Appleton's Popular Science Monthly 1898-04: Vol 52

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APPLETON 8S’ POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. APRIL, 1898. AN INDUSTRIAL OBJECT LESSON. Br 8. N. D. NORTH. HE past year was one of unusual disturbance in England, in the relations of labor and capital, and the chief of these indus- trial conflicts possessed a significance never anywhere surpassed. The lockout of the engineers—we call them machinists in this coun- try—marks the new alignment of organized labor and organized capital—what may be called the secondary stage of the labor ques- tion—more sharply, more tensely, than ever before. A glance at the underlying causes of the engineering lockout will afford a clear conception of the form in which “ the labor question ” presents itself for the solution of the twentieth century. There have been strikes that involved a larger number of work- ers, as the great coal strike of 1893, and the London dock strike; strikes that have lasted longer; strikes that have been costlier; strikes that have developed more bitterness of feeling. There has been no previous collision which, brushing aside all questions as to wages, reached down so closely to the root of the problem, and spread open to public knowledge the real essence of the difference which threatens the productive forces of modern times. The en- gineers’ strike furnishes a concrete illustration of the immensity and the perplexity of the unsettled issue of modern industrialism. Broadly speaking, labor strikes are of two kinds. The great mass of them, hitherto, have belonged in the simpler group, and have had to do with the wage question only; they are simple, however serious and complicated they may outwardly be, because they turn upon a single economic fact. When employers insist that certain rates of wages are necessitated by existing business conditions, and VOL, Lu.—58

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722 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the employed deny this, there is a definite fact at issue; and such strikes are coming more and more to be settled in accordance with what that fact is found to be. It is not often that a strike succeeds when the employers are able to show that the wages demanded om only be paid by carrying on business at a loss. We can prognosticate with certainty about capital, that it will not carry on business indefi- nitely at a loss—if for no other reason, because it soon eats itself up. Another thing quite as certain is that capital will not indefinitely prolong a conflict with labor at a time when it is possible to effect adjustments by which it can continue to produce at a fair profit. These are two laws which experience has evolved out of this class of labor disputes. The engineers’ strike presented an entirely different phase of the labor problem. It was never a direct quarrel over dollars and cents; the question of wages, while indirectly involved, was subor- dinated to another, which, if we analyze it carefully, we shall find to be this: Which of the two parties in interest shall control the business that labor and capital jointly carry on? The labor problem in England has reached precisely this stage, and the engineers’ strike was, in fact and in essence, a contest for the control of the manage- ment of the works, and the conditions under which these enter- prises shall be carried on. This is a very broad way of stating the case, but it is essentially fair to both parties. It is always easy to recognize, in any labor dispute, the difference between contention for redress of legitimate grievance, as to wages or otherwise, and con- tention for control and direction and limitation over the manage- ment and conduct of manufacturing enterprises. This difference has distinguished and differentiated the engineers’ strike from most of the great labor conflicts which have preceded it in England. It was, from start to finish, a contest over a great economic principle— a principle which lies at the foundation of modern industrialism. The whole long struggle has been singularly free from any collateral questions tending to hide or minimize its real significance. Both sides understood it; both prepared for a battle royal; both were ready to wage it to the bitter end; and thus it has been a dogged, determined, remorseless test of endurance over a vital issue of busi- ness economics, while the world looking on has only vaguely sensed its true meaning, or has missed it altogether. It is impossible not to admire the splendid fidelity with which the engineers carried themselves through the six months in which they locked horns with their employers. Of all the labor organi- zations in England, the best equipped for such a struggle, both in men and in money, was the Amalgamated Society of Engineers. The organization is quite the aristocracy of English trade unionism.

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AN INDUSTRIAL OBJECT LESSON. 723 The machinist trade involves a high grade of intelligence, and its skilled operatives earn the best wages going. Their organization is one of the oldest, most compact, and best disciplined in the island. Its leaders are men of brains, discretion, and nerve. In deliberate preparation for this great contest, the organization had accumulated a maintenance fund of nearly two million dollars. They have been sustained by many evidences of popular sympathy, including gener- ous contributions to their funds, and they have been careful to so conduct themselves as to win rather than alienate public support. They have regarded themselves as the chosen champions of what is known as the “new unionism,” and they knew that the whole status of trades-unionism in the immediate future of English in- dustry turned upon their success or failure. It has thus been, on the part of the engineers, something in the nature of a vicarious struggle. They were giving battle for an abstract proposition, deemed by them vital to the future well-being of organized labor, not merely or chiefly their own group, but all branches of organized labor in England and everywhere. However widely we may differ with these men, however impossible and impracticable we may regard their demands, we must feel a genuine admiration for the grit and doggedness with which they have carried on a battle which for many months past has been seen to be hopeless. If they have failed, and failed disastrously, it is only fair to say for them that they have failed _ through no lack of courage or endurance. On the other hand, let us look at the attitude of the employers, and the reasons which underlie it. From their point of view it was a struggle for existence, for the right to continue the industries in which their fortunes and future are embarked. To fully under- stand this it is necessary to explain the ostensible and the real reasons of the lockout. It was precipitated on July 24th last, by the formal demand of the London branch of the engineers for the eight-hour day. This demand was the logical aftermath of the successful strike of the engineers for the nine-hour day back in 1870; the Amalga- mated Association having been successful in that movement, it was the natural agency through which the eight-hour movement, upon which English trades-unionism has now resolved, should be pushed to an issue. The original demand for eight hours was confined to the London shops in accordance with the well-known trade-unionist plan of campaign. The iron masters of the provinces, realizing that the success of the movement in London must inevitably extend the eight-hour day to all the iron establishments of the kingdom, made common cause, and combined to lock out their employees pending the settlement of the London difficulty. The collision be- ing inevitable, they determined to force into it certain other ques-

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724 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tions, which the engineers had shrewdly kept in the background, but which were latent in the eight-hour movement, and, from the em- ployers’ point of view, inseparable from it—questions which have long been irritating, and the conflict over which could not long be postponed. In the judgment of the iron masters these questions were lifted far above the range of a mere labor dispute, and involved the broad and national question of the continuance of Great Britain in the race of international competition. We need not enlarge upon the reasons which convince so many Englishmen, and particularly those who are in the thick of the fight, that England’s industries and com- merce, not merely foreign but domestic, are seriously threatened by the competition of the continental manufacturers, as well as those of the United States. They cite the longer hours, the lower pay, and the superior technical education of continental workmen as three reasons why the products of the latter are gradually super- seding goods of English origin in the world’s neutral markets. They cite the larger product from improved machinery, and the superior application of this machinery, both on the continent and in the United States, as constituting economic advantages against which they are no longer able to successfully contend. They urge that in the long run these superior advantages mean the gradual surrender of Great Britain before a competition ever closer and fiercer, in which a fraction of difference in the cost of production is sufficient to turn the scale. From their point of view the introduction of the eight-hour day, as against ten and even twelve hours on the con- tinent, would mean industrial hari-kart. But the complaint reaches further: it insists that English trades- unionism, as developed in the iron trade particularly, is a handicap to industrial progress which is bearing fruit in the continual loss of trade, and the extinction of profits in the conduct of business. Trades-unionism has aimed steadily and successfully at a larger and closer control over the conditions under which work is done in the shops. The masters had lost control over the management of their own business, and, no longer able to adapt themselves to modern methods and economics, they found themselves in a state of dry rot, extrication from which was only possible by heroic measures. Doubtless there is a degree of exaggeration in this picture, as drawn by the iron masters. Nevertheless, it is true that English trades-unionism has become so strongly organized and intrenched, ‘and has followed lines of policy so aggressive and so potent, that it has long been an open question in England whether the internal manage- ment of the shop is not more under the domination of the union than of the employers. Until a comparatively recent date the comse-

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AN INDUSTRIAL OBJECT LESSON. 725 quences of such a situation have not been strikingly apparent. But the mechanical advances in all branches of iron manufacture during the last few years have been marvelous, and the consequent econo- mies equally marvelous. The trades-unionists have carried on a silent, secret, and to a large degree a successful movement against the effi- cient introduction of these new methods in the shops under their control. There is no good reason to doubt the statement, repeatedly made by the iron masters, that Great Britain is, in consequence, far behind the competing nations in many forms of iron manufacture, in efficiency of equipment, and in product per man. So far as this fact is due to English trades-unionism, it must be regarded as a triumph for that organization; and it is somewhat difficult to get at the philosophy by which organized labor justifies itself in standing athwart the pathway of mechanical progress. At its basis undoubtedly lies the inherited antipathy of the English workingman to labor-saving machinery. He possesses this antip- athy to a degree and extent unknown in any other country. It has come down to him through the generations, and its tenacity is one of many evidences of the narrowing influence of insular condi- tions. The time has long since passed when this antipathy takes on the form of open violence, the smashing of machines, the burn- ing of mills, and the maltreatment of inventors—things common enough in the days of the Luddites, seventy-five years ago. The modern manifestation of this inborn and inherited antipathy to labor-saving machinery is a species of moral boycott—indefinite, intangible, indirect, felt rather than seen. It frequently takes the form of union regulations, under which the mechanic restrains himself from turning out more than a given product in a day, irrespective of the possibilities of the improved machine he operates. The engineers’ strike has inspired a great mass of literature showing how the enforcement of these regulations has tended to limit output, and thus handicap English manufacturers in their struggle against foreign competitors. Here is one of many illustrations given by Colonel Dyer, the chairman of the Federated Employers, in a recent magazine article: We have a very large boring machine at Elswick ; this boring machine is eighty feet long. We do very rough work on it—i. e., we take the center out of the shaft by means of a trepanning tool. We took the center out of a shaft the other day seventy feet long. The whole center was trepanned out. We selected a man for working the machine ; a man came round, a very intelligent-looking man, and that was all we had to judge by—we can not ask him what society he belongs to. We asked him if he could work this machine. He said of course he could. We put him on the machine, and he worked it about six or seven months. We could never get more than four or five inches an hour out of the machine. We pressed him,

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726 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and begged him to do better ; we were very busy at the time, but we could never get above four. At last we could go on no longer; we knew that the machine should do more, and we said the machine was not giving satis- faction, and he was discharged. We then selected a boy, a very intelligent- looking young fellow, but he knew absolutely nothing about machines. We said, “ Will you learn this machine?” He said he was most anxious to doso. He buckled to, and the lad in three weeks had increased the produc- tion of the machine up to six inches an hour, and the other day I got a note that the machine was doing eleven inches an hour. Hiram 8. Maxim, the great gun maker, who has had experi- ence in manufacturing in three countries, declares that a given amount of labor in the iron trade produces a smaller product in Eng- land than in France, Germany, or the United States; and that a given machine has a greater productive capacity in each of these countries, and particularly in the United States, where the system of payment by the piece generally exists. The Amalgamated Society has generally successfully resisted the piece-payment system, and has managed in many other ways to practically control the internal man- agement of the shop. In a word, the purpose of the manufacturers has been to so change the basis of their industry that they can increase production by reducing costs, not through reduced wages, but through the more complete utilization of modern mechanical inventions. They have insisted that the individual workman would, in consequence, earn much higher wages. The movement on the part of their em- ployees was one to limit production by the shorter working day and by the increased cost of increased overtime work at overtime wages. The ends aimed at were diametrically opposite, and the intensity and the prolongation of the struggle are thus explained. It was an issue which admitted of no compromise. A truce might, indeed, have been patched up, and the battle declared a draw; but any conclusion short of the complete surrender of one side or the other would have left the vital issue as unsettled as at the start. As that issue has been stated, the impartial student finds it dif- ficult to understand why it should exist at all. If the iron masters are right in their contention that reduced costs of production, through greater machinery efficiency, are necessary for the preserva- tion of English manufacturing against foreign encroachment, the welfare of their workmen is as vitally involved as their own. This is only another way of stating the time-worn truism that the interests of capital and labor are identical, in any true analysis of their rela- tionship. But the English trades-unionist does not see the matter in any such light; nor is his point of view at all obscured. Apart from the latent antipathy to labor-saving machinery, which is not avowed, is

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AN INDUSTRIAL OBJECT LESSON. 727 the dominant idea, strongly accentuated in all unionist literature, that there is a given amount of work to be done in this world, and not enough to go around; that the unionist, by arbitrarily limiting individual output, can thereby increase the demand for labor, and thus increase the number and the wages of the employed. This pos- tulate of trades-unionism is as old as trades-unionism itself. It has a basis in humanitarianism which renders it praiseworthy as an ab- stract proposition. But it is an abstraction which belongs to the past century; which had its origin in the days when England held undis- puted supremacy in the industrial world, and no combination of events seemed likely to dislodge her from that vantage. It has be- come an anachronism, just as England’s supremacy has become a myth; and the same causes have produced the two results. If the commercial isolation of nations which formerly existed continued, the postulate of the engineers would be understandable. If English workmen still made machines for all the world, these hard-headed workmen might well have staked their all upon such an issue with hopeful hearts. But the direct results of their six months’ idleness help to illustrate how far beyond their position the world has moved. The suspension of work has been an enormously expensive affair, not merely to the masters and the men, but to the nation. A great hole has been made in British commerce, and it will never be filled. Orders for machinery which the idle works in England could not fill have gone to the continent, and in many instances have come to the United States. The work has been done as well as in England; in most instances it has been done cheaper than England could have done it. The trade thus lost has gone for good. The engineers have not merely lost six months’ wages; they have seriously crippled the wage-paying power of their industry. From their own standpoint, instead of increasing the opportunities for labor in England, they have reduced them. The abstract thing they fought for they have lost; but their ultimate loss would have been even greater had they won their battle instead of losing it. The difficulty with the English trades-unionist view, then, is the failure to realize that the march of civilization has made the labor question an international question. Their contest was not so much with their employers as with their fellow-laborers in other lands. It is the competition of the latter which makes it impossible for the English iron masters to grant the eight-hour day, or to drag behind the rest of the world in the application of labor-saving machinery. One writer, commenting upon the outcome of this strike, de- clares that trades-unionism has lost by its defeat all that it has gained by fifty years of constant contest. On the contrary, it would seem possible that it may gain, by reason of its defeat, a clearer con-

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728 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ception of the real forces against which labor has to contend, in the realignment of industrial conditions. If this shall come, the gain will be greater than the loss. At the bottom of the engineers’ move- ment was a remarkable misreading of the operation of economic cause and effect. The labor question of to-day is not the labor ques- tion of fifty years ago; it turns now on broader considerations than those which local environment can control. It is no longer a ques- tion that has chiefly to do with the relative share of the proceeds of industry which shall go to labor and to capital. In the prelimi- nary stages of the evolution which has brought the factory system to its present perfection, this was practically the only question which underlaid the strike; and it may safely be conceded that in many instances of conflict which arose over this question the strikers were right, even when they failed. The law of industrial competition under which this evolution has progressed has so operated that profits have decreased as wages have increased; and so rapid has been the evolution, so strenuous has become the competition which the in- crease of capital has brought about in all industries and in all manuv- facturing nations, and more particularly in England, that the point is already reached where the problem has come to be largely one of how to keep the earnings of capital and the earnings of labor in that status of equilibrium which shall be equitable to both. It is a devel- opment in industry which was not dreamed of when trades-unionism was getting under way; a development the end of which no man can to-day foresee; a development which has brought about an in- crease in the producing capacity of the world which has far out- stripped the increase in population, and with which consumption can keep abreast only in spasms and by jerks. Under these new conditions, wherever and whenever an oligarchy of labor succeeds in so fortifying itself that it can establish terms under which it is no longer possible for the capital employing it to earn a fair return, then it will have killed the goose which lays the golden egg. The English engineers resolutely shut their eyes to this aspect of the case. From their point of view it had nothing to do with the controversy. From the masters’ point of view it was all there was of the controversy. To the masters it was purely an economic ques- tion; to the engineers it was one which vitally involved the social advance of the wage-earning classes. It is not necessary to be- lieve that this social advance and economics are hopelesssly at vari- ance in the present stage of industrialism. It is better to say that while employers have much to learn from the humanitarian point of view, trades-unionism is equally in need of instruction from the economic point of view. Does this great strike throw any new light upon the possible solu-

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AN INDUSTRIAL OBJECT LESSON. 729 tion of such troubles for the future? Unfortunately, the method of settlement of labor disputes by arbitration has not gained prestige from the experience, but has rather lost it. Arbitration was never more advantageously introduced than when the initiative was taken in the engineers’ strike last November by the Right Hon. T. C. Ritchie, president of the Board of Trade, and one of the most influ- ential members of the Salisbury Cabinet. It was left for him to arrange the “ pour parlers” of the conference, and the moral influ- ence outside the committee room for a settlement was tremendous. The only result was to strengthen the position of the engineers, for they shrewdly consented to submit to their union certain proposi- tions made by the employers, and they were rewarded by a vote of forty thousand in opposition, with only one hundred and fifty in favor of acceptance. If this had been purely a question of wages, arbitration would have doubtless settled it. Wages involve ques- tions of fact, and conference and discussion are increasingly suc- cessful in bringing employers and employed together on a basis which knowledge of the facts shows to be mutually equitable. But bound up in this controversy was the whole question of the economic conditions of modern industrialism, both national and international, as well as the question of that indefinite, indefinable line where the rights of the employer end and those of his workmen begin. The more the conference discussed these questions, the farther apart the parties to it found themselves. They are beyond settlement, except a temporary armistice, by any scheme of arbitration under any auspices, private or governmental. There is no middle ground, in such a dispute as this one was. But time and the sequence of events will work out a solution, as has been the case with all the great problems which have successively confronted civilization. We can not see into the future, nor can we even vaguely outline the ground upon which employer and em- ployed will ultimately agree to live at peace with each other. But we need not despair of its finding, nor need we fear that it is hope- lessly distant. The world moves faster in a modern decade than in three centuries of the middle ages. A hundred years ago the world did not dream of such a thing as the labor question in the form in which it now presents itself. This present phase is only a transi- tional episode of conditions quickly developed, but not vet suffi- ciently advanced to have worked themselves into their final forms. Every great controversy like the engineers’ strike throws a flood of light upon the problem by bringing all its elements into clearer relationship, and unconsciously leads the world a step nearer to the ultimate solution. An all-sufficient reason for this hopeful view of the matter is the fact that larger knowledge is always coming to VOL. Lir.—54

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730 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. those who are parties to these controversies. It is impossible to doubt that the wide diffusion of education is always helping to clarify the situation. It has done much already to relieve the industria] strike of its uglier features. Riot and bloodshed now rarely mark it where the partion to a contest are men of average intelligence and education, like the English engineers. So the evolution will ad- vance, step by step, and point by point, until the time shall come when exact justice to all concerned, in harmonious accord with the economic laws of modern business, shall have worked itself out. THE ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF WATER POWER.* By WILLIAM BAXTER, Jr. VER since the electric light and power industry began to be a factor in the economic affairs of the industrial world, its adaptation to the work of transmitting the power of waterfalls to more or less distant points has been the dream of those who realize its vast possibilities, and who believe that the ingenuity of man is equal to the task of overcoming any difficulties that may be en- countered in attempts to find a successful solution of the problem. For more than twenty years those who may be called electrical en- thusiasts have prophesied that the day would come when the power of Niagara would be delivered at the door of the consumer in the city of New York, and capitalists have not been lacking who would have provided the means for carrying out an undertaking of this kind if they had been given the proper assurance by electrical en- gineers of prominence that the results sought for could be attained. Such assurance, however, could not be given; for, although it is known that there is no difficulty in the way of accomplishing such a result theoretically, the practical development of the art has not reached a stage that would render the realization of such an under- taking possible. To transmit power by means of electric currents over long dis- tances, without suffering too great a loss in overcoming the resistance of the conducting wires, it is necessary to make use of a high electrical pressure, the effect of which is to render very difficult the perfect insulation of the line, so as to prevent the escape of the cur- rent. The greater the distance to which the current is transmitted, the greater must the pressure be to keep the loss of energy and the cost of wire within permissible limits; hence, when the pressure * For the illustrations in this article we are indebted to the kindness of the General Electric Company.

