models Experimental Work a you looking for a reliable firm to assist you in de- sping that idea that you just can’t work out? Consult | ws—With our staff of expert engineers and thoroughly | eauipped experimental machine shop, we can develop Mane osition for you, mechanical or electrical, and whe T WORK. evelop, simplify and perfect { tions, make them commer- cally posal » and build working models, We design and build special tad protecting paaving ma hinery. All business strictly confidential ELK MFG. 19268 Broadway $40 MOTORCYCLE We bave the larg ~ - est line of used 4 motorcycles in the country at the lowest prices. Send for Catalog. We ure the largest and only exclusive motorcycle supply house in_ the world. Repairs a specialty. Send us your machine to be = np nee Motors and castings for airships ta velocipedes. We Exchange Motoreyeles. R. Geer Co., 851 McLaran Ave., St. Louis, Mo. | co., Ine. New York Sec- | | sight | Success. | operation SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Miscellaneous Notes ! later was driven ashore converted into a seaside restaurant. Cremation Not Fashionable in Paris.—The Paris c Similar institutions in Hungary are thriving, but Parisians |} crematorium may have to close down. cling to the customs of the old church. Toy Balloons for Golfers.—These are not the benefit of those who find the regulation ball too small to hit; they are floated over the flags to guide golfers unfamiliar with the course. The Alhamabra Under Repair.—By government order the famous Alhambra, the most beautiful example of old Moorish architecture, is to be thoroughly restored. A Permanent World’s Fair.—Paris plans to house such a fair in a ten-story building with a 35-story tower. It is to be a permanent exhibition of the whole world’s industries and their products. Senator Penrose as Showman.—Senator Penrose is putting a stage and motion picture outfit in his Washington apartments. He will give two shows a week for invited guests; the first will be George Arliss in “Disraeli.” Business as Usual While Traveling.—The Ger- man railway administration purposes to install business offices on trains, including folding tables and typewriters, for the use of traveling men of | affairs. | College Men’s Earning Power.—What is the average income of the college graduate ten years after leaving college? As indicatd by the income tax reports of the 1911 class of the University of Chicago it is $5,762; the lowest income was $360. Tea Imports from Japan.—In 1918 Japan sent to America 50,000 tons of tea; in 1920, 30,000 tons; and in 1920 dropped to 23,000 tons. India and Java black teas seem largely to have sup- planted Japan’s on the American market, and 1921 is expected to disclose a further decrease of from 30 to 40 per cent. Leaky Torpedoes in Our Navy.—No, it a defect in construction. Each torpedo is not carries as fuel two gallons of first-grade alcohol, and it | ; Imagine a book that begins 10,000,000 or 100,000,000 years ago; Officers have de- | better care must be kept of the key| being carried down through the ages from one dramatic scene to another—as that members of the crew were of this “‘load.”” was found relieving them cided that to the cellar. Paris Still a “Fast” City.—With nothing | worthy the name of systematic traffic regulation, Paris allows her taxicabs and cars to race wildly | about, utterly regardless of pedestrians. In 1920, the number of accidents was 60,375, an average of 165 a day. Paris evidently has no equivalent for the term, “Safety first.” A New Use for the Fireless Cooker.—The fire- less cooker may often be used to advantage when | setting bread sponge or dough to rise. Sponge requires an even temperature of 60 to 75 degrees F., and dough from 80 to 86 degrees. Use the cooker for this purpose in very hot or very cold weather, determining its temperature with a ther- mometer. Our Foreign-Trade Perversity.--An American found in a Java store many American canned goods, and was told these were well liked; but that it was improbable that they would continue to stock them after European trade routes became normal, since the canners refused to put the products in the smaller-size, liter cans that the Javanese demand. Arkwright’s Spinning Jack.—The seum, South Kensington, has just acquired the only known specimen of the original Arkwright spinning jack, which has been in the Swain fam- > Science Mu- ily for 150 years. It has 48 spindles, and is worked by hand with a 5-foot wooden flywheel. Arkwright, after attempting perpetual motion, completed in 1768 a machine for spinning cotton thread. Men as Plow-Horses.—In war-ridden and particularly in the State of Morelos, are scarce. The Government has recently possessed the twenty-two landlords who practically owned the whole State, and has apportioned the land in small tracts to laborers. It is a common to see men harnessed to plows, and their efforts to increase the productivity of this fertile said to be meeting with deserved Mexico, horses region are Forward Step in Horology.