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732 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. required becomes as great as can be insulated with certainty in the present state of the art, the distance of transmission is increased to the utmost limits attainable in practice. Until some more per- fect means for confining the current is devised, greater results can not be reached. With our present knowledge of insulating ma- terials, and our methods of applying them, it would be practically impossible to transmit energy over distances as great as from New York to Niagara, but it does not follow that the accomplishment of this result will never be witnessed; it is a possibility of the future, that may not come for a century or more, or may be realized within the next few years. Although the achievement of such stupendous results as the transmission of power over several hundred miles is not within our present reach, it is possible to bridge distances of twenty or thirty miles, and the accomplishment of this much has been considered entirely practicable for several years. It was on this account that the Niagara power plant was started, the object being to supply the city of Buffalo and other places within a radius of twenty-five or thirty miles. This undertaking, owing to the magnitude of the power available, has attracted world-wide attention, and is probably regarded by the vast majority of people as the only work of any importance in this line that has been attempted. This, however, is far from being true; it is the largest, and will undoubtedly always remain such, since the source of energy is practically unlimited, but there are several other very large installations, and in some of these the distance of transmission from a mile or so up to thirty-five miles. place being nearly double that distance. A fair idea of the extent to which this branch of the electrical in- dustry has been developed may be gained from a consideration of the fact that one manufacturing concern alone has sold over two hun- dred thousand horse power of machinery for this purpose within the last four or five years, their sales for 1896 being over seventy- five thousand horse power. The great increase in the business dur- ing the past year, in the face of a general stagnation in all other lines of industry, is a very clear indication that what has been done in the past has been entirely successful—so much so as to inspire an amount of confidence sufficient to overcome the apathy or unwilling- ness to embark in new undertakings so manifest in all other lines of business. The total number of water-power transmission plants in success- ful operation in the United States in addition to the Niagara installa- tion is over two hundred. The amount of power transmitted ranges from less than one hundred horse power up to twelve thousand, and the distance of transmission from a mile or so up to thirty-five miles.

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“NOISSINSNV4 YT, OLNANVAOVS-KHOST0 J ‘NOILVISGNG NI SHANUOAENVUT, NMOd-diLg

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734 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. To give an idea of how near to New York city work of this kind js being done, we may mention a few installations. There is one at Springfield, Massachusetts, where about nine hundred horse power is transmitted to a distance of over six and a half miles; one at Bondsville, Massachusetts, having a capacity of about thirteen hundred horse power; and another at Fitchburg, Massachusetts, of about four hundred horse power. In this latter plant the distance of transmission is only two and a half miles, but as an offset to it, in distance as well as amount of power, may be mentioned a plant in Quebec, Canada, where over two thousand horse power is transmitted eight miles. At Concord, New Hamp- shire, there is an installation of several thousand horse power capa- city, which is transmitted to a distance of five miles. At Hartford, Connecticut, there is a plant of about fifteen hun- dred horse power, which is transmitted a distance of eleven miles; at Baltic, Connecticut, about fourteen hundred horse power, and in several places in the New England States, installations ranging from two hundred to one thousand horse power can be found. At Hook- set, New Hampshire, there is a plant of three thousand horse power, which is transmitted about eleven miles. In the State of New York there are plants at Gouverneur, Canandaigua, Tonawanda, and many other places. The plant at Baltic, Connecticut, furnishes power to operate one of the Ponemah mills at Taftville, about four miles and a half dis- tant. The interior of this mill is shown in the illustration on page 731. In addition to operating this mill it furnishes power to run the Norwich street railway. The Ponemah mills, two in number, were originally operated by three turbine wheels and two steam engines, the water power not being sufficient at all times of the year to meet the requirements. In 1892 the Norwich Street Railway Company was changed from horse to electric, and made a contract with the Ponemah Company to furnish the power. The road, which started in a small way, soon increased, and the extra load proved too much for the three turbines and the two engines, located at the mills, to carry. It was then de- cided to develop and utilize the water-power privileges owned by the Ponemah Company some distance up the Shetucket River, and transmit it by means of electricity to the mills and the railway. The old dam was enlarged, and three turbine wheels, having a combined capacity of nearly two thousand horse power, were installed. These are belted to a line shaft from which the electric generators are driven. At the end of the line the current is used to operate one of the mills, to furnish the necessary light, and to operate the railway already referred to, and, in addition to this, two locomotives used to

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ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF WATER POWER. 735 haul freight, one being of five hundred horse power and weighing thirty tons. The current generated at the power station is of the alternating type, and undergoes one or two transformations before being used at its destination, but the operation of the apparatus is so perfect that this power, generated four and a half miles distant, can be used in connection with the steam engines at the mills, and each one will do its proper share of the work. A plant of twelve thousand horse power is now being built at the Lachine Rapids, about five miles from Montreal, Canada, and, although it is not larger than some of those in operation, or in process of construction in the western part of the country, it may in time become such, as the source of power is very great, and increases can be made as fast as the demand calls for them. At Trenton, Canada, there is a plant of about nine hundred horse power which is trans- mitted a distance of twelve miles. Within the past few months it has been found by the investiga- tions of engineers that a very large power can be obtained near the town of Massena, in the State of New York. At this point the St. Lawrence River descends about one hundred feet in a few miles, go- ing over the Long Sault Rapids; but the Grass River, which runs nearly parallel with it and only about three miles distant, drops but fifty feet. As a result of this difference in the fall of the two rivers, the St. Lawrence is fifty feet higher at the head of the rapids than the Grass. By cutting a canal of sufficient size at this point the water of the St. Lawrence can be diverted to the Grass and over the fifty- foot fall, thus developing an amount of power limited only by the size of the canal. The estimates of the engineers who have sur- veyed the site is that as much as two hundred thousand horse power can be obtained. The work of development is under way, and if it is carried through on the scale proposed will only be surpassed in magnitude by the Niagara plant. The largest water-power transmission in the South is probably one located at Pelzer, North Carolina. At this place nearly four thousand horse power is utilized, and transmitted a distance of about three miles, where it is used for the operation of extensive cotton mills. There are many transmission plants in different parts of the West, the largest of which is, perhaps, at Minneapolis, where the amount of power utilized is over ten thousand horse power; but none of these is of as much interest as those to be found on the Pacific slope, owing to the fact that with few exceptions the distance of transmission is short. In the latter section, however, the possibility of using electric transmission for great distances is better demon-

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736 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. strated than anywhere else. At Redlands, California, there js g plant that delivers the power at a distance of over twenty miles. At Fresno, California, over two thousand horse power is transmitted about thirty-five miles. A noticeable feature of this last-named ip- stallation is the enormous height of the water fall. The head is four. teen hundred and ten feet, which is the greatest in use, commercially, in any part of the world. What such a head really means can be realized when we state that the pressure of the water amounts to over six hundred pounds to the square inch. The distance of trans- mission, thirty-five miles, is also the longest now in actual use, but it is less than that of the Pioneer Electric Company of Ogden, Utah, which is in process of construction. ‘The work now under way at this latter place will transmit power to Salt Lake City, a distance of thirty-six miles, but it is intended to carry the line to mines thirty miles beyond this point; therefore, when the whole system is com- pleted, the total distance of transmission will be sixty-six miles. The Folsom-Sacramento power-transmission plant is one of the most noteworthy of those so far installed, as it serves to show clearly the great benefits derivable from the use of electricity. The power station is located at Folsom, on the American River, where one of the largest water powers in the State of California is available. The first attempt to utilize this power was made as far back as 1866, but owing to the conditions then existing was necessarily limited in its capacity to the demands of the immediate vicinity. The work as at first conceived embraced a dam across the river, the water to be used in part for power and in part for irrigation purposes. The plan was modest in its proportions, and remained so for many years; but the development of electric transmission has magnified it into an undertaking of vast magnitude, embracing the development and transmission of over five thousand horse power when the full capa- city is reached. The dam now used is six hundred and fifty feet long and eighty-nine feet high, and has a storage capacity of about thirteen million cubic yards. The water is conveyed to the water wheels by canals two miles long and fifty feet wide by eight feet deep. The power station in which the wtaer wheels and the electric generators are located is so designed that the latter are connected direct with the former, being mounted upon the same shafts, but separated from each other by a stone wall, through which the shafts pass. The electric current developed in this station is transmitted to Sacramento, a distance of about twenty-five miles, and is there received in a substation, the interior of which is shown on page 733. The current coming into this station from the power plant is of a very high pressure, entirely too high for commercial use, and there-

Page 17

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738 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. fore has to be reduced by being passed through the machines shown in the illustration, which are called step-down transformers, their office being to reduce the pressure of the current. These trans- formers in reality do not reduce the pressure of the current; what they do is to generate a second current, by the aid of the energy de- rived from the first, of a much lower pressure. The power of the substation is to be used for all purposes, for “ arc ” and incandescent lighting, for driving stationary motors, and for the operation of elec- tric railways. The Big Cottonwood Power Company has about completed the construction of an important plant to utilize the water power of the lakes in the Wahsatch Mountains, and distribute it in and around the vicinity of Salt Lake City. These lakes, which empty into the Big Cottonwood Cafion, lie at elevations above the sea ranging between eleven thousand and thirteen thousand feet; ther: {fore the total amount of power available is very large on account of the enor- mous fall. The Big Cottonwood Company controls a fall of about one thousand feet, but in the present installation will only use about four hundred feet. The water is confined in a reservoir, as shown in the topographical map on page 737, and is conveyed by pipe line to the power house, ‘as is shown quite clearly in the illustration of the site of the latter on page 739, where the pipe is seen in the back- ground, descending between the mountains. To guard against an accidental giving way of the reservoir, as well as to render it possible to empty it when desired without interfering with the operation of the plant, the pipe line is carried along the bottom to the upper end of the reservoir, where it connects with the main source of supply. By closing one gate and opening another, the water may be drawn from either point, as occasion may require. The capacity of this plant is about twenty-five hundred horse power, which will be distributed at a distance of about fourteen miles. The water wheels are mounted directly upon the shafts of the electric generators, as can be seen from the illustration of the in- terior of the power station shown on page 741. The generator in the foreground is not provided with a water wheel; the only part of this apparatus visible is the water pipe under the shaft, between the two bearings. This generator was not completely mounted when the photograph was taken, but the two machines in the back- ground, it will be noticed, are provided with water wheels, which are mounted on the shaft in the space between the two bearings, which in the front generator is uncovered. The simplicity and solidity of this apparatus are very striking, and, being one of the latest installations, show clearly the perfection to which machinery of this class has been carried; and from the fact that the capacity of

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740 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. each generator is about six hundred horse power, its compactness js also apparent. There are any number of other power-transmission plants in this country, a description of which would prove interesting not only on account of their magnitude, or the distance to which the power is conveyed, but also on account of their revealing the vast amount of engineering skill displayed in surmounting difficulties that have been contended with; but the examples described in the foregoing are sufficient to show the enormous strides that are being made in this field, and yet the general public is almost wholly unaware that any- thing is being done except in an experimental way. : The electric transmission of power is not confined to this country by any means; plants of very large proportions can be found in almost every quarter of the civilized world, and in some places not specially noted for their civilization. In Mexico there are several installations, and no doubt there would be more if it were not for the fact that there is a scarcity of large streams and rivers in that country; therefore, although its mountainous conformation would lead to the conclusion that waterfalls are numerous, as a matter of fact those where the power available is sufficient to warrant its utili- zation are very few. The principal installation in Mexico is at Pachuca, one of the most important mining districts in the country. The power plant is located at Regla, which is about twenty-three miles distant. The capacity of the plant is over three thousand horse power. There are several plants in South American countries, quite a number in Africa, in Australia, in Asiatic countries, and also in Europe. The Jungfrau Mountain Railroad in Switzerland, which has been called the trolley to heaven, will be operated by power de- rived from the Black and White Lutschine Rivers, in Burglauenen and Lauterbrunnen. This road, which is about finished, ascends to one of the highest peaks of the Alps, one which heretofore has only been accessible to those of sufficiently vigorous constitutions to make the ascent on foot. The Geneva water power is utilized to operate electric railways, electric lights, and to some extent for the development of power for industrial purposes. The distance of transmission at this place is about twenty miles. Other installations in Europe of importance that may be men- tioned are Rome, Italy—distance, about eighteen miles; amount of power, two thousand horse power, which is being increased to nine thousand; Davos, Switzerland; Schéngeisung, Germany; Lauffen to Heilbronn, Germany; Zurich, Switzerland, and many others. The longest transmission ever undertaken was an experimental

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ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF WATER POWER. 741 one between Lauffen and Frankfort, during the exposition at the latter place some years ago. This distance is one hundred miles, and, although the work was experimental and only intended to show what could be done, it was entirely successful, notwithstanding that the amount of power transmitted was only three hundred horse power. From the few examples given in the foregoing paragraphs it can be seen that the electrical transmission of water powers to points where they can be conveniently utilized has passed far beyond the INTERIOR OF GENERATING Station. Big Cotronwoop Power ComPaANy. experimental stage, and that the business of supplying apparatus for such purposes has already assumed large proportions, with every prospect that before long it will be a very important, if not the most important, branch of the electrical industry. A contemplation of the results that may follow development along this line must lead to the conclusion that manufacturing cen- ters will be materially changed. In many kinds of industry power is used so extensively that its cost is an item of the greatest importance,

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Ook seri ‘ LS OR i SR lL LAI cea wi at Mn = 742 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and concerns engaged in work of that class will in many instances find it to their interest to locate where the energy of waterfalls may be available at low rates. The successful operation of the Niagara plant has had the effect of attracting to that section of the State several enterprises that require power in large quantities, and it js more than probable that, before many years pass by, Buffalo and the surrounding country will become an important manufacturing cen- ter. What is true of this case will be equally true of many others, and, while established enterprises may not remove from their pres- ent location, those started hereafter will undoubtedly be guided by the relative cost of power at different points, in connection with the advantages and disadvantages arising from the location of the power center. Thus, as the South is the source whence all the cotton comes, it would be natural to assume that manufactories in this line would locate in that section at points where water power can be obtained convenient to the cotton fields. That such localities can be found is quite evident, since, according to the census of 1880, the power available along the Chattanooga River is not far from one hundred thousand horse power, and along the various rivers of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama three or four times this amount can be obtained. All over the West and Northwest exten- sive power sites are to be found, and in time many of them will be rendered useful, and will form the centers of manufacturing districts, thus gradually augmenting this line of industry in sections of the country that at present are principally agricultural. For several years to come it is very probable that efforts will be confined to the utilization of large units, but gradually the cost of installation and of operation will be reduced, and then smaller powers will be considered profitable. Following along this course of reasoning we may naturally conclude that, eventually, even farmers may be able to render available the energy of small streams passing through their possessions, and the future rural generations may use the electric motor to do the work around the farm that at the present time is performed by animal power. THE name America for the western continent is said to have been pro- posed by Martin Waldseemiiller, in his Introduction to Cosmography, pub- lished in 1507 ; but the exact time when it first appeared in a map is not precisely known. The earliest instance so far has been discovered by Pro- fessor Elter, of Bonn, in a manuscript map by Henricus Glareanus, dated 1510, in which the legend “Terra America” is attached to South America. Glareanus, born in 1488, became German poet laureate in 1512, and a pro- fessor at Freiburg in 1529. He has left what is probably the earliest cir- cumpolar map in existence. In his map of America, North America is separated from South by a strait. and is represented as forming part of Asia.