—The new Horo- logical Institute of America perfected its plans in a conference held in New York. With the co- | of the National Research Council the Institute hopes to promote the science of time- keeping, develop a system of horological schools, practical courses in manual training schools, provide satisfactory means for the cer- tification of watchmakers, and unite into one national organization all persons interested in the install art. Headquarters will be in Washington, and branches will be established in all important centers. Oriental Trade School on Wall Street..-A new field for New York University is opened with the Division of Oriental Commerce and Politics, which will train its pupils in Eastern ways and seek to develop an invincible combination of the diplomat and the business man. This will put at the service of our smaller enterprises the facilities and methods of which our greatest com- mercial interests have long availed themselves. It is impossible to exaggerate the benefits acere> j ing to us if we can put our commercial relation- | ships with the teeming millions of Asia on a sound and friendly basis. Can This Killer Be “Converted” ?—The German | submarine ‘U-20,” that sank the Lusitania and | off Jutland, may be for =| | | the raw flesh from the bones; how he married and fought and died! by little he clawed and clubbed his way up to mastery over the beasts. ripping story, but it is only one of a thousand stories that fascinating, ¢ blood in this I 67% for it in convenient, tiny monthly payments. reserve your copy by clipping the coupon NOW— TODAY. The Oldest Man 79 reduction on Wells’ Outline of History. Examine it. Dip into it. Keep it for a week in your own home. Then pay But in the World Just part of a skull, two molar teeth and a thigh bone! Pieced together they made—what? One of the most perplexing mysteries in the study of human history. Were these the remains of an ape-like man who lived 500,000 years ago? Scientists believe that they were; they call him the “Dawn Man,” and out of the record embedded in the rocks they have recon- structed the conditions of his life. How he killed his food and tore How little It is a stir your rreatest book of modern times. imagine if you sat in a motion picture theatre and saw the whole drama of the human race displayed on the screen before you—imagine the thrill of such an experience and you have some conception of H. G. WELLS’ “Outline of History” Now Offered You At One-Third the Original Price A history that goes back 100,000,000 years—that traces man’s rude beginnings 500,000 years ago—that follows him down through the prehistoric ages to the Babylon of Nebuchadnez- zar, the Athens of Pericles, the Egypt of Cleopatra, the Asia of Genghis Khan, the France of Napoleon, the England of Glad- stone, the America of today, through the Great War and on into the future United States of the World—that gives ALL history as one story—that is Wells’. “The man who finishes this volume will be an educated man, however much, how- ever little he knew when he started.”— Baltimore Evening Sun. There you have it in a sentence—the rea- son why 250,000 men and women have paid $10.50 for Wells’ Outline and felt they were getting it cheap. The Outline is more than a history—it is an education—the orderly knowledge of human progress which men go to college four years to get and often come away without. Voluntarily Wells has slashed his royalties 85% and entered into a contract with the Review or Reviews by which one edition of the Outline can be offered to Americans— to you—at a fraction of the former price. Think of it—the original plates and illus- trations; but revised by Wells himself and printed in one handy volume instead of two. This means we must get quantity prices on printing and paper; but it means, most important of all, that we Must Know How Many to Print Shall the edition be 50,000? Or 100,000? Or 500,000? We must know now. As the New Republic truly says: “The Outline is too big even for publishers’ superlatives.” Without superlatives, there- fore, let us say very earnestly: If you want the opportunity of examining Wells’ Outline | Review of Reviews Co., 30 Irving Place, N.Y.’ For full cash with order, send only es 40 free in your own home for a week, do not lay this page down until you have made your reservation by clipping the coupon. / And The Review of Reviews Too / For Thirty Years the Standard of Usefulness and Authority , Where Wells’ story leaves off, on ie the Review of Reviews takes up’ ”12"™* the record of human achieve-/ ment. His is the history of, — ree the past; the Review of Re- 74 yong 30 Irving Place views records and _ inter- prets for you the story of today. It is fitting 7 that the two should , be joined together; y, and only by join- ing them can we make the re- markable of- fer detailed on the coupon below. New York City Send me on ap- proval, charges paid by you, Wells’ Outline of History, in the latest edi- , tion at the special price of $8.50. Also enter subscription to the Review / or Reviews for one full year, / at its regular price—$4. J I will either send you 50¢ in 5 y, days and $1 a month for 7 months, or I will return the / Wells’ History within a / send you 25c for the first copy of the this (For the more luxurious leather revised my thereafter week and magazine delivered, and cancel order. / binding, add 3 more payments.) NAME I dv6-00 0004484644000 OCCUPATION