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. By HELEN ZIMMERN. ’ “Enemy” ye shall say, but not “wicked one”; “ diseased one’ “wretch”; “fool” ye shall say, but not “sinner.”—F. Nrerzscue. ye shall say, but not F we were asked to name in what particular Italy stands to-day quite head and shoulders above her fellows, we should unhesi- tatingly say in the science of criminal anthropology. This is an essentially Italian study, whose origin we discover as early as 1320, when the King of the Two Sicilies decreed that no one should be permitted to practice medicine who had not studied anatomy for at least one year. After this, in the fourteenth century, we find men who devoted themselves to the study of skulls, thus laying the basis of the science of craniology. It was Italians, therefore, who initi- ated this science, and to Italy has been reserved the proud place of bringing it to its high development in the nineteenth century, even though the discoveries of Darwin, which gave it a fresh impetus, date from England. Beyond question the peninsula is at the head and front of all studies connected with criminal anthropology, and not of criminal anthropology only, but of all cognate sciences con- nected with crime and the criminal. To the Italians belongs the merit of reviving the study of a ques- tion with which philosophy, law, and medicine have always been oc- eupied. It has been well remarked that whenever philosophical stud- ies have free expansion, that whenever the desire to safeguard society, the spirit of toleration, the methods of ameliorating the fate of the guilty, have been studied by thinkers, their conceptions have eventu- ally conquered public opinion. It is to the glory of Italy, the land where Roman law, the foundation of modern law, was born, that it has again put into the crucible this problem of criminality, and that it has proceeded to the study of this problem by the only truly scien- tific method—namely, that of studying the psychology of criminals and their pathological abnormities. It will be its distinction to have declared against illusory enthusiasms, and to have founded a science which will contribute to the more efficacious protection of society. The recognized chief of this Italian school is Prof. Cesare Lom- broso, of Turin, who has illustrated his theories by a number of remarkably able and interesting books. Until quite recently, to the world at large, the criminal figured as of the Bill Sykes type—and who, reading Oliver Twist, has not shrunk with horror on perusing the intimate drama of the ruffian’s mind after the brutal murder of the faithful Nancy? ‘These things move us as the highest efforts of Dickens’s imagination. Bill Sykes was written in prescientific days.

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744 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. It is instructive to turn from him, and the class of melodramatic ruf- fians of whom he is but an example, to the criminals dispassionately laid bare in mental, moral, and physical dissection by Lombroso and his fellow-workers. Certainly no such type as Bill Sykes, a projected image of the novelist’s brains, coinciding with a highly strung nervous system, is to be found in the gallery of habitual malefactors presented to us in the Uomo Delinquente and other books. Habitual malefactors, according to Italian students, are a class apart from other men, a distinct species of “genus Homo sapiens,” must be judged by special standards, and must by no means be informed with the feelings of normal men. Herein consists the fundamental basis of the new science of criminal anthropology—a science which bids fair, in spite of conservative and clerical opposition and even of ignorant ridicule, to modify profoundly our present manner of con- sidering and treating these enemies and pests of society. “Criminal anthropology,” says Signor Sergi, one of the ablest exponents of the new system, “studies the delinquent in his natural place—that is to say, in the field of biology and pathology. But it does not for that reason put him outside the society in which his criminal manifestations occur, for it considers human society as a natural biological fact, outside of which man does not and can not live. As normal anthropology, like other biological sciences, studies and observes the individual in his natural milieu, and finds that this milieu is double, physical and organic, and under this double aspect sees him develop and act,so criminal anthropology does the same with the very limited and specialized aim of discovering the nature and origin of the phenomenon of crime. Every phenomenon, however, remains inexplicable if it be examined alone; the explanation is easier if it be studied in the complex of phenomena developed in the double physical and social milieu of which we have spoken.” Words such as these, where we find embryology, physiology, anatomy, chemistry, and statistics, invoked as aids to the origin of crime, place us at the antipodes of ancient philosophies; yet Lom- broso and his school are in reality acting on the old-world notion embodied by Horace in his “mens sana in corpore sano.” The delinquent, they argue, acts abnormally. Acts being the visible results of functions performed by the brain and reflective nervous system, it follows that these functions are abnormal. The functions being abnormal, the organs which perform them must be either abnormal or troubled in their action by the habitual or accidental interference of disturbing causes, for no normal organ acting under normal conditions can perform abnormal functions. The founders of this new school, therefore, dedicate themselves first of all to the study of the skull, brain, and nervous system of the criminals; then

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 745 make careful observations not only on other parts of the skeleton but on the living body; the height, length, and proportion of the members, the total or partial development of each part; the weight of the body, its muscular development, the deeper-seated organs, such as the heart, liver, kidneys, intestines; the various functions which may directly or indirectly affect those of the brain, such as the circulation of the blood, digestion, and the disturbances which show themselves there, and in consequence of the general state of the organism as regards the balance of the vital functions; sleep, sexual manifestations, normal or abnormal muscular force, and other factors besides. Everything, indeed, which concerns the morphology of the criminal is passed through the sieve of the severest scrutiny. This scrutiny reveals, as might be expected, various irregularities. The skull, for instance, presents anomalies of shape and size, being in a large percentage of cases abnormally small; anomalies indicative of regression and of arrested development; anomalies in the position, shape, and closing of the sutures, “ the doorways of the head ” being invariably closed too early. Morphological irregularities are also found in the bones of the face, notably in those of the nose and lower jaw. ‘The brain itself, say the investigators, shows unmis- takable signs of a degraded form, in the number and distribution of the cerebral convolutions, in the entire atrophy of some parts, in the extraordinary development of others. The shape and structure of the skull and brain, says Lombroso, connect criminals very closely with primitive man, and even with his animal ancestors. Criminals must be regarded either as forms belated in the race of development, or as physical and therefore also moral degradations—unavoidable, regrettable products of our civilization. In either case they form a distinct species, in need of scientific investigation. The action of the brain is, however, not only modified’ by its form and development, but also, in a very large number of cases, by pathological occurrences. Traces of old wounds, “some head-blow not heeded in his youth,” said Sir Kay of King Arthur’s self—hem- orrhages, affections of the investing membrane and of the blood- vessels are seldom wanting. In other words, the organ that controls and originates actions is in a morbid state. Further, the slight irregularities constantly verified in the branchings of the blood- vessels in the heart, liver, and other viscera can not but conspire, by the abnormal functionings they occasion, toward the production of physiologically irregular organisms. Intimately connected with the physical conditions of the criminal are his psychic peculiarities. These consist chiefly in great instabil- ity of character, coupled with overwhelming development of some passion and the atrophy of some others. The criminal acts from VOL, Li1.—55

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746 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. impulse, although he often displays, as madmen do, a low cunning in finding means to carry out his impulse. He is intensely vain, prid- ing himself on the number of crimes he has committed. He js further devoid of all remorse, fond of boasting of his evil deeds and of describing them in detail. Thus Lombroso gives the reproduc- tion of a photograph, in which three murderers who had assassinated one of their number caused themselves to be represented in the very act of committing their deadly deed, a photograph taken for the benefit of their less fortunate associates. This inordinate vanity is often in itself the primary cause of ter- rible crimes, especially in young men who have just attained puber- ty, an age observed to be especially fruitful in crimes of violence. The critical character of this period, even in well-balanced minds, is abundantly known; little wonder, then, if it prove fatal to those whose constitutions urge them to extremes. It is noticed also that the criminal needs to lead a life full of noise. The necessity of orgies entailed by the irregularities of his feelings is often the moving vause of some act of violence, such as robbery and assassination, cal- culated to procure the means of indulgence. His affections, too, are abnormal: he will assassinate father and mother, and yet be capable of making sacrifices for some companion in time of illness. This trait, however, occurs more often among women than men. We used to believe there was a species of honor among thieves, but Lombroso asserts that it is rare to find any consistent attempt to shield each other; on the contrary, the almost physical need they feel of talking incessantly renders them specially inclined to mutual be- trayal. The criminal is fond of tattooing himself, and so distinctive a mark of criminal tendencies is this held in Italy that tattooed re- cruits are looked on as likely to make bad soldiers; and a private once spoke to Lombroso of tattooing as “ convict habits.” He presents, too, an extraordinary insensibility to pain, tattooing himself in places which even the Indians spare, and receiving or inflicting on himself the most terrible wounds without a murmur. He has a language of his own, employed even in cases where he would run no risk from using ordinary speech, and this still further isolates him from the rest of mankind. He has a writing of his own, too, made up of hieroglyphics and rough pictures. Such briefly is the Frankenstein, which the modern science of criminal anthropology evokes; an unbalanced being, a pathological subject, whose illness takes a form which, hurtful to society, is de- fined as crime. For the facts collected by Lombroso place beyond all doubt the intimate connection between crime and mental derange- ments which has so long been suspected to exist. Madmen and criminals belong to the same family; not in the sense of the vulgar

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 747 / and unthinking expression that all criminals are mad, though every- day experience in the police courts puts it beyond doubt that many are actually deranged, but in the sense that both classes are in a similar pathological state, which manifests itself on the one hand in lunacy, on the other in crime. This position is rendered still stronger by the revelations of genealogical statistics, which reveal the heredity through long generations of criminal tendencies, as they do of insanity, and alternations of criminals and madmen, in the same or successive generations. Lombroso divides criminals into two great classes, the original or born delinquent, and the fortuitous offender, a man who becomes criminal through outward influences. . The first, the synthesis of every degeneration, the outcome of all biological deterioration, commits crimes against society by virtue of a morbid process passing from one generation to another, derived from cerebral and other physiological conditions. In him the im- pulse of passion is not sullen or isolated, but associates itself almost always with reflection. The second, on the contrary, the crim- inal of passion and impetus, acts at a given moment in conse- quence of an overwhelming stimulus, say a sudden access of jealousy. The two classes frequently merge into each other, for the mere fact that a man, suddenly, without reflection, by a reflex act, as it were, stabs his offender or his unfaithful wife, proves that he is not normal. The want of reflection constitutes an extenuating circumstance be- fore judge or jury, but before pathological psychology, says Signor Sergi, “it constitutes an accusation.” The importance of the distinction is seen in the views taken on criminal jurisprudence by Lombroso and his school. It is generally said that to act logically in face of these views we should have to make extensive use of capital punishment. The most hasty perusal of Lombroso’s books wili show that this is not his view of the case. He lays immense stress on prevention, for even the morbid process may, he asserts, be modified in the very young, just as a disease, taken in time, may be cured, but, neglected, becomes chronic. He examines carefully the means adopted in various countries for refining the minds of children, and speaks warmly of English ragged schools. Juvenile refinement, strict but judicious control, education in the highest sense of the word—these must be, he argues, the primary object of every nation which aims at decreasing its criminality. He also advocates an association between various na- tions for the hunting of criminals, and for making such observations on their lives and habits as shall lead to their easier classification. In reformatories he has small belief; statistics show that they in no way decrease the percentage of recidivists; the fact of recidivism shows

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748 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the habitual criminal, and here no punishment will suffice. The man must be treated as though afflicted with a serious illness and removed from society, for which, however, he may and should be made to work. He insists that these questions are of vital importance to every nation, and asserts re- peatedly that teachers in ragged schools and founders of polytechnics are patriots and philanthropists in the highest sense of the words, because helping to stamp out crime more than all the long- term sentences in the world. Crime is at once a biological and a_ social phenomenon. The criminal is a microbe which only flourishes on suitable soil. Without doubt it is the environment which makes the criminal, but, like the cultivation medium, without the microbe it is powerless to germinate the crime. To use _ Professor Ferri’s expression, up to re- cent times the criminal has been regarded as a sort of algebraic formula; the punishment has been proportioned not to the criminal but to the crime. Anthro- pologists are teaching us to strive after scientific justice. ‘Time and events have brought into clear relief the inadequacy of legal maxims, founded on antiquated and unscientific conceptions, and thus mod- ern Italians show us that not the nature of the crime but the dan- gerousness of the offender constitutes the only reasonable legal criterion to guide the inevitable social reaction against the criminal. This position is the legitimate outcome of the scientific study of the criminal. And where the man of science has led the way the man of law must follow. Such, in brief and somewhat in the rough, are the conclusions of Italian criminal anthropology, which we have given at some length, as the subject is too vast as well as too new to be clearly comprehen- sible in a few words. In the autumn of 1896 an International Con- gress of Criminal Anthropologists was held at Geneva, and on this occasion the Italian school triumphed as never before over all adversaries and schismatics, and especially over their French col- Enrico Ferri.

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 749 leagues, who have carried their antagonism to Italy and things Italian even to the serene fields of science. The French objections were beaten down by a very hailstorm of facts, so carefully collated, so industriously collected, that opposition was perforce silenced. In the front ranks of the combatants, indeed, leading the attack, was that eminent criminal sociologist, Enrico Ferri, whose legal vocations have not hindered him from continuing his favorite studies, though he is no less valiant as a lawyer than as a scientist. Indeed, he holds that the two studies ought to go hand in hand. All lawyers, he affirms, should dedicate themselves to the study of criminal an- thropology if they would go to the fountain-head of human responsi- bility; all judges should be inspired by this doctrine, ere blindly punishing a culprit on the faith of a code not always founded on direct observation of the environment or of the individual. “It is not true that with Lom- broso’s theories all prison doors would be broken down and respectable humanity given over to the mercy of delinquents, as our oppo- nents say. And were the first part of this strange para- dox to be verified—i. e., that which demands that in order to be logical all prison doors be opened—there would open also those of the lunatic asylums in order to permit the entry of the men ejected from the prisons, individuals whose mental and physical constitutions pushed them into crime.” It was just this theory of the born crimi- nal, which Lombroso was the first irrefutably to prove, and whose effects must shortly be felt in criminal legislation, that car- ried off the most clamorous victory at Geneva. Cesare Lombroso, who is a Hebrew by birth, was born at Turin, in 1836. As a mere lad he loved to write, and composed, with the same facility and rapidity that distinguishes him to this day, novels, poems, tragedies, treatises on archeological, physiological, and already on sociological subjects, those dating from his student days being actually published, so much talent did they show. Medicine CresaRE Lomproso.

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750 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. was the study to which he devoted himself, and his first independent researches were directed to examining into the causes that produce the idiotism and the pellagra that exist, unfortunately, so largely in Lombardy and Liguria. His treatise on this theme attracted the attention of no less a person than Professor Virchow. After fighting for the independence of Italy in 1859, he was appointed professor of psychiatry at Pavia, where he founded a pyschiatric museum. From Pavia he passed to Pesaro, as director of the Government mad- house, and thence to Turin as professor of forensic medicine, a position he still retains. It was in his native Turin that he began those original studies destined to make his name famous over all the globe. Endowed by nature with a strong intelligence, a robust will, and a keen intellectual curiosity, he was indifferent to the incredulous smile, the sarcasms, that greeted his first efforts at solving problems hitherto held insoluble. Very bitter, very hard were his struggles— how hard only those can appreciate who have talked with Lombroso in intimacy and have noted the pained scorn with which he speaks of his adversaries—adversaries some of whom are not silenced to this hour. But his science, his studies conquered, which if not always complete yet are always serious, wherefore criminal anthro- pology, a mere infant some thirty years ago, may to-day be said to be adult; a raw empiric but a while ago, to-day a science, young if you will, but vital and destined to overturn the facile, fantastic monuments erected by so many penalists. The work with which Lombroso will go down to posterity is a huge book, huge in every sense of the word, in which criminal man is studied on a scientific basis. We refer to the Uomo Delinquente, of which its author has published most recently a new, revised, and enlarged edition, wrest- ling with new facts, new observations, and new deductions. This edition is limited to one hundred copies, perhaps to allow its prolific author soon to issue another, enriched with yet more facts, yet more acute deductions. It is dedicated to Max Nordau, the author of that noted book, Degeueration, who had in his turn dedicated his work to his master, Cesare Lombroso. ‘The dedication reads thus: “To you I have wished to dedicate this volume with which I close my studies on human degeneration, as to the most sincere friend I have found in the sad course of my scientific life, and as to the one who has wrested fecund fruits from the new doctrines I have attempted to introduce into the scientific world.” Needless to say that Lombroso is the very first person to admit that in the almost virgin field of criminal anthropology there is still much to do, and that Science has not yet spoken her last word; but it is his magic wand that has indicated the horizon and has swept over vast new areas, often with

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 751 lightning rapidity and intuition. Thus the base of the new edifice was laid, and the rest of the new monument rose up rapidly around it, notwithstanding its occasional faultiness, pointed out eagerly by adverse scientists, criticisms that could not shake down the edifice, for its base was too solid and strong. Gradually a few apostles of the new science gathered around Lombroso, and although Morselli, one of the most acute and cultured observers, after a time severed him- self from the group and joined the French schismatics, nevertheless the little compact mass moved from success to success, from triumph to triumph, up to the late ultimate triumph at Geneva. Another of Lombroso’s books which aroused much discussion and which may almost be said to have founded yet another school, if we may so designate the group devoted to the study of another branch of anthropology, was Genio o Follia, which largely helped to make its author’s name known even outside of srictly scientific circles. This work enchanted all thinkers, psychiatrists, doctors, indeed, all men who dedicate themselves to the search for signs of madness in the lives and works of eminent authors and artists. For Lombroso had striven in this book to prove scientifically how closely genius and madness are allied. As was the case with Criminal Man, so here too the master’s disciples strayed from the paths laid down by the pioneer, exaggerated his conclusions and carried them to absurd excesses. Lombroso had at last to raise his voice against the ex- travagances into which he was dragged. Besides various absurdities, there were published some careful serious studies having for their themes the lives of Napoleon I, Leopardi, Ugo Foscolo, and Byron, in which it was made to appear that these men were all victims of heredity, and neither their virtues nor their vices were their own— studies of interest, academically considered, but of no tangible util- ity, and which did not add or detract one iota from the merits or demerits of their subjects. Against this method of dealing with men of genius as pathological subjects Mantegazza recently very rightly upraised his voice in the name of art, tradition, and history. Space does not permit of our naming Lombroso’s varied and voluminous writings, whose enumeration any biographical dictionary ean supply. La Donna Delinquente (The Criminal Woman), written in collaboration with G. Ferrero, one of the most promising of the younger criminal anthropologists, of which an incomplete and in- adequate translation appeared in England, aroused a storm of dis- cussion on its publication four years ago, and was especially attacked by the adherents of the old methods. He has since pub- lished The Anarchists, in which he also takes unusual views with regard to these latter-day society pests—pests for whom society itself, as nowadays conditioned, he holds as alone responsible—and Crime

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752 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. as a Society Function, which has aroused the fury of the clerical and moderate factions in Italy. Chips from the workshop of his extraor- dinarily prolific brain, ever evolving new ideas, new points of view, he scatters in the many articles he loves to write for English and American periodicals; but his most important scientific communica- tions he reserves for the Archivio di Psichiatria, which he edits to- gether with Ferri and Garofolo. His work is by no means perfect: he is apt to jump too rapidly at conclusions, to accept data too lightly; thus he was led at the beginning to overestimate the atavis- tic element in the criminal, and at a lat«r date he has pressed too strongly the epileptic affinities of crime. Still, when all is said and done, his work is undoubtedly epoch-making, and has opened up valuable new lines of investigation and suggested others. We said that Lombroso’s first studies were directed to the pel- lagra, that strange and terrible disease which annually mows down such a vast number of victims in the fair land of northern Italy, and which is a luminous proof of the grave financial condi- tion of the laborers in some of the most beautiful and richest regions of the world. Concerning this terrible ill- ness, which densely popu- lates Italian madhouses, all students of natural science have long been gravely occu- pied. For the terrible in- crease in lunacy noted by Italian statistics in the last five years the pellagra is largely responsible. Psychi- atry, which has abandoned the .old methods in Italy, is no longer a jailer employing the methods of an inquisitor, but a science that seeks for ultimate causes and reme- dies, and, conjoined to eco- nomic and political science, endeavors to restore to society a large contingent of forces which would otherwise be destroyed by disease. Especially active in this department is Enrico Mor- selli, at present director of the hospital attached to the Genoa University. Morselli is in the flower of his life, and much may be still hoped from him. Like Lombroso, he is small of stature and Enrico MorsE.u1.