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80 SCIENTIFIC

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the BRUNSWICK Boylston St. at Clarendon

MERICAN The Mechanism of the Psychic (Continued from page 60) number of pieces of apparatus already in general

use—hypnotic wheels, revolving mirrors, biome- ters, sthenometers, photographic and X-ray appa- ratus, scales and balances for weighing tests, a kymograph for taking graphic records, as well as various pieces of apparatus devised by French in- vestigators (Boirac, Joire, Fortin, Puyfontaine, Thore, Count de Tromelin, Baradue and others). We have also duplicated the apparatus of Sir Wil- liam Crookes and some of Dr. Hare's. We have Dr. Alrutz’ famous board, which apparently regis- ters the pressure of the human will. We have several device for testing unconscious muscular action on the part of the subject. We have much ordinary electrical and psychological apparatus, suit for general laboratory work. We have a dictaphone, to which we have attached an ampli- fying apparatus, so that sounds which occur dur- ing a séance or in a “haunted house” may be re- corded and magnified. We have galvanometers, by means of which we can test the psychic, and record the psycho-galvanic reflexes, as suggested by Mr. W. Whately Smith. We have various lu- minous screens, which are said to glow with in- creased brilliancy in the presence of an added en- ergy or an “astral body.”” We have a delicate electrical apparatus, designed to test the vital ra- diation from the finger-tips) We have an elec- trically controlled apparatus, which will at once indicate any added or subtracted electric energy, either in the medium’s body, or in the body of any vidual member of the circle. We also have con- structed an electrical device which will emit an audible sound when any body approaches it, so that, if no physical body is in the immediate prox- imity of the apparatus, and it emits its charac- teristic sound, may presume that some invis- ible body is approaching it. It my hope that we may be enabled, the coming winter, to undertake some researches upon the human aura, by means of some new appara- tus which we have planned, and also experiments in weighing and photographing the body, at the moment of death, and in recording radiations emitted by living and possibly by dead bodies. If endowment sufficient, I hope that may enabled to construct and test out the elab- Matla and Zaal- indi we 1s is we our also be orate apparatus devised by Drs. berg van Zelst, of Holland, and also to duplicate Dr. Grunewald’s ingenious apparatus. It is my belief that much may be gained by at- tempts to duplicate, by artificial means, certain spiritistic and psychical phenomena, and in this manner to ascertain the possible relations or con- nections between these phenomena, and other physical or electrical phenomena, better known. All advance in science is made by dovetailing the unknown into the known, and showing their pos- sible connections. It is the same here. In at- tempting to duplicate certain psychic phenomena, we may at least discover some useful analogies which may guide further investigation. A num- ber of experiments along this line are more or definitely formulated and will presumably be made as opportunity arises. Of these it per- haps not in order to speak here. One experiment I must mention in some detail, however, because it has actually performed. It should of course be repeated many times by many other investiga- tors; nevertheless the results obtained in our first performance are sufficiently curious and thought- provoking to deserve statement. We ail know of the old lifting game, in which four persons lift a fifth, seated in a chair, by placing their fingers under the arms and knees of the seated person. All four persons doing the lifting bend forward several times, in unison, inhaling and exhaling deeply together. The person seated in the chair also inhales and exhales at the On the fifth count (say) all five per- less is been same time. sons hold their breath; the fingers of the four lifters are rapidly inserted under the arms and legs of the seated subject, and the lift is made. It is a fact, which practically everyone will attest, that, under these circumstances, the person lifted seems to lose weight. A heavy man, whom it is to lift at first, will be lifted with four fingers, after have been found impossible apparent ease upon the lifters’ the breathing and bending exercises taken. That is the subjective impression of the lifters. The question of course is: Is there really any loss of weight, or is this simply a subjective impression ? Although this test has been tried by many thou- sands of persons, it is curious that no one ever seems to have thought of putting the matter to

the test by trying it upon registering scales, upon which the combined weight would, every moment, be in evidence. This test we undertook. On the afternoon of July 25, 1921, we tried this experi- ment a number of times upon the platform of one of the large, self-registering scales of 2000- pound capacity. This scale had been especially adjusted with the greatest exactitude for our test, and its accuracy was checked off before and after the experiment. Those doing the lifting Russell, of our laboratory; Mr. Burling Hull, con- juror; Mr. Albert Poyner, of the Toledo Scales Company; and myself. The subject lifted was Miss Kay MacCausland. The reader of the weights recorded during the various lifts was Mr. W. J. Mahnken, an engineer of the scales company. A chair was placed in the center of the weigh- subject to be lifted were: Mr. William ing platform. Upon this the was seated. The four lifters took up their posi- tions upon four corners of the platform. Our combined weight was 712 pounds. Movements upon our part produced only slight oscillations of the recording needle. Deep breathing produced almost no appreciable effect. Under these circumstances, the necessary bend- ings and breathings were undertaken. On the lrinted