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 753 square built; like Lombroso, he has piercing eyes that shine forth acutely from behind glasses that he always wears. Psychologist, anthropologist, psychiatrist, philosopher, and literary man, Morselli has right to all these titles, and in each branch he is noteworthy. He was born in Modena in 1832, and studied at his native university, carrying off high honors. As a mere student he attracted attention by disputing the conclusions of a noted celebrity on some anthro- pological points, proving himself right. For a while he was the assistant of Mantegazza in arranging his Anthropological Museum, one of the finest as well as one of the most important in Europe. When only twenty-eight he was called to preside over the Turin lunatic asylum, and soon distinguished himself by his profound knowledge of everything connected with the study and treatment of the demented. Besides attending to his profession he found time to write a number of works dealing with normal and abnormal mental maladies, whose mere enumeration would fill pages, some of which, like his work on Suicide, have been translated into English. Mor- selli’s latest work was a reply to Brunetiére’s assertions regarding “the bankruptcy of science,” demonstrating that here was a case in which the wish was father to the thought, and for which no real foundation existed. Paolo Mantegazza has been dealt with at length in these pages, and we need not go over the ground again. What is needful to say is, however, that he has been left behind in the rapid onward tramp of his younger colleagues. Mantegazza is perhaps entitled to lay claim to the name he loves to sport, that of the father of Italian anthropology; but, according to the more precise views of our day, he can hardly be regarded as a real scientist. As is often the case, the sons have outstripped the father, who now combats the views of his legitimate offspring. A reproach cast at Mantegazza, it would seem not without reason, is that he too closely follows Moliére’s pre- cept, “Je prends mon bien ow je le trouve,” and that he has passed off as his own the conclusions and the work of German scientific men. Another reproach that is certainly well founded is his manifest de- light in handling obscene themes, and handiing them not in the calm, scientific spirit that removes from them a real obscene character, but treating the details with a gusto that reveals how these prurient matters rather delight than disgust him, and what is worse, these works are written in popular language, frankly appealing to a popu- lar rather than a scientific audience. To this class belong all his works on Love, on Women, on the Art of taking a Wife, of Being a Husband, ete. It may safely be asserted that his fame is steadily (leclining, and that his want of perseverance and observation is itself to blame for this. By nature Mantegazza was endowed with a fine

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754 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and versatile intelligence, but he has lowered it in the search after cash and easy success. This handsome old man, with the face and smile of a satyr, is a familiar figure on the streets of Florence. The number of men who are strict anthropologists without be- ing sociologists is extraordinarily great in contemporary Italy, and there is none of them who has not done good and original work. Limits of space oblige us perforce to pass them by, in order to speak of yet others of the new school created by Lombroso’s theories, and who take rank in the files of criminal anthropology, a science far more interesting to the general reader than that which deals with biology pure and simple. To this section in the first rank belong the alienists, besides a large number of lawyers, judges, and journalists. The highest position among them belongs indubi- tably to Enrico Ferri. His verdict, like that of Cesare Lombroso, is constantly appealed to in complicated criminal cases where the sanity or the natural proclivity to crime of the person is in question. A man of really unusual physical beauty is Enrico Ferri, as well as of charm of manner and of eloquence which, when stirred to a theme dear to his heart, carries all before it. Enrico Ferri was born in 1856, in the neighborhood of Mantua, a city whose very name in Austrian days was synonymous with cruel despotism, for this and Spielburg were the favorite fortresses of the German persecutors. At a tender age he lost his father, and his mother, left in strait- ened circumstances, had a hard struggle to give her only child an adequate education. Already at the university Ferri distinguished himself, publishing a thesis which dealt with criminal law. When Lombroso published his great work on Criminal Man, Ferri was at once attracted by its scientific nature and sought to become ac- quainted with its author. Since then they have been fast friends as well as co-workers. In 1881 he was called to fill the chair of penal law at the University of Bologna. His opening discourse dealt with the theme which was to prove the first draft of his great work, Criminal Sociology, a work which has been translated into many European tongues. The lecture was entitled New Horizons in Penal Law. He says: “It was in this inaugural discourse that I affirmed the existence of the positivist school of criminal law, and assigned to it these two fundamental rules: 1. While the classi- cal schools of criminal law have always studied the crime and neglected the criminal, the object of the positivist school was, in the first place, to study the criminal, so that, instead of the crime being regarded merely as a juridical fact, it must be studied with the aid of biology, of psychology, and of criminal statistics as a natural and social fact, transforming the old criminal law into a criminal sociology. 2. While the classical schools, since Beccaria and

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 755 Howard, have fulfilled the historic mission of decreasing the pun- ishments, as the reaction from the severity of the medizval laws, the object of the positivist school is to decrease the offenses by investigating their natural and social causes in order to apply social remedies niore efficacious and more humane than the penal counter- action, always slow in its effects, especially in its cellular system, which I have called one of the aberrations of the nineteenth cen- tury.” Ferri has occupied himself less with the instinctive than with the occasional criminal, and his clear and philosophic spirit has placed him at the head of criminal sociologists. Elected to Parliament even before the age of thirty, previous to which he could not take his place, according to Italian law, he began an avowed liberal, but soon passed over to the ranks of scientific socialists, whose acknowledged leader he has since become. He also holds the post of professor of penal Jaw at the Roman University. But his home is on the vine- and olive-clad shores of Etruscan Fiesole, within a short walk of Florence. Of his great work on Homicide we have treated at length in these pages. Though in some points he has grown to differ from him, Ferri continues to venerate his master Lombroso, and with rare eloquence defends his theories from attacks at moments when the less eloquent scientist seems silenced by the arguments of his adversaries. It was due to his energy, conjoined to the initiative of Lombroso, that the first International Congress of Criminal An- thropologists was held in Rome in 1885, which constituted the installation of international criminal anthropology in sight of the European public. ‘The second was held at Paris in 1889. It was there that the scientific misunderstanding arose, which was still more openly affirmed at the third congress held at Brussels in 1892, but was finally and conclusively beaten down at Geneva at the fourth congress in 1896; a result in a large measure due to Ferri’s fascinating, all-persuading eloquence. In a letter written to me he has stated the whole matter so clearly that I can not do better than reproduce the same: “ As you know, the positive school of criminal studies was consolidated in Italy by the contemporaneous publication in 1878 of the second volume of the Uomo Delinquente, of my volume on the Imputableness and Negation of Free Will, and of the pamphlet of Garofolo on the Positive Criterion of Penalty. In these first affirmations there naturally preponderated the conclu- sions of Lombroso, which gave and left on the public the im- pression that the new school only studied the criminal from his organic side as a_ biological monstrosity. Yet, in 1880, I had published my studies on Criminals in France from 1826 to 1878, in which I expounded the natural factors of the three orders

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 756 of crime—anthropological, physical, and social—laying stress on the social causes that conduce to crime. As a reaction from the aforenamed impression in Italy, Turati, Colajanni, and Battaglia published in 1882 to 1884 pamphlets and volumes maintaining that crime is an exclusively social phenomenon. I replied to Turati— Crime and the Social Question—with the volumes on Socialism and Criminality (1883), now out of print, where I combated: 1. Artis- tic and romantic socialism while recognizing the fundamental truths of scientific socialism. 2. The unilateral theory that crime is the product only of social factors, and that, therefore, with time it must certainly disappear. Continuing to maintain these two propositions, even after my avowed adhesion to scientific socialism, it has come about that in Italy this unilateral thesis has gradually become aban- doned even by socialists. On the other hand, this thesis was taken up again in 1885 at the congress in Rome, and above all in 1889 at Paris, and in 1892 at Brussels by the French anthropological crimi- nal socialists—Lacassagne, Tarde, Topinard, Corée, ete.—who sue- ceeded in spreading the belief that there exists a French criminal an- thropological school founded on the theory that the criminal is an exclusively social phenomenon—a thesis that had, for the matter of that, already been sustained in Italy by the socialists. It is thus that was circulated among the international public, who can not read Italian publications unless they are translated, the impression that opposing the Italian school there was a French school; the former maintaining the exclusively biological origin of the criminal, while the latter regarded his genesis as exclusively social. The congress at Geneva has cleared up this misunderstanding, which has lasted too long. Crime is a phenomenon whose origin is both biological and social. This is the final conclusion which the Italian school has proclaimed since the beginning of its existence.” It is noteworthy and also significant that almost all thought- ful Italians who have dedicated themselves to the studies of an- thropology in general and criminal anthropology in particular are socialists in politics. Assiduous, dispassionate observation of man- kind would seem to have brought them to this conclusion. A leader in the Italian Parliament in this sense, as well as a gifted criminal anthropologist, is Napoleone Colajanni, by original profession a doctor, but now too absorbed in his political duties to practice. Colajanni is by birth a Sicilian, and has much of the quick, fiery temperament of these islanders, in whose veins the blood courses hotly. A facile orator, his speeches always command attention in Parliament, while his rigid, incorruptible honesty makes him esteemed in a milieu of unscrupulous politi- cians and wire-pullers. As philanthropist, as politician, he was

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 757 early attracted to study the problems of misery and crime, whence resulted his great work on Criminal Sociology. Like Ferri and all the other thoughtful students of the criminal, he has seen the direct bearing on criminality of what he himself well calls “ social hygiene.” He points out how we may neglect the problems of social organiza- tion, but must do so at our peril. In many respects he is opposed to Lombroso. He holds, for example, that Lombroso has too much accentuated the atavistic element in the criminal He agrees with those who deem that of a great number of modern habitual criminals it may be said that they have the misfortune to live in an age when their merits are not appreciated. Had they lived in the world a sufficient number of generations ago, the strongest of them might have been chiefs of a tribe. As Colajanni has said: “How many of Homer’s heroes would to-day be in convict prisons or at all events despised as unjust and violent!” He has strenuously combated Lombroso’s indiscriminate method of collecting facts, and compares it to Charles [X’s famous order on St. Bartholomew’s Eve: “ Kill them all! God will know his own.” And now it is time we should speak of Garofolo, the Neapolitan lawyer who, accepting generally the conclusions reached by Lom- broso and Ferri, has become the most distinguished jurist of the moment, the pioneer of the re- form of law through the method of natural science. His Crim- inology is marked by luminous suggestions of wise reform. Like Morselli, Garofolo does not blind- ly follow where his compeers lead. His latest volume, entitled Socialistic Superstitions, has ex- cited much wrath and astonish- ment in socialistic and anthropo- logical camps, and was severely combated, especially by Ferri, who wrote a pamphlet on pur- pose to confute the publication. R. Garofolo was born in Naples, in 1852, of an old patrician fam- ily, hence perhaps by atavism he | is debarred from being a social- R. Garorouo. ist. He holds the position of pro- fessor of law and penal procedure in his native city, and was in- trusted by the Government in 1892 to draw up a scheme for the re- vision of the penal code. Garofolo has occupied himself chiefly, |

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758 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. nay, entirely with the legal side of criminal anthropology, and his great work G@riminology deals with the means of repressing crime quite as much as with its nature and causes. He has also studied the question of what reparation is due to victims of crime. _ His only flight into sociology has concerned his attack on socialism, in whose curative Utopia he does not believe. Among the latest contributors to this fascinating science the highest places belong to three young men: Scipio Sighele, Gugli- elmo Ferrero, and A. G. Bianchi. All three are journalists, all three distinguished by the same qualities of keen observation, of more than ordinary cultivation, with sometimes a tendency to write a little hastily and to jump to conclusions too rapidly. This reproof especially concerns Sighele, who has allowed himself to judge and write of matters English and American of which he has but the most superficial and second-hand knowledge. Here the newspaper writer has done wrong to the scientist. Sighele made his name with an admirable book entitled The Criminal Crowd, which a French writer has thought fit to appropriate in outline and almost entirely in substance, obtaining for it the honor of translation into English, while the real au- thor has been left out in the eold. Able, too, is The Criminal Couple. <A _ para- doxical pamphlet directed against parliamentary gov- ernment, and revealing the failure of a system on which the hopes of Europe were once based as the sheet-an- chor of liberty, excited some attention on its appearance in 1895, and was dealt with at length in Blackwood’s Magazine. His last work, on Individual Morality as opposed to Public Morality, inspired by the doubtful! morality of Signor Crispi’s

Scrp1o SIGHELE. government, also aroused dis- cussion, especially among Crispi’s adherents, who looked on the book as a bit of special pleading in favor of their master’s dubious political proceedings. Guglielmo Ferrero is a Piedmontese, and belongs to an old

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CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALY. 759 / aristocratic family of Turin. Although his name is already well known in scientific circles, he is still little more than a youth. To- gether with Lombroso he wrote the Criminal Woman, spoken of at length in these pages, and which at once brought him to the front, as all the world knew that it was he who collated and collected the facts therein contained. His first independent work was that most remarkable one dealing with Symbols, of which we have also spoken before. His latest publi- ‘ation deals with Crispi, whose personality he subjected to a sci- entific analysis qualifying him as a born madman. Ferrero, too, is a convinced socialist, and on this account was arrested during the reign of terror that prevailed in the course of the last months of Crispi’s dictatorship. He was or- dered to leave Italy, and, profit- ing by this enforced exile, he visited Germany and learned the language and the condition of an- thropological studies in that land. He has but recently returned. Ilis magazine articles are always able, and marked by a high and in- dependent tone. A. G. Bianchi, a Milanese by birth, is also young. Not rich, like Ferrero, he had to make his own way, and entered into journal- ism as a means to obtain daily bread. He began life as a railway official, writing at the same time reviews of new books, Italian and foreign. Together with a colleague he founded a paper called La Cronica Rossa, and it was in these pages that he began to oceupy himself with scientific literature, and to prove himself an enthusi- astic follower of Lombroso. He entered the best Italian newspaper, Corriere della Sera, as its legal editor, and thus became even more enamored of criminal anthropology. Intelligent, industrious, studi- ous, he dedicated himself to the new science with ardor, -and in a short time became allied to Lombroso and Morselli, who both ap- plauded his zeal and his methods of working. Together with Sighele he issued a publication on Criminal Anthropology, richly illustrated with pictures, diagrams, and statistics, which met with favor even outside of strictly scientific circles. A remarkable book published by him is the Romance of a Born Criminal, the GuGLieLmMo FrrrReEro.

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SCIENCE MONTHLY. 760 POPULAR autobiography of a convict, founded on authentic papers com- mitted to his hands by the eminent psychiatrist Silvio Venturi, director of the lunatic asylum at Catanzaro, a book which was translated immediately on its appearance into German, but which no English publisher has had the courage to issue, though it states at once in its preface that its scope is purely scientific, and that the word “ Romance ” is employed in a subjective sense. This piece of pathological literature throws a lurid light upon the inner nature of the criminal. Bianchi has written a long and careful preface, in which he points out just how and why this human document has sci- entific value. As yet, Bianchi has not had time to write many books, but his careful, studious articles are all of value, and denote his knowledge, intuition, and observation. Limits of space, which we have already exceeded, oblige us to leave unmentioned yet other valiant followers of criminal anthro- pology in Italy, but we hope we have said enough to prove that this science has in the peninsula both numerous and able adherents, and that Italy is justified in considering herself at the head and front of studies of this nature—a position which, indeed, few dispute to her. Seeing how useful is this science as an auxiliary to the right study of history, literature, and political economy, it would be well if its propagation were more encouraged at universities, in place of philosophy and metaphysics, which, when untouched by this new breath, have become fossilized and are as arid as they are sterile. THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. By WORTHINGTON C. FORD, CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS, TREASURY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D. ©. YEAR of abnormal conditions in trade and industry brings out a plentiful crop of predictions of great approaching changes. If the prophets of economic revolution, who base their prophecies upon half-digested statistics, were to be gathered, and their confident prognostications exhibited in the light of ascertained results, or even of rationally tested tendencies, the asylum of Laputa, as described by Swift, would be of secondary interest. We have been treated in recent years to many a sensational diagnosis of social trouble, fraught with dangers to the body politic. No one will deny that such dangers exist and are even threatening to break upon us or to carry on their operation until only an explosion can clear the atmosphere and permit a renovation on new lines of activity.

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. 761 It is because there are a number of true diseases of society to be met that the studied attempts to create new problems, neither im- minent nor at present active, must be deprecated. When th<sev attempts are based upon half knowledge of facts, to use no stronger term, they are still more to be discouraged as hostile to the welfare of the community, and as giving rise to policies that can only end in mischief or disaster. Much of the social unrest which finds expres- sion in political activity has been bred and fostered by the agitation of half truths or of falsehood clothed in a quasi-scientific garb. At present the question of the wheat supply of the world is prominent, and is being discussed in a manner that produces alarm, and with the alarm encourages every social quackery for its allevia- tion. Because the year 1897 was a phenomenal year in wheat— every one will admit that to be a fact—the fears of future famines and a general want throughout all wheat-consuming countries of the world are harped upon and magnified until the evidence seems to amount to a demonstration, and nothing remains for the civilized world but to become reconciled to a lowering of the standard of com- fort, the substitution of a cereal of secondary quality for one that ranks next to meat in high food efficiency. The corners of the world are ransacked for figures to bear out so dire a prediction. Decreasing acreage devoted to wheat, reduced yield of crops, falling per-capita consumption of wheat, and market prices that seem to bear out the fact of an approaching if not existing famine, every incident of de- pression is carefully collated, and a picture drawn which casts into shade the fearfulest famine experienced in the world’s history. The error underlying such a presentation is a very common one, for it involves a partial study of a problem where the factors are so many as to present a double difficulty. Not only must the facts and statistics be collected, but they must be arranged in such a form as to be both intelligent and intelligible. Every statistician does not deserve implicit confidence. The most difficult task of the user of statistics is to attain to a proper appreciation of the relative value of compilers of statistics. Even Government work, though covered by the shield “ official,” is not above criticism, and if a bureau with the weight and authority of Government behind it is liable to go wrong, how much more liable to this mischance is an individual, whose interest may mislead, or whose eagerness to establish a thesis may blind to certain important phases of the problem. In the statistical treatment of any question the greatest care is needed to test fully the combination of figures pre- sented, for a flaw in arrangement may lead to ridiculous conclusions. These precautions of appreciating men and their work are all the more necessary in matters where the statistics at hand are im- VOL. Lil,— 56

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762 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. perfect or incomplete. This is the case with all agricultural stg- tistics, and especially so with the returns of crops, always an estimate of uncertain foundation. No two fields of grain are exactly the same, and the variation of field to field is exaggerated when it is made the basis for an estimate of the condition or yield of crops in a town- ship, a community, or a State. The observers are different, and each observer would look at the same field through the medium of a personal equation. No general rules can be laid down for prepar- ing these estimates, and much latitude must be given to the agent. In our own crop service, as conducted by the Department of Agri- culture, the estimates of crop condition are based upon reports from 56,700 regular correspondents, reporting monthly, and 140,500 special correspondents, reporting at particular seasons of the year. Even the Secretary of Agriculture is not satisfied with this machin- ery. “I am much impressed,” he writes in his report for 1897, “ with the extreme cumbrousness of the system of crop reporting that has been in use in this division ” (of statistics) “ during the last few years. Instead of conducing to completeness and accuracy, it would appear from the report of the statistician to in some measure defeat its own object by its unwieldiness, and by the fact that the indefinite multiplication of crop reporters weakens the sense of individual re- sponsibility.” The defects of the system have been recognized by others, who are obliged to be informed on the crop conditions, and who have been compelled to look elsewhere than to the Department of Agriculture for crop returns and estimates. The “ commercial estimates ” prepared by experts, and checked by actual receipts or movement of grain, find a more ready acceptance than do the “ official” estimates. In the last season the commercial estimate placed the crop of wheat at 550,000,000 bushels, while the depart- ment forecast a yield of only 450,000,000 bushels, a difference too large to be admissible in a statistical examination of the same sub- ject. The reporters for the department, practical farmers as most of them were, did not wish to report a heavy crop, lest the market be influenced and prices fall. A short crop appeals more to their in- terest, and their estimate inclines, consciously or unconsciously, to an understatement of conditions. “The best authorities are now agreed that in 1891 the bureau (of agriculture) underestimated the American wheat crop by 73,000,000 bushels, in 1892 by 64,000,000 bushels, and in 1893 by 79,000,000 bushels.” * “In 1894 the Gov- ernment estimate in December of the wheat crop was 460,000,000 bushels, while the best commercial estimates of that year were 525,000,000 bushels.” + * New York Evening Post, August 11, 1897. + Ibid., August 16, 1897.

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. 763 It must be admitted that there are unusual difficulties in esti- mating such a crop as that of wheat. It is not purely a commercial crop, where the whole product comes into the market to be recorded commercially, as is the case with cotton. A part is consumed on the farm, another part is retained for seed, and the proportion of crop brought to market varies with the price offered and the necessi- ties of the farmer. There are many opportunities of error in arriving at the resultant of these patent conditions, without undertaking to measure other influences that tend to check or promote deliveries and free movement of wheat from the producer to the market, not to speak of the international competition that overshadows the whole subject. It is not a little absurd to dogmatize in the face of so many uncertainties, and all the more absurd when a limited space of time is taken for study. In commerce, the shortest period on which to determine the trend of movement should not be less than twenty years, and as many more years as the returns will permit strengthen the argument. In agriculture the same rule holds. There is an undoubted periodicity in the ebb and flow of industry and agricul- ture, of commercial and financial movement—waves of prosperity and depression. It would be as misleading to accept a year of de- pression for a standard as to apply a year of prosperity. In the wish to throw some statistical light upon the position of wheat, I have prepared some notes upon the conditions surrounding the production of this important cereal in different parts of the world, and the con- ditions controlling its commercial movement in some of the leading markets. As the trade returns of import are more accurate than those of export, I begin with a consideration of the great free wheat market of Great Britain. In 1849 the duty upon imported wheat was fixed at the nominal rate of one shilling per quarter. In ten years the trade had adapted itself to this rate, and no disturbing influence was exerted by any threatened change of rate, so that 1860 may be taken as a fair start- ing point for this examination. In that year the United Kingdom imported 25,484,151 quarters (one quarter equals eight bushels) of foreign wheat. Of this quantity the larger part—sixty-seven per cent—was obtained frm European countries, of which the more im- portant were Germany and Russia. Outside of Europe the leading sources of supply were the United States, Egypt, and British North America. The general relation of -those countries is shown as follows: bia ik cn ihe sis tnmininiess thane kamiealaed 5,638,299 quarters. citi diad ctebeioanesueecbaneeies 6,542,601 “ Ee Ee Pree ee ee 6,497,385 “ SRR Ee cree ene ee are ne Ee 854,815 “ British North America. ...........esceeeeees ee 794,829 “

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oe ee ce 2 ee Saco

oer cement S

764 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. The civil war in the United States and the financial measures taken by our Government had a temporary influence, first, to stimu- late exports, and secondly, to discourage them after the primary effect of an irredeemable paper currency had passed. The reaction was such as almost to destroy the ability of the United States to export wheat, and it was not till some years after the return of peace that its wheat recovered its true position in the English market, This course of the wheat trade was the most notable incident in the history of that trade since 1860, and a few figures are given to show its remarkable rise and fall. The comparison is of further interest as developing apparent sympathetic fluctuations in the imports from British North America and Egypt. The Canadian flow may be accounted for by the conditions then prevailing in the United States, but the Egyptian stands alone in its curious reflection of the rise and fall in American export.

a Imports into the United Kingdom from xports from Year. ,. , 4 _—e om ~~ = of United States.t| yt Egypt. quarter. | Bushels. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. &. 4d. ERA ee 4,155,153 6,497,335 794,829 854,815 53 3 Ee 31,238,057 10,866,891 | 2,381,275 1,472,514 54 4 aaa 37,289,572 16,140,670 | 3,732,959 3,289,156 55 —«#B acai di vas de 36,160,414 8,704,401 2,093,997 2,319,590 44 9 a eee 23,681,712 7,895,015 1,225,523 366,868 40 2 are 9,937,876 1,177,618 306,765 10,063 41 10 i. <b hed sees 5,579,103 635,239 8,789 33,831 49 ll - See 6,146,411 4,188,013 683,127 1,451,774 64 5 ee 15,940,899 5,908,149 557,443 3,219,536 638 9 See 17,557,836 13,181,507 2,723,053 1,004,479 48 2 Pad awewe eeu 36,584,115 12,371,922 | 2,838,361 104,950 46 10

In the period the need of England for foreign wheat increased, and yet one of the best countries of supply was, to all purposes, taken out of the race. In the five years (1861 to 1865) the average annual import of wheat was 24,902,576 hundredweight, and from 1866 to 1870 it was 31,807,745 hundredweight. The quantity received from Germany remained almost the same in the entire period, but the failure of the United States was in part made good by Russia, and in part by other countries of Europe, from which a small and somewhat unusual supply had been counted upon in the years past. The sudden appearance of these comparatively new sources of wheat, and their equally sudden disappearance, mark the exceptional con- ditions that gave them a temporary importance.

* Fiscal years, from Commerce and Navigation. + Calendar years, from English trade returns.

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. Imports of wheat into the United Kingdom from YEAR. France. Austria. Turkey. Chile. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. BBL. cccccccccccccsccccccs 783,913 378,244 1,005,768 178,980 ROOD. . .cccccccccssccceccces 974,285 785,451 1,759,411 284,735 OOD. . cc ccccccccccecccoeces 147,481 72,722 415,519 281,229 nn se eehedeee Seen eoees 587,105 11,041 482,994 190,881 DE ccccscerveceseoceosces 2,252,873 579,280 574,185 144,861 BL ceceseaceseccvecesess 3,473,130 1,326,529 528,483 308,810 Ere rrr 597,405 542,635 2,446,638 1,946,227 TOE. ccccccccccesecceceese 56,414 1,004,701 8,066,597 1,309,575 BED... ccccccccccccccccese 468,274 1,030,563 2,379,906 _ 567,107 Dc ceseasseececesseecece 253,644 60,472 489,421 599,337 Had this situation been discussed in the year 1866 or 1867, the critic might have concluded that America and Egypt were destined to fall out of the race as suppliers of wheat, and Russia, France, and Chile were to be the future wheat-growing countries. Two years later a new arrangement would have been found necessary, for Aus- tria and Turkey, the United States and Egypt were the rising coun- tries. So uncertain is a conclusion based upon a limited examina- tion. Neither combination of countries would have been accurate, for the decade 1870 to 1880 wrought a revolution in wheat produc- tion the true extent of which it is even now difficult to appreciate, and the effect of which is yet felt. A blow was struck at European wheat interests from which they have never recovered, and from which the probability is they never will recover. This revolution may be studied in clear outline in the conditions in Great Britain. The last vestige of a duty on imported wheat in the United Kingdom was removed in 1869. The duty of 1s. per quarter, which had been collected since 1849, could not have exerted any influence in encouraging the culture of wheat in the kingdom. In 1867 the acreage under wheat was 3,367,876 acres, and the deliver- ies of wheat in 170 towns, as reported to the Government, were 2,724,673 quarters. The price of wheat as given in the gazette was such as to encourage some expansion of acreage, but in two years prices again tended downward, and acreage was contracted; so that in 1875 the acreage returned was 3,342,481 acres, and the deliveries were 2,515,098 quarters. To that year the conditions appeared normal so far as the home wheat interest was concerned. A very different story is told by the imports. From 1871 to 1875 the average annual import was 43,756,956 hundredweight, and from 1876 to 1880 it rose to 52,696,932 hundredweight, or more than double the average import for 1861 to 1865. So large an increase in demand could not be met by continental Europe, though Russia did respond for two years, and at a rate which prom-

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ee a tS a a SS EE oS 766 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ised much. In 1871 Russia gave 15,654,000 hundredweight, and in the following year 17,855,658 hundredweight, a figure that was not again attained until 1888. This effort was all the more neceg- sary, as Germany cut down her quota of supplies from an average of more than 6,000,000 hundredweight a year to one of 3,000,000 hundredweight, and after a slight recovery in 1877 and 1878 began to fall rapidly in the rank of wheat exporters to insignificance after 1880. Thus, at a time when England required larger supplies of for- eign-grown wheat, Europe failed her. From 1871 to 1875 Europe gave an average of 18,138,823 hundredweight, and in 1876 to 1880 only two thirds of that quantity, or 12,806,670 hundredweight. Outside of Europe must be looked upon to make good the growing deficiency of European supplies. The reason of this change of sources is not far to seek. The land in Great Britain could be turned to more profitable use than for wheat-growing. Writing in 1878, before the full force of the current in agriculture could have been felt, Sir James Caird said: “ Excluding good lands capable of being rendered. fertile by drain- age, we appear to have approached a point in agricultural production beyond which capital can be otherwise more profitably expended in this country than in further attempting to force our poorer class of soils. It is cheaper for us as a nation to get the surplus from the richer lands of America and southern Russia, where the virgin soil is still unexhausted; or from the more ancient agriculture of India, which, with its cheap and abundant labor more skillfully applied, and its means of transport extended and better utilized, seems destined to become one of the principal sources of our future supply of corn (wheat).” * At the time this was written it was assumed that the cost of transporting a bushel of wheat from a distant country was about the same as the rent paid by the wheat farmer in Great Britain. Given ordinarily good returns, the home-grown wheat could meet the for- eign wheat on an equality. Two circumstances combined to destroy this relation. The one was an extraordinary succession of bad sea- sons in England, and the other was such a development of produc- tion abroad as to result in a permanently lower range of price. This situation brought to bear an enormous pressure on agricultural prop- erties, and a tendency to reduce rents. The first notable drop in the wheat acreage in England occurred in 1876, and was due to the great floods in the autumn seedtime of 1875, which prevented a considerable proportion of the land being sown.t In 1874 the acres returned under wheat were 3,391,440; in 1875, 3,128,547; and in 1876, only 2,823,342, a loss in two Ibid., p. 9. t »P * Caird. The Landed Interest, p. 6.

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. 767 ears of one sixth of the area. There was a recovery of about 200,000 acres in the years 1877 and 1878, but not only was this recovery lost in 1879, 105,000 acres more went out of wheat culti- vation. ‘The crop returns of these years tell a doleful story. In 1875 they reported “ much under average ”; in 1876, “ under aver- e”; in 1877, “much under average ”; in 1878, “ over average ”’; and in 1879, thought to be the culmination of a series of bad years, “much under average.” From 1866 to 1870 the average yield per acre was 264 bushels, but from 1875 to 1880 this average was twice touched, and in 1879 the complete returns gave a yield of only 18 bushels to the acre, a record that marked a year of disaster. It will be of interest to show how far these adverse conditions were due to natural causes, and therefore beyond the power of farmer or legislator to modify or even to forecast. The weather of 1875 was “cold, ungenial, and unsettled. The spring was one of the coldest, bleakest, and most backward of the century. In July came heavy, chill, and destructive rains, destroying the hay and the roots, and blighting the prospects of any abundant corn crops.” * In the next year, 1876, the hot weather of June and July came too late to mature the crops, and the result was not satisfactory—a crop “of a very imperfect character.” + Conditions were brighter in 1878. The crop was only an aver- age one, but that seemed grateful to the farmers after three bad harvests in succession. Whatever hopes were raised by favoring markets and improved returns were dashed in 1879, a year of disas- ter in agriculture, and giving the worst crop of wheat since 1816.t As agriculture represented one tenth of the total produce of the country, and hardly a branch of agriculture escaped injury, the mischief was so pronounced as to call for an examination by a royal commission. The London Statist, a conservative and able judge, thus summed up the agricultural operations of 1879, a year that many thought marked the total ruin of the British farmer: “There ean be no doubt as regards the corn crops that last season was one of the worst on record. After the harvest each succeeding estimate of the yield of the wheat crop appeared to be worse than its prede- cessor, and these low estimates have been fully confirmed by the remarkable falling off in the quantities brought to market. The reduction of yield must have been at least thirty per cent below the average. . . . The barley harvest has also been most deficient, the result being peculiarly disastrous to the excise revenue. In minor crops, such as hops, there has been quite as serious failure. The sea- son has also been far from favorable to green crops and live stock.’’* * London Economist, March 11, 1876. + Thid., March 10, 1877. ¢ London Times. * Statist, January 31, 1880.