JANUARY, 199)

fifth count, the lift was made—slowly, about five seconds. On the first lift the 4 stated that the needle on the dial had fallen

660 pounds—a loss of 52 pounds! On the lift, there was an apparent loss of 52 pounds, Oy the third, fourth and fifth lifts, of 60 These losses tallied with the subjective feelings the lifters, who also felt that weight had lost. How account for these remarkable If I lifted a chair, while standing upon the platform, the dial first of all showed a sudden jy. crease of weight, then a_ lessened weight, an finally swung back to normal. If I ‘ ‘squatted” gy my toes, and suddenly rose to an upright a similar gain and then loss of weight = « served. In our lifting tests, however, no gain of weight was at any time reported, invariably 4 loss, which, however, slowly returned to as the subject was held for some considerable ting in the air. I have no theory to offer as to thee observations, which I cannot fully explain, ! merely give the facts recorded, hoping thy others may check off our results and discover what freak in the laws of mechanics was respongiy for the results we obtained. It is at all events most curious that these apparent losses of coincided with the subjective feelings of the liftes This brief summary will at all events, T hope show the problem before us, as we have form lated it. We desire not only to study mediums (though we should of course be most glad to study them, if available!) but also to duplicate and ™ produce psychical phenomena by electrical AN physical means, and to conduct varied ex periments upon subjects in hypnosis, sleep, trance and othe induced states. It is our hope that we may,- in this way, be enabled to discover some facts of em siderable interest and importance, which wi serve, not only to throw light upon psychical af spiritistic phenomena, but which will also tend® as show the relations, should they exist, betway these manifestations and others, better unde stood. The ultimate for which we dare hope would be to succeed in proving the existence am showing the nature of a subtle energy, seie within the body and radiating from it—an enemy upon which many phenomena depend, and whid may be, in fact, the vehicle of mind itself. Rh¥ hardly necessary to say that this discovery, if aw made, would constitute one of the most fun mental and important and far-reaching conde sions of modern science. This discussion comprises an abstract, made the editors, of parts of my address before the® cent International Congress of Psychic Research® Copenhagen. Salt Enough to Bury Land One ani One-half Miles Deep HE Biblical inquiry, “Ye are the salt of & earth: but if the salt have lost his savaly wherewith shall it be salted?” figuratively gah ing, can be successfully answered by the sea iff waters will only yield their contents. The oom contains enough seasoning material to form® block of salt measuring 4,800,000 cubic miles More graphically expressed, perhaps, is @ measurement which indicates that there is si cient salt in the vast bodies of waters to forms crust more than one and one-half miles deep the entire surface of the United States, barring Alaska. Or, expressing the volume of saline mie ter present in the sea in a third form, one cent of the seasoning contents of the ocean wall envolop the dry lands of the universe to a dm of 290 feet. Some imaginary calculations, you exclaim! ™ these are the figures of the Geological Survey @ the United States Department of the Interior, amt perchance any discrepancies are found kindly ® form the statistician of this Government burt His business involves the keeping tab, nw speaking, on things pertaining to the earl= whether it be salt or gold. He lives, moves, am virtually has his being in cold-blooded figures By the same token, the Geological Survey sons that each person in the United States allotted 130 pounds of salt during the past year assuming the ‘improbable condition of each ini vidual partaking of an equal amount of seasonilt in his or her food. The production of salt in 1% was 6,965,188 short tons, valued at $30,599100 Not all salt is for table use, however, for there a® a variety of ways of consuming the produ) Preserving meat, curing fish, hides, dairying, © frigerating, making glaze on pottery, en making pickles, and salting live stock.—By & Winters. Power Gas from Sewage ECENT experiments at Birmingham B® shown that it is practical and economical @ drive a suction gas engine from gas derived fram sewage sludge. The pump installation compris@® $4-horsepower horizontal gas engine of the nary suction type, a 5-inch-diameter ce sludge-pump, and other parts. The engine is @9 pable of giving 34 brake-horsepower at 250 reve lutions per minute with town gas having ® value of 500 to 550 British thermal units per foot. In tests made with sewage gas, from 27 82 horsepower maximum have been obtained. The principal constituents of sewage gas methane, hydrogen and nitrogen and carbon dit ide, the per cent of marsh gas varying in places investigated in accordance with local come The volume of wet sludge dealt with at Birmingham is estimated at not less than tons per year. J. D. Watson (Engineering, ® 28, 1921,) estimates that from this sludge tons of dry solid matter are available to D $20,000,000 eubie feet of gas equal to 16, horsepower-hours, equivalent to 4400 ho per day of 10 hours. in the United States,

ditions. by ANprew H. KeLiocd Wy