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768 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. It is not to be denied that other causes contributed to depress agriculture in England—causes which operated on every form of industry and commercial activity. The Franco-Prussian War checked exports to two very good customers of English industries; the financial crisis of 1873. was world-wide in its influence; in 1875 came the collapse of many foreign loans, ending in default, ruin, and great suffering to the many who had put their savings into such risks. In 1877 Russia and Turkey went to war, one of the effects of which was to close the ports of both countries and thereby lessen the quantity of wheat exported. In 1878 the City of Glasgow Bank failed and produced a commercial crisis—the last of the important events before the revival of trade and industry began to make itself felt in 1879. But it was the climatic conditions that weighed most heavily upon the farmer, preventing him from meeting his losses, or even from putting himself in a condition to meet the competition of the foreigner. He no longer enjoyed a natural protection of dis- tance. That margin had long since been wiped out by falling prices in the home market, in the places of production, and in the cost of transportation. In 1872 the gazette price of wheat was 57s. the quarter, and the quotation did not fall below 55s. until 1875, when 45s. 2d. was given—a low return in comparison with the previous ten years. A rise brought it up to 56s. 9d. in 1877, but a fall to 46s. 5d. in 1878, severe as it was, gave a price that has not since been recorded. From that year the market value of wheat steadily declined. The English farmer thus contended against a double pressure— bad seasons and a foreign competition that was in a position to dictate prices. Against both he was powerless, though he could break the full force of the blow from competition by changing his culture, as in growing barley in place of wheat, or by more carefully selecting his lands, and appropriating them to the most distinctly suitable form of crop. As a fact, these measures were adopted on an extensive scale. In England the period 1870 to 1879 gave a decreased acre- age under wheat of 529,000 acres, and an increased acreage under barley of 229,000 acres. At the instance of the royal commission, two of its members visited the United States, and in an able report gave figures to prove that wheat could not be grown in the United States in an average of years and delivered in Great Britain much below 48s. a quarter. This would have been comforting had it been capable of demonstra- tion. Unfortunately for the farmer, the market quotations and the import movement of wheat directly disproved such a hard-and- fast limit. The highest authority on agriculture, Mr. Caird, reiter- ated his warnings of continued pressure: “Our system of agricul-

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. 769 ture is thus already beginning to accommodate itself to the change which American competition will certainly render necessary. In the northern and western parts of the country, where live stock pre- dominates over corn, and where the labor bill is comparatively mod- erate, the effects of this connection are little felt, and the suffering that has arisen of late years has been more the result of ungenial sea- sons and grazings unthrifty for the herds and flocks. In the corn districts the loss has been greater, because not only were the crops inferior, but prices were low, while the labor was very costly. In the least fertile tracts of poor clay, where every operation is ex- pensive and the Jand is unkindly for grass, it must either go out of cultivation or be turned to some other purpose than that of growing food. It is hopeless to expect that such soils can maintain their old position. Indeed, nothing but the greatest prudence and freedom of action will carry our landowners and farmers, on even the better class of corn lands, through the earlier years of the competition on which they are entered.” * The estimates of the losses suffered by the British farmer through the succession of “calamitous” seasons from 1873 to 1879 varied widely, but all agreed in naming a very large amount. Only two good crops in ten years, and the last of the series, that of 1879, the “worst of the century,” naturally gave a severe and, as it proved, a lasting blow to wheat-growing in England. Indeed, the loss was placed at one third of the total farming capital of the kingdom, and in many corn (or wheat) districts more than one half of the farmers’ capital had disappeared. The acreage under wheat, the gazette price, and the imports of foreign supplies during this period make an interesting and suggestive study. YEAR. Wheat acreage. Gerquaher, | Total imports, | 'mports from Acres. &. d. Cwt. Cwt. Pa siccessGenatovevennnans 3,571,894 56 C8 39,389,803 | 20,667,593 bt sae eke eendniond es énee 3,598,957 57 42,127,726 26,543,585 Serene 3,490,380 58 O88 43,863,098 14,392,135 Minheniwhines awebeee as 3,630,300 55 8 | 41,527,638 | 10,109,357 ____ SSSRSUSRAPPORew anne ..+| 3,842,481 45 2 | 651,876,517 | 18,981,444 Diiénediistsenthasereye 2,995,957 46 2 | 44,454,657 | 13,208,705 Ree 3,168,540 5609 54,269,800 19,642,475 a ee 3,218,417 46 5 49,906,484 | 14,614,540 rtkkihebee pedekeneeael 2,890,244 43 10 59,591,795 11,908,821 Pe bbbdsineudeccdcedcenad | 2,909,438 44 4 55,261,924 4,658,807 These figures alone would be sufficient to indicate a revolution in the wheat interests of Great Britain. The acreage under wheat * Address as President of the Royal Statistical Society, 1880. VOL. Lit.—57

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770 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. decreased nearly one fifth, yet the price of wheat fell in more than the same proportion. The supplies obtained from European coun- tries fell off in quantity, and would, indeed, have fallen to nothing had it not been for Russia. With her black-earth region, rapidly settled by her own population, she was in nearly the same position as the United States, and responded for a time freely to the demands of the English market. The economic movement thus fixed upon English wheat inter- ests by adverse conditions proceeded rapidly in the ten years follow- ing 1880, and the great changes occurrerd not in England itself, but in the development of competition among outside growers of wheat for export. In 1880 and 1881 it seemed as if the United States held a practical monopoly of the British wheat market. In thesé years nearly two thirds of the total imports came from the United States, and British India was the only competitor in sight, but far behind America in importance. The quantities of wheat taken from our producers have never since been equaled, and still stand as the ree- ord years in this one line of exports. For the rest of the decade the movement fluctuated within wide limits, and it seemed at times as if the position of American wheat in England was seriously threatened. Russia showed a remarkable increase in an ability to export, while British India, its own population not being consumers of wheat, was thought to offer an almost unlimited field for wheat culture and commerce, limited, in fact, only by the difficulties of assuring certain water supply and ready means of transport. A new and not unfa- vored competitor gave signs of activity in Australasia, while before the year 1890 experts were speculating upon the possibilities of Argentina as a wheat country. Europe, outside of Russia, was prac- tically out of the race; but that loss was more than made good by so many new countries coming forward with a promise of abundant and cheap production. The former table on acreage and price in England is here continued for the decade 1881 and 1890: Imports from - leap Gazette price : YEAR. Wheat acreage. per quanter. Total imports. | Europe. Russia. Acres. 8. d,. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. re | 2,805,809 45 57,147,933 5,680,921 4,046,849 ear 3,003,960 45 64,240,749 13,511,881 9,575,632 4 1 j i ecucaie | 2,613,162 41 7 | 64,138,631 | 18,523,701 | 13,346,762 RRO | 2,677,038 35 «8 47,306,156 | 7,844,097 | 5,402,896 0 TE wcsienaden | 2,478,318 32 1 61,498,864 | 15,778,873 | 11,975,644 RR 2,285,905 31 | 47,438,806 | 5,840,829 | 8,720,662 Ti nateucede’ | 2317,324 32 6 | 55,802,518 | 7,796,303 | 5,501,380 SPER: | 2,564,237 31 10 | 57,261,363 | 26,880,596 | 21,460,346 i nciakeced | 9'449'354 29 «9 58,551,887 | 28,649,886 | 21,820,304 tina wibe | 2,886,336 31 11 | 60,474,180 26,473,442 | 19,389,025

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THE QUESTION OF WHEAT. 771 Interesting as has been the record of wheat imports into the United Kingdom for the twenty years from 1871 to 1890, the course of events since has been sensational in their number and suddenness. The famine of 1891 in Russia crippled her export trade for the time, ‘and, indeed, threatened to destroy it by the necessity of creating deposits of grain to guard against the recurrence of so dread a visita- tion. A series of poor crops in India raised domestic prices of grains to a point at which shipments became unprofitable, and this weak- ening of wheat supply culminated in the plagvs and famine which wiped Indian wheat out of the European market. Argentina began to fulfill its promise of production, and after a meteoric progress col- lapsed in disaster, its entire crop being destroyed by a plague of locusts. Russia and the United States alone remained as a source of supply, and under the stress of demand the price of wheat rose rapidly in 1897. These various conditions may best be related in the next article. The English wheat acreage meanwhile has gone steadily down under the strain of outside competition. In 1895 only 1,417,483 acres were returned as under wheat—a loss of nearly 2,000,000 acres since 1867. The prediction that the United States could not export wheat under 48s. per quarter has been answered by continued ex- port with wheat at 22s. per quarter. A royal commission on agri- culture can make no definite suggestion for its betterment, and the following tables express more eloquently than could any words the kaleidoscopic changes in sources of imports since 1890, all of which have depressed wheat-growing in England, while shuffling these outside sources of supply in a manner truly remarkable. As a rec- ord of sudden change, these figures could hardly be matched in recent economic experience: Imports of wheat into the United Kingdom. Yuar. | Total imports. a a | From Europe. From India. United States. pe. | Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. ik¢ineenesdl 66,312,962 18,126,326 | 13,005,785 24,194,945 2,478,456 i aiekanen 64,901,799 6,290,313 | 12,495,442 33,886,742 8,466,096 | | 65,461,988 | 10,619,692 6,196,096 32,262 848 7,845,587 = 70,126,232 | 17,958,758 5,349,056 24,658,245 | 13,272,152 rare .| 81,749,955 27,095,355 8,802,950 27,084,120 | 11,400,360 See 70,025,980 | 26,674,110 2,112,940 30,694,900 4,927,600 ee 62,743,280 19,470,280 | 572,760 34,603,200 933,100 A period of stress such as English agriculture has passed through leaves its permanent results, and the social changes wrought in the British Islands have been great and trying. The landowner has seen his rents fall to a point below which no profit can accrue from

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772 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. keeping his lands under wheat. The land occupier has seen his profit wiped out, and has been forced to obtain a reduction in rent, or to migrate to the towns, colonies, or foreign countries. The farm laborer, never in even a good position, has found precarious work, and has become migratory in his restlessness. This has been fol- lowed by a rise in wages, through the scarcity of farm hands, but the employers complain that under higher wages less and therefore more costly results are obtained. The value of land in the return for taxation shows a great shrinkage. In 1872 the value of lands in England so returned was £48,964,149, and it increased each year, reaching a maximum of £51,811,234 in 1877. In 1895 it had fallen to £39,680,346—a decrease of twenty-three per cent, or nearly one fourth. This becomes the more striking when compared with the rise in the value of houses from £76,475,194 in 1872, to £133,511,890 in 1895. From these figures it may be judged how severe has been the crisis in English agriculture, yet a crisis that has not permanently increased the cost of wheat and thus burdened the other industries of the empire. —_-o—___ A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. By EMMA G. CUMMINGS. 7 ITHOUT indulging in too familiar details of an ocean voy- age, let me briefly sketch some interesting features of my visit to Nassau in the month of March, for the island of New Provi- dence is unique and interesting on account of its wonderful flowers and trees as well as the curious customs of its picturesque natives. One interesting bit of the voyage from New York was the sight of the “ Sargasso Sea,” which we reached the third day out, after crossing the Gulf Stream. We came upon water of an intensely dark, indigo blue, filled with lovely delicate floating seaweeds, such as we had never seen before. It seemed impossible to believe that the water itself was entirely colorless, and one young lady on board in- sisted that the captain must be wrong in saying it was the same as the rest of the ocean; whereupon the captain ordered a bucketful to be dipped up, when it was found to be no bluer than the rest. The next day we reached Nassau. Clad in our thinnest summer clothes, we left the steamer outside the bar and were taken on a tender up to the wharf, where the usual crowd of natives had gath- ered to see us land. For the most part they were a leisurely and good-natured lot of colored people, for negroes far outnumber the whites. Looking over the rail on the other side of the tender, an

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 773 unusual sight met our gaze. A dozen or more boys in small boats, scantily clad, were clamoring, “ Boss, please now a penny!” and as the passengers threw small coins, the nearly naked boys dived for them into the exquisitely clear green water, often catching them before they reached the bottom. They are expert swimmers, as the following story will show: A few years ago a wrecking crew was ordered from New York to take the cargo from a sunken vessel; but, before they arrived upon the scene, the natives had descended to the hold of the vessel with grappling irons, attached them to the cargo, and raised it. As soon as we landed, our baggage was examined by the custom- house officers—important-looking colored men dressed uniformly in dark-blue trousers, with a red _ stripe down the side, white linen jackets, and white pith hats. Boys of every age and various cast of fea- tures, showing their gleaming white teeth, begged to take our parcels to the hotel. As we sat in the cage- like shed which serves as a customhouse we were at once im- pressed with the sense that the island of New Providence was indeed a foreign land, most _pictur- esque, fascinating, and distinctly tropi- eal, with its tall cocoa palms here and there waving above the other trees and the house-tops. Our attention was particularly attracted to the trees about the wharf and along the main street. At first we thought they were mag- nolias, and it was hard to believe they were not members of that family, so striking a resemblance do they bear with their large, shin- ing leaves. They are known as almond trees, the Demerara almond (Terminalia catappa), but are not the almond of commerce. A conspicuous tree, resembling the pine, is the cassowary es yey Cocoanut Pats.

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774 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. (Casuarina equisetifolia), so called from the likeness of its long, delicate branches to the hair of the cassowary, and equisetifolia, be- cause its stems and leaves are like our common weed equisetum, or horsetail. This tree is a native of the East, and is introduced now Cassowary TrEEs, Bay STREET. through all tropical countries. The button tree (Thespesia popul- nea) is thus called from its buttonlike fruit, and is common about the town. The vegetation was new and curious to our Northern eyes, each step revealing plants and trees hitherto unknown. How to know them was a problem, because we were interested in these beautiful surroundings, but could find no one who could give us reliable in- formation. A few plants that were familiar to us in greenhouses in the North grow in Nassau as common garden plants. Some that we recognized were the poinsettia; oleanders, growing to the height of twenty-five feet, with flowers varying from white to pink and deep crimson; hibiscus, with hundreds of blossoms on a single shrub;

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 775 castor beans, morning-glories, lantanas, four-o’clocks, and tecomas, with their white and yellow blossoms, at this season the most con- spicuous wild flowers; and the life plant (Bryophyllum calycinum), a single leaf of which, if pinned to the wall of a room, will send out rootlets and grow. ‘These last are seen in every direction, and grow wild among the rocks. Orchids, air plants (epiphytes), and palmet- tos, which are so carefully cherished in our hothouses or homes, here run wild and cover large areas of waste land. Cacti, agaves and aloes are common, and from them good commercial fibers are made. Sisal hemp and sisal grass are terms used for fibers of probably more than one species of agave. They have always grown wild on the islands, and were formerly considered a nuisance. Of late years the production of sisal has formed a large industry, and hundreds of acres are given up to the growth of the plant, which thrives on the poorest soil. The cultivation of sisal is only exceeded in extent by the sponge industry, in which six thousand people and a great many small vessels are engaged, Nassau being the principal port for sponge trading in the West Indies. The men engaged in gathering the sponges go off on cruises of five or six weeks. They get the sponges by means of a hook attached to a long pole, and then leave them in the sun till the animal matter decays. They are then brought to the sponge exchange, sold in large quantities, and afterward taken by each buyer to his wharf. Here women are employed in cutting, trimming, and packing them for exportation. In early spring, before the trees put forth their leaves—for there are many deciduous trees even in a tropical region—there are fewer flowers in bloom than later in the season. Some have their season of growth and rest, though the climate has a nearly equal temperature throughout the year, while other trees and plants, like tea and coffee, produce several crops annually. In tropical regions, sequence of crops depends largely upon a rainy and a dry season. The absence of grass is quite noticeable. Very few cows are kept, and this has its effect upon food, as condensed milk must always be used. A tree of great interest, particularly to those interested in the dissemina- tion of seeds, is the sand-box (Hura crepitans). Its pods explode with a pistol-like noise, scattering the seeds to a great distance. I secured a good specimen, and. packed it carefully in a box. Some five or six weeks later, when at home, I untied the pod and put it on the table with a collection of corals, shells, and curios from the West Indies. Coming home one day, I was told that it would be unsafe ever to go out again and leave Sam, the pet cat, alone in the sitting room, for he had been on the table and made great havoc, scattering sponges, shells, etc., all over the room. I rushed to see if any of my specimens had suffered, and found that not Sam, but

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776 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the sand-box, had been the cause of the disaster. Travelers relate many interesting and curious stories about the sand-box. One day, seeing some curious-looking pods in a store, we in- quired where they grew, and were directed to the yard of a good- natured and amiable negro woman. She designated two large trees as the King and Queen; a very pretty idea, since they are dicecious— that is, one bears unfertile or staminate flowers only, and corresponds to the male, while the other bears fertile or pistillate flowers only, and corresponds to the female. The latter is the pod-bearing tree, Ce Oe ye > je Monkey TAMARIND TREES. and the smaller of the two. ‘The trees are very old, one having a girth of twenty feet at six feet from the ground. Its name, monkey tamarind (Adansonia digitata), is given from the fact that in Jamaica monkeys are sometimes caught while attempting to obtain the seeds from the large woody pods which the tree produces. The true tamarind (Tamarindus indica) of the West Indies is also a large tree with delicate spreading foliage, and is distinguished by its brown leguminous pods. We bought these at the market and ate the acid pulp which surrounds the seeds. With the aid of sugar it makes a palatable drink. When sold for commerce, and used for medicinal purposes, the pods are removed, but the seeds remain connected together by a fibrous string. There are several species

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 777 of trees in Nassau belonging to this same family, the Leguminosae, having pulselike fruit, as the sweet pea and honey locust, although the pods vary greatly in shape and size. One of these, that loses its leaves in the winter season, has hanging upon its branches a great number of delicate pale-yellow pods, about eight inches long, which, swaying in the wind, so fill the air with a soft, murmuring noise that it has been called the singing tree (Albizzia Lebbek). They are plen- tiful about the town. Another species (Poinciana pulcherrima), nearly related to the sensitive plant (Mimosa), also loses its leaves in the winter, but bears pods quite different in appearance. These pods are long, some measuring twenty-four inches, dark-colored, even almost black. A fine group of these trees surrounds the library building. A few vines belonging to this family are interest- ing, especially the Abrus precatorius, or wild licorice. Twining over the tops of the trees, it produces small pods growing in clusters, in which are bright-red seeds with a black spot on one end. These seeds are known to almost all children as Guiana peas or “ Black-eyed Susans.” They have been extensively used for ornaments in shell work, and it is not uncommon to hear people say they thought they were a kind of shell or some part of one, so associated are they with such work. Then there is the nicker (Guilandina), a prickly trailing shrub. We were told that boys take the yellow or olive- colored seeds from the flattened prickly pods and use them instead of marbles for playing games. There are pods of an innumerable variety of shapes and sizes, some that twist in opening, others that curl—in fact, pods of every description are to be found in this re- gion. The most remarkable tree on the island of New Providence is without quesion a specimen of the silk cotton (Bombax Ceiba), situated near the post office and prison. Growing from its trunk are half a dozen buttresslike extensions, as if to make a firm footing for its great spread of branches of one hundred and sixteen feet. A little boy, to whom I showed a photograph of it, expressed its appear- ance very well when he said the spaces between the buttresses would make fine horse stalls. The pods which grow on the tree contain a soft, silky material which the natives sometimes use for stuffing pil- lows. There are more of these trees, but none so large or old as this one, and we heard no estimate of its age. It is a near relative of the monkey tamarind. Between this Bombax and the library is an avenue of Spanish laurel, a member of the fig family—untidy and inelegant trees, with a growth of roots hanging from their branches which never reach the ground. We saw in the hospital grounds a specimen of the same family, which is called the wild fig. About three miles from Nassau is another species of fig, errone-

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778 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ously called Ficus indica, or banyan tree of India. It has the same habit of growth as the banyan, sending down fibers which sink into the soil. These fibers take root, and in turn become parent trunks, shooting out new branches, which in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, produce still other branches. A] these trees bear fruit, but the figs are small and unfit for eating. Ficus carica, the fig of commerce, and the India-rubber tree belong to the same family, and are all characterized by a milky juice. On these islands there are large timber trees, including, among others, the mahogany, mastic, lignum vite, ete. Some trees, like the cinna- mon, are valuable for their bark; others, like the logwood and fustic, are useful for their dyes. On one of our several pleasant excursions we drove through the pine woods and palmettos to Lake Killarney. Here we saw the only species of pine growing on the island (Pinus bahamensis), and along the roadside we noticed the beautiful and conspicuous shrub, the sappens (Chrysophyllum oliveforme), with its shining green leaves above, and below a down of rich golden-brown color. The shores of the lake are lined with mangrove trees, which send out aérial roots from their branches. They descend in arched fashion, strike at some distance from the parent stem, and send up new trunks, spreading like the banyan. The south shore of the island is also overrun with the mangrove, the salt water at high tide surrounding many of the bushes, giving a curious effect for miles along the shore. Other excursions that we took included the bathing beach, the caves to the west of Nassau, and the remarkable Lake of Waterloo, which should be visited after dark in order that its wonderful phos- phorescence may be seen. The greatest charm and wonder was a sail of three to six miles to the sea garden. Leaving the sailboat, we stepped into a dory with a glass bottom, through which the mys- teries of the deep were as plainly seen as if only at the depth of a pail of water. On the white sand, fifteen or twenty feet below us, we saw coral, sea fans, and sponges, while exquisitely colored fish darted in and out among the waving forms of life. Several times in the early morning we visited the market, which is of great interest. Here it is not infrequent to see three or four tomatoes, as many onions, and a little piece of garlic arranged to- gether on a barrel head. The sale of two or three such lots con- stitutes a day’s business, for the needs of the people are small. The natives walk from the surrounding country to the city, bringing the fruit in baskets or trays balagced on their heads. The sapodilla is one of the cheapest and most abundant of fruits. The tree is very handsome with its glossy foliage, and freely bears a chocolate-col- ored fruit about the shape of a peach and as variable in size. These

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 779 are usually sold for a few cents, often being placed in small lots upon the ground or sidewalk. Any one wishing to buy a bushel of them, or, in fact, any other fruit, must visit half a dozen places in order to secure the quantity desired. Unripe cocoanuts are highly in favor. After the fluid with which the nut is filled has been drunk, the albumin or jellylike substance is eaten with a spoon. Hence the term “ jelly cocoanut.” Thege can not be procured from the tall trees, as the method of gathering the ripe fruit would break those that are unripe. Boys climb the tall, straight trunks and A Srreer in Nassav. throw down the ripe fruit, which does not crack, or it is sometimes allowed to remain until it drops of itself. It is usual to pay the boys by giving them two out of every dozen. Sweet potatoes and yams are used extensively for food, and both are said to contain more nutriment than the common potato. The sugar cane, from eight to ten feet in length, is often seen in the market. A native referring to it will say that he has had a “long breakfast.” Bananas, plan- tains, and oranges are among the most abundant fruits. The banana

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SE a Le nn EE oe ET RRR “ees RETR RERERE RE ES UT ee = 780 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and plantain were formerly considered as distinct species, but now the plantain is regarded as a variety of the banana (Musa sq- pientum). The name of the plantain (Musa paradisiaca) origi- nated with the Christians in the East, as they thought it to be the forbidden fruit of paradise. The plantain is cooked and eaten as a vegetable, but is not exported to any extent. It is said to be “ to the inhabitants of the torrid zone what bread and potatoes are to those Buyine Sweet Potatoes. of the north temperate zone,” for a pound of plantains contains more nutriment than three pounds of meat.* It is also the most prolific of all food plants known. Humboldt, the German naturalist, cal- culated that thirty-three pounds of wheat and ninety-eight pounds of potatoes require for their growth the same space of ground as will produce four thousand pounds of bananas. Such a striking state- ment would seem to need verification, yet the yield is undoubtedly very great. The banana plant rises from fifteen to twenty feet in height, terminated by a tuft of enormous light-green leaves six to ten feet long, which are at first undivided, but are gradually split up by the wind. From the center issues a stalk bearing the fruit, which gradually turns upward, while the stalk itself continues to grow down, and this end is termed the “ banana bob.” As, we are accus- * Text-book of Tropical Agriculture. By H. A. Alford Nicholls.

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 781 tomed to seeing the bunches in shop windows or in the markets, they are suspended in the direction opposite to that from which they grow. ‘The orange, one of the most important of all fruits, and its allied species, lime, lemon, called there “sour,” grape fruit, and shaddock, grow abundantly on the islands. The orange tree is the hardiest member of the citrus family, and is raised farther north than most fruits that grow in the tropics. There is a variety known as the sour orange, some plants of which have become wild, and are known as bitter-sweets. They are very juicy, and have a slight acid flavor. We bought fruit of a greenish color, which did not look ripe, and certainly did not taste as agreeable as the rich gvsu* kind we are accustomed to. It is a mistake to say that oranges are no longer raised from seeds, for that is the customary method of propa- gation throughout the West Indies. The cultivation of the pine- apple is one of the industries of the Bahamas, but they are not grown to any extent on the island of New Providence. The de- composed coral rock of these islands is a favorable soil for their cul- tivation. They grow singly upon plants which attain an average height of about a foot and a half, and have long, narrow leaves with sharp, serrated edges. Consequently, the men, women, and children working among them are obliged to protect their legs with strong canvas leggings, and their hands with heavy gloves, to which gauntlets are attached. We bought soursops, custard apples, and star apples in the market. Many other fruits that grow on this island were not ripe at the time we were there. They include water- melon, pumpkin, alligator or avocado pear, guava, groundnut or pea- nut, papaw, seaside grape, cocoa plum, cucumber, rose apple, bread- fruit, egg plant, cashew nut, and mammee. Owing to the rapid ripening and decay of these fruits after being picked, it is almost impossible to export them with success. Pineapples, oranges, ba- nanas, and cocoanuts are the principal fruits that are exported; the two latter, with plantains, can be obtained throughout the year. Most of the fruits grow spontaneously, but the breadfruit has been introduced. In 1787 the English Government sent the bark Bounty, commanded by Captain Bligh, to take young trees of the breadfruit from Otaheite to the West India Islands. Owing to the mutiny of the crew, the transfer of the trees was not accomplished till several years later. One of the first questions we would ask our guide and driver when we saw a new fruit was, “Is it good to eat?” On one occa- sion, referring to the sailor’s apple, he said, “ If yer eat it, itll do ver up”; of another he said, “ It’ll put yer in yer grave.” The seaside grape, sailor’s apple, and many other trees and shrubs that grow in barren or exposed places have their leaves standing vertically, so

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782 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. that less surface is exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The result is that such trees give but little shade, as the light is not interrupted in its passage to so great an extent as it is by the leaves of ordinary Native Twins. trees. In situations where it is necessary for plants to economize their water supply and prevent undue evaporation, they adapt them- selves in various ways for this purpose. Some grow thick, leathery leaves; others have a waxlike or hairy coating; and still others, like the cacti, have thick, succulent stems in the place of leaves. Many of our own desert or seashore plants have adopted one or more of these methods. The soil, though thin, is fertile, but there are no streams of running water on any of the Bahama Islands except that of Andros. The streets of Nassau and the roads of the surrounding country con- sist of the coralline rock which underlies the soil. They are white and dazzling, and are kept in repair by the Government. The work is done usually by the prisoners, dressed in prison garb of blue and white striped cotton. The coralline rock is porous and looks not unlike the result of volcanic action. In some places the rocky ground is honeycombed with holes three to ten feet deep, called “ pot- holes,” in which bananas, especially, like to grow. On the deep sides of one hole we saw a luxuriant growth of delicate ferns. We found the natives very much afraid of a camera, believing

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A SPRING VISIT TO NASSAU. 783 that it was the Evil Eye fixed upon them, so that many a good opportunity for a snap shot was lost by the sudden hiding or covering of the face of the picturesque negro. Sometimes they could be per- suaded for a penny or two to grant one’s request to “ wait a minute.” In some cases, discovering that they had been “ took,” they would ask for a penny indemnity. One day, just as I was about to photo- graph two little children, the angry mother appeared, severely scold- ing because some one had not bargained for a penny. The small children are scantily clad with a single garment, while the women wear white calico dresses, white aprons, and bright-colored plaid handkerchiefs tied around their heads under straw hats. They may or may not be barefooted. The homes of these people are pic- turesque, especially in the village of Grantstown, where the little huts, often thatched with palmettos, nestle among luxuriant tropical gardens, and the cocoanut palms wave above bananas, oleanders, datura, and sapodilla trees. The houses have no glass in the win- dows, but instead have shutters with bars, which are the only means Native Hut, Grantstown. of closing the windows. There are never chimneys, for the cooking is all done out of doors, a black pot, with legs suspended over a fire of fagots, serving for general use. Men, women, and children speak to travelers, and expect a word of recognition in return. When

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 784 we had taken our last drive, my companion gave our driver a small fee, saying that it was because he was such a good botanist, for he really had been able to tell us the popular names of many plants, He laughed, and as he seemed so much pleased, I said, “ James, | suppose you know what botanist means?” “Yes,” he answered, “T ’spose it’s some kind of a good boy.” MIGRATION. By W. K. BROOKS, LL. D., PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. T T is easy to understand how natural selection may modify organ- isms for the good of the species, even at the expense of the in- dividuals which, in each generation, make up the species; but it is difficult to understand how this can be brought about by nurture, for, so far as the direct action of the conditions of life is concerned, the species is identical with the sum of the individuals which now exist. No illustration of the law that the adaptations of living Nature are for the good of the species, and that when this comes into con- flict with the welfare of the individuals, these are sacrificed, is more simple or more easy to understand than that afforded by some of the phenomena of migration. The young salmon which is born in a mountain stream is soon impelled, by something in its nature, to journey downward, even for many hundred miles, until it reaches the unknown ocean, where it would discover, if it had faculties for anything so subjective as dis- covery, that, while it was born in a little brook, it was made for life in the great ocean. It has brought from its mountain home a natural aptitude for eluding all the strange enemies and for avoid- ing all the novel dangers which it meets in this new world, and it leads an active, predatory life, fiercely pursuing and destroy- ing its natural but hitherto unknown prey; for growing rapidly, and quickly acquiring all the characteristics of the adult salmon, and storing up the intense nervous energy and the muscular strength which will be needed for forcing its way up the rapids in the mountain torrents, for leaping waterfalls, and fighting for its passage, where it long ago darted down with the current. As sexual maturity approaches;some stimulus, which has its origin in the developing reproductive organs, impels it to leave the ocean and, entering the mouth of a river, to journey upward, often a thousand miles or more, to its sources in the mountains. At this time the king of fishes, as it is well called, is in physical perfection, with few rivals in beauty or strength or fierce energy, or

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MIGRATION. 785 indomitable courage and perseverance; but its strength is soon fully taxed in surmounting the obstacles and in fighting the rivals which oppose its progress, until at last, worn and thin, torn and mangled by battle, and battered by rocks and whirlpools, with its skin in rags, its fins crippled and bleeding, and its whole body from nose to tail bruised and emaciated, nothing of its kingly nature remains except the indomitable impulse, which no hardship can quench, still urging it upward, until, if any life is left, it at last reaches the breed- ing ground. One of the most magnificent species of this kingly genus was so abundant in the Columbia River before canning houses had reduced its numbers, that the town reaches were packed with salmon, while the surface was covered with the drifting bodies of those that had perished in fierce struggles with the crowd; yet there is good au- thority for the assertion that not a single one ever returns alive from the breeding grounds in the head waters of the St. Cloud. The whole race is wiped out, utterly exterminated, as soon as it arrives at maturity and physical perfection, in order that the perpetuation of the species may be assured. The whole object and end of the beautifully co-ordinated body, which is provided for by such admi- rable and wonderful adaptations, which is built up so slowly and at so much cost, is rapid and total destruction. The marvelous instinct which leads the young fish to the ocean, the organization and the habits which fit it for its marine life—all, in a word, which makes of the salmon our ideal of a lordly fish—is worth nothing as compared with the welfare of generations yet unborn. Scientific men who are not zodlogists are fond of telling us that science has nothing to do with the Why? and is only concerned with the How? and while this may perhaps be true in the ultimate or philosophical sense of the words, it is often easy in zodlogy to discern why an action is performed, while we are very ignorant of the struc- tural conditions under which it takes place. As all the individual California salmon seem to act alike, and as the young salmon has no parental instruction, it seems probable that everything it does is the result of its structure or of such nur- ture as this structure provides for; and yet we may safely say that no one now living is at all likely to discover or to predict its migration from the study of its body, although the reason why the migration takes place is obvious. Whole books, and not a few of them, have been devoted to learned speculations on the nature of the impulse which leads to the migration of birds, and while the subject is most fascinating, the value of the results has not in all cases paid for the labor. VOL, Li1.—58

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786 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Newton (Encyclopedia Britannica, article Birds) says: “We have here more than enough to excite our wonder, and instead are brought face to face with perhaps the greatest mystery which the whole animal kingdom presents—a mystery which attracted the attention of the earliest writers, and can in its chief point be no more explained by the modern man of science than by the simple- minded savage or the poet or prophet of antiquity. Some facts are almost universally known, and have been the theme of comment in all ages and in all lands. The hawk that stretches her wings toward the south is as familiar to the latest Nile-boat traveler or dweller on the Bosporus as of old to the author of the book of Job. “The autumnal thronging by myriads of waterfowl of the rivers of Asia is witnessed by the modern sportsman as it was of old by Homer. . . . But there is no need to multiply instances. The flow and ebb of the mighty feathered wave has been sung by poets and reasoned by philosophers, has given rise to proverbs and en- tered into popular superstitions, and yet we must say of it still that our ignorance is immense.” While this author does not exaggerate either the interest or our ignorance of the life of birds, which goes on in regions that are almost inaccessible and unknown, there is no reason to suppose their migrations are any more mysterious than most biological problems; for the modern man of science is little more able than the simple- minded savage or the poet or prophet to tell how all the co-ordinated faculties of a predaceous animal are so thrown into action by the stimulus of hunger as to lead to the pursuit and capture of prey; yet there is no mystery in the physiology of hunger, for, while there is much we do not understand, we do know that hunger incites actions which are responsive, or adapted for satisfying hunger. So also it may be possible to make progress in the study of the meaning of migration in spite of our ignorance of the nature of the impulse which excites and determines it; and while I gratefully acknowledge my debt to Newton for the facts, I am not able to agree with him that there is anything distinctively or peculiarly mysterious in the subject. While there is reason to believe almost every bird of temperate and arctic climates is migratory to some degree, those which simply range over a wider area at one season than at another present nothing notable, and it is only in regions which are almost or quite deserted by birds for part of the year that their migrations attract the atten- tion of students. As many birds which are most valued for food are found in temperate regions for only a short time in the spring and fall, sportsmen and hunters and all who pursue them for food

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MIGRATION. 787 have been familiar with the habits of the birds of passage from the dawn of history; but most of the best literature on the subject is by northern ornithologists, and the home of the writer has had and still has great influence on opinion as to the meaning and origin of the migratory habit. Scandinavians and Saxons and Anglo-Saxons are home-loving folk, who, in all their wanderings through this world of care, keep a warm affection for the fatherland. A learned professor in the University of Upsala once wrote a book to prove that the garden of Eden was in Sweden, by the simple argument that no one who knows the delights of that blessed country can believe paradise could have been anywhere else. He showed that the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the hyperboreans, the garden of the Hesperides, the Fortunate Islands, and the Elysian Fields are but faint and imperfect reminiscences of the lovely and favored climes of Sweden, from which the Greeks themselves derived their alphabet, their astronomy, and their religion. To men of the north, home seems the natural refuge of the birds, and, as much of the literature of migration is northern, the birth- places of common birds have been regarded as their true or natural homes, and while their disappearance in winter has seemed to call for explanation, their return in summer has been looked at as a matter of course, for the intense love of home which many birds have has seemed enough to draw them back as soon as winter is over. It is the “ homing ” instinct which makes the carrier pigeon so useful to man; and one of the most impressive features of the migratory habit is the definiteness of the journey northward, which often ends in a particular bush or ledge of rocks. Many of our common birds lay their eggs year after year in the same nest, although they spend part of the year in the heart of a foreign country thousands of miles away, and although the surroundings of the chosen spot may have changed so much that it is no longer a judicious selection. A bottle in the branches of a tree at Oxbridge, in England, is known to have been occupied every year, with only one exception, since 1785, by a pair of blue titmice; and on a hill in Finland, well known to tourists as the most northern point in Europe where the sun can be seen at midnight, a nest is said to have been occupied by a pair of peregrine falcons every year since 1736. Many like cases are recorded, and while it is not probable that the birds which visit a nest year after year for centuries are the same, the fact is all the more remarkable if they belong to successive generations. According to folklore, some of the summer birds hide near home through the winter, and Carus, in his History of Zodlogy, refers to several learned writers who, early in the seventeenth century, quoted from the older literature much venerable authority for the belief

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eee ee — Seer, “3 a ~——s ao ye 788 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. that swallows hide through the winter in holes and in clefts in the rocks, and even under the water. Many writers on migration have believed, as they have been taught from childhood, that the birds go south to escape the rigors of a northern winter, although little reflection is needed to show that no animals are better protected or more indifferent to changes of temperature, or that, while sea birds are highly migratory, the open waters of arctic seas are little colder in winter than in summer, Nestlings are often killed by exposure, and eggs require a high ex- ternal temperature, but old birds are, as a rule, indifferent to cold. When this is recognized, the prevailing belief is that birds leave their homes in search of food, for scarcity is most assuredly an im- portant factor in the origin of migration; but this view of the matter fails to show why, with the whole world to choose from, they do not settle in lands which are habitable the year round. “ The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone Boldly proclaims the happiest spot his own,” and the return of the birds seems only natural to the Eskimos; but to us who are not Eskimos the wonder is not that anything which can get away should do so, but why the birds pass by so many lovely and fertile regions to seek a home in the barren and desolate ends of the earth; and it is plain that, of the two journeys which make up the migration, the summer visit to northern lands and waters is at least as remarkable and as well worthy of consideration as the journey southward in the fall. Failure of food in their birthplace is no doubt the chief reason why the migratory birds do not spend the whole year there, and in so far is an explanation of migration, for no animals are better fitted for moving from regions of scarcity to regions of abundance, although they are no more able than creeping things to establish themselves in new lands which are already well stocked with in- habitants; for they are kept within the limits of their natural habitat, like other animals, by competitors and enemies, rather than by physical barriers, although their power to wander and to over- come physical barriers is without a parallel. There are few oceanic islands, however remote, which are not inhabited by land birds descended from lost wanderers, who, finding these spots unoccupied, have been able to establish themselves. The list of North American birds which are occasionally found in Europe is a long one, and stray specimens of the gray plover, whose summer home is the shore of the Arctic Ocean, have been found at the Cape of Good Hope, im Ceylon, in Australia, in New Zealand, and in Tasmania. Most of the wanderers are shore birds which make long migrations, and be

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MIGRATION. 789 ing much exposed to storms are often driven far out of their path; but this is not always the case, for the great albatross follows ships across the whole breadth of the South Pacific, or nearly half the circumference of the earth. Many birds seem to make their whole journey by a single flight, for some which are common in the West Indies and in Nova Scotia are almost unknown within the limits of the United States, making the whole journey past our borders by water and probably by a single flight. The bluethroat, which breeds in the northern part of Scandinavia, is so seldom found in Europe south of the Baltic that there seems to be good evidence that it makes its whole journey to its winter quarters in the region of the upper Nile by a single flight. There is no reason to suppose all migratory birds inherit this habit from a common ancestor, nor that its purpose is always the same, and many birds of prey seem to have acquired it by ranging far in winter in search of food, and by following their prey into warmer regions, to return to their birthplace in the breeding season. In those cases the birthplace may have been the original home, before the migratory habit was acquired, and scarcity of food the reason why it was acquired; and the influence of scarcity in causing migration is well shown by the occasional or irregular migrations of certain prolific animals which do not ordinarily leave their birth- places, although, when. these become overstocked, migrations take place, just as human colonists go out from thickly settled countries to find new room for growth in foreign lands. From time to time, at irregular intervals, great armies of the smaller and more prolific rodents, which usually spend their lives where they are born, are met on the march from homes where overproduction has exhausted the food; and several of the older American naturalists have described the migrations of our gray squirrel, although the phenomenon has been most carefully studied in the Norwegian lemming, whose re- markable migrations have figured in literature for centuries. The lemming is a small, restless, pugnacious, and very prolific rodent, which at uncertain and irregular intervals of from five to twenty years migrates from its home in the central mountain chain of Nor- way, and invades the low lands so suddenly and in such numbers that it is still popularly believed, as in the day of Olaus Magnus, who wrote in 1490, to drop from the sky. The great army of lemmings travels in a straight line and over- runs the cultivated country, swimming the lakes and rivers, and causing so much destruction that a special formula to be employed against it was at one time authorized by the Church, which attempted to check its march by exorcism, just as the old Bishop of Montreal tried to drive away the wild pigeons by anathemas. The lemmings

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79° POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. travel at night, but their march is not continuous, for they make lo halts in fertile spots, where they are even more prolific than they were at home, so that they become more and more numerous, although they are attended by bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, and cats, and by hawks and owls, and other beasts and birds of prey, and although even the cattle and reindeer are said to kill and eat them. The march may last for several years, but as they never go back, but con- tinue to move forward, they at last reach the ocean, and, attempting to swim this as they have all the rivers in their course, all are drowned. While the migration of the lemmings is undoubtedly due to scarcity, it is difficult to understand its use, for at the present day the only ones to profit by it are those who have the instinct least de- veloped and stay at home in the mountains, aliough it may have been useful to the species before the low lands were occupied by man, who now destroys the stragglers and prevents them from scat- tering anc finding permanent homes. While the determining influence is the scarcity which comes from overcrowding, we have no reason to believe the lemmings consciorsly and deliberately set out to find a better feeding ground, or that they have traditions of the rich low lands which attract them as the wealth and luxury of China and Mesopotamia and of the Roman Empire attracted the Tartars and Scythians and Goths from the sterile and desolate northern lands into the fertile homes of southern civilization. Their journeys are no doubt initiated by an unconscious impulse, which, before it brought them into conflict with man, was useful in some way to the species; and this seems to be true of the migra- tions of certain prolific species of locusts and grasshoppers, which, inhabiting sandy deserts, often overflow the limits of their natural hore, and invade more fertile regions where they are not usually found. While there is no reason to suppose these movements are undertaken through deliberate intention to find new feeding grounds, lack of food is no doubt the chief factor in the development of the migratory instinct of rodents as well as locusts, which latter resemble birds in ability to make long journeys on the wing without rest. The African locust has been met at sea in great clouds more than twelve hundred miles from land, and this species sometimes wanders from its home in Africa to England. While the movements of rodents and locusts show that the search for food has much to do with migration, they lack the features which make the migrations of birds so remarkable. They occur at irregular intervals, while the movements of birds are almost as regu- lar as the almanac, for, while sea birds seem much exposed to storms,

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MIGRATION. 79) the days of their arrival and departure can be predicted as if they were satellites revolving round the earth. “Foul weather or fair, heat or cold, the puffins make their appearance at the proper day as promptly as if they were moved by clockwork.” ‘While the course of the migration of rodents and locusts is determined by conditions so complicated and irregular that they may be called accidental, the northward journey of birds is often directed to a definite spot thou- sands of miles away from the starting point, and the resemblance between irregular migration in search of food and the migration of birds is too imperfect to tell us much about the origin of the latter, which resembles more the movements of fishes like the * shad, which at a definite season enters upon a journey along a defi- nite path to a spot hundreds of miles away, to return again after the purpose of the journey is accomplished. Since the number of shad which enter a river in the spring is out of all proportion to its resources as a feeding ground, we might say of them, as we are disposed to say of birds, that they leave their birthplace in search of food; but as they find so little food in the rivers that it may be said, with almost literal exactness, that they make their journey fasting, it is quite plain that this is the wrong point of view; that we must believe they enter the river to lay their eggs, and that we must see in this, and not in the return to the ocean, the purpose of the migration. As the shad is a marine fish which does its eating at sea, and as its visits to fresh water are only for the purpose of reproduction, the numbers which make their way up the rivers are out of all pro- portion to the capacity of the streams for supplying them with food. The shad enters the mouths of our rivers in the spring in great schools, and travels up them to a most surprising distance; for the total length of the journey from the sea to the spawning ground and back again often exceeds a thousand miles, and this journey is made almost or quite without food. Many of them, and among these the largest fishes, go on until they meet some insurmountable ob- stacle, such as a waterfall or a dam, or until they reach the head waters of the river. Before dams were built in the Susquehanna, many shad which entered the Chesapeake Bay at the Capes con- tinued their long-fasting journey across Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania into the State of New York, and traveled through more than five hundred miles of inland waters on the journey up- ward. Fragments of Indian pottery, stamped with a pattern made by the impression of a shad’s backbone, have been found in southern New York, and the number of stone net-sinkers whjch have been picked up in the Wyoming Valley shows that the Indians had known

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792 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and used these fisheries long before the first white settlers found them at work with their rude seines. In the early part of this cen- tury, before canals and the dams which supply them were made, there were forty fishing stations beyond the forks of the Susquehanna in northern Pennsylvania, and some of them were worth from one thousand to twelve hundred dollars a year to their owners. There is a record of the capture, at a single haul, of ten thousand shad at one of these fisheries on Fire Island, near Wilkesbarre. Dams across the river have excluded the shad from more than two hundred miles of the course of the Susquehanna, and the profitable fisheries now reach for only a few miles above the boundaries of Maryland, while the shad are cut off from many of the best breeding grounds, which are the sandy flats near the shores of streams and the sand bars which lie in their course. The fishes run up into these places in pairs in the early evening after sunset, and the eggs are thrown into the water while the fishes are swimming about, but they soon sink to the bottom and develop very rapidly. The number of eggs is about twenty-five thousand, but a hundred thousand have been ob- tained from a single large shad. Few adult shad escape all the dan- gers of their journey, and these few are so battered and emaciated that they have no value as food, and are unknown in our markets, which are supplied with those that are captured on their way upwazd. The young fish remain in the rivers until late in the fall, feeding upon small crustacea, the larvse of insects, the young of other fishes, and minute active animals, and they grow to a length of two or three inches by November, when they leave our waters for the ocean. The shad is a marine fish which has acquired the habit of laying its eggs in fresh water, out of reach of the innumerable enemies that abound on the shoals and sand bars of the seashore. Since the eggs are abandoned by their parents soon after they are laid, prolonged residence at the breeding grounds is not necessary, and the shad has thus been able to utilize safe places which supply no proper food and are unfit for prolonged residence. If it were compelled to incu- bate its eggs and to guard and protect and feed its nestlings like a bird, it would have been restricted to some breeding place fitted for more prolonged residence, and we should then feel something of the same tendency to call its birthplace its true home that we experience in our study of birds. We should refer the migration to this place as the starting point, and we should try to discover some reason why they spend part of the year elsewhere. Most animals owe their existence to the occurrence, in their natural home, of all that their life requires, but the power to traverse great distances at great speed, and to pass over all the barriers of land and water, joined to their comparative indifference to changes

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MIGRATION. 793 of temperature, permits birds to divide their time between widely separated regions, and, whether the choice be conscious or uncon- scious, the breeding places of migratory birds are selected on account of their safety, and not because they furnish all that a permanent home must supply. If we believe, with Professor Marsh, that the power of flight was acquired by birds after they became arboreal, we must look for the primitive home of the migratory birds in the great tropical and subtropical forests where arboreal reptiles and arboreal mammals still abound; nor can we believe the great armies of north- ern birds which find abundant food in southern lands in winter are driven out by scarcity on the approach of spring. Enemies are numerous in the tropics, but no animals have sharper senses or better means of escape than birds, and, trusting in their power of flight and their quick sight and hearing, they venture into danger with con- fidence. The great charm of birds to us is the fearlessness with which they approach man, who is the most dreaded enemy of all other vertebrates; but while adult birds are eminently fitted for taking care of themselves, the opposite is true, in even greater de- gree, of nestlings, for no animals are at the same time more helpless and more exposed to danger than many young birds, while eggs are not only absolutely helpless but also very tempting to enemies, although there is no group of animals in which the safety of the eggs and young is more important. Among birds a high birth rate is in- compatible with flight, for their eggs are large and heavy, and the preservation of each species imperatively demands that every egg shall be cared for with unceasing solicitude; for while, in other animals, increased danger to eggs and young may be met by an increase in the birth rate, this can not be much increased in birds without corresponding loss in the power of flight. Every one knows how quickly birds are exterminated by the destruction of their eggs and young, and the low birth rate of all birds of powerful flight is a sufficient reason for migration, for at the same time that flight limits the birth rate it permits the birds to seek nesting places beyond the reach of their enemies; and as there is rigorous selec- tion of the nestlings which are born in safe nests, it is easy to understand how the instinct has been gradually fixed by selection, and how, as it has become more and more firmly fixed, and as the safety of the eggs and young has become assured by the remoteness and isolation of the nests, the birth rate has been still more reduced and the power of flight correspondingly extended. Many sea birds that nest on desolate rocks in midocean lay only one egg each year, and have the power of flight in its highest perfection. The power of the storm petrel to wander is as boundless as the ocean, and while it lays only a single egg, it is said to be the most prolific

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794 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. of birds, since the number of individuals is greater than in any other genus. We can not believe that all migratory birds inherit the habit from a common parent which was migratory, nor is it probable that in all cases it owes i‘s origin to the same influences; but if the view which is here advanced be correct, we must believe that in most migratory birds it has been brought into existence by the needs which are involved in reproduction, and not by the supply of food, and that the winter home of birds in tropical and temperate regions, and not the birthplace of modern birds, must be regarded as the start- ing point for the migratory habit. While Wallace was the first to recognize the importance of selec- tion in the formation of this and other instincts, he seems to think selection alone, without the influence of geological change, is inade- quate to explain all the facts of migration. He says: “It appears to me probable that here, as in so many other cases, ‘ survival of the fittest ’ will be found to have had a powerful influence. Let us sup- pose that in any species of migratory birds breeding can, as a rule, be only safely accomplished in a given area; and, further, that dur- ing the great part of the rest of the year sufficient food can not be ob- tained in that-area. It will follow that those birds which do not leave the breeding area at the proper season will suffer, and ulti- mately become extinct, which will also be the fate of those which do not leave the feeding area at the proper time. Now, if we suppose that the two areas were for some remote ancestor of the existing species coincident, but by geological or climatic changes gradually diverged from each other, we can easily understand how the habit of incipient and partial migration at the proper seasons would at last become hereditary, and so fixed as to become what we term an in- stinct. It will probably be found that every gradation still exists in various parts of the world, from a complete coincidence to a com- plete separation of the breeding and the subsistence areas; and when the natural. history of a sufficient number of species is thoroughly worked out, we may find every link between species which never have a restricted area where they breed and live the whole year round to others in which the two areas are absolutely separated.” Modern zodlogy owes its scientific basis to the work of Wallace and Darwin on the distribution of birds, which, in their hands, has led to a revolution in our conceptions of Nature, and has given so much weight to their opinions that no one would venture to differ from them inconsiderately, although when we try to interpret, in the light of his other writings, Wallace’s assertion that “the habit of incipient and partial migration” may “ at last become hereditary,” we must doubt whether he has carefully weighed his words.

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MIGRATION. 795 We must also remember that distribution and migration are dis- tinct phenomena, and that while the geographical distribution of birds shows clear indications of the effect of past geological changes in the distribution of land and water, migratory birds are kept, like other birds, from invading other provinces than their own by com- petitors and enemies rather than by geographical barriers. As so many birds move toward the poles of the earth to lay their eggs, and toward the equator to spend the winter, the. view that their two homes have been drawn apart by changes of climate seems probable at first sight, but the rule is not universal, for many of the great breeding grounds of sea birds are in temperate or tropical regions. The petrels, albatrosses, terns, gulls, and many other birds pass most of their life scattered over the ocean, but this affords no nesting place, while the wastes of water which keep car- nivorous mammals and reptiles and other enemies of nestling birds from the remote and desolate rocks and sand bars of the open ocean are no obstacle to them. These spots are so secure that birds born in them are much more likely to survive than those born on the shores of inhabited lands, so that it has come about that all or nearly all of the modern members of these groups are descended from ancestors which shunned the dangerous nesting places, not because acquired habits have become hereditary, nor because their feeding ground and their nesting place have been drawn apart by geological change, but because all which did not instinctively lay in safe places the few eggs which are all their fitness for continuous and rapid flight per- mits, have been exterminated. These birds now gather from all parts of the ocean on the few widely scattered rocks and islands where their young are safe, and the periodic assemblies of innumer- able multitudes of wandering sea birds in the “rookeries” are true migrations, for they are as regular as the almanac in the time of arrival and departure, although their feeding ground is almost as extensive as the ocean and the food supply has nothing to do with their movements, and although they do not reach the “ rookeries ” by a single path. In this case the needs of reproduction are the controlling influ- ence, and the site of the “ rookery ” has been fixed by its safety; and while it is difficult to say how far the birds are guided by knowledge of the danger of other places, the well-known tameness of sea birds in their breeding places, and their apparent ignorance of the exist- ence of enemies seem to show that they are quite unconscious of the advantages of the chosen spot, and that they resort to it automatically or naturally not because they know its safety, but because they owe their survival and existence to the fact that it is safe. Zodlogists are far too ready to resort to the boundless fields for

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796 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. speculation which geology affords, and it has been gravely suggested that the migration of the lemmings and their death in the waters of the ocean may be due to their efforts to reach the lost Atlanti where their ancestors dwelt during the Miocene period, although this opinion has no better basis than the belief of Olaus Magnus that they rain down from the sky, where they are engendered from the decomposing exhalations from the clouds impregnated by the semen of rats. It is easy to understand how birds near the northern limit of their range invade the territory of those whose home is a little farther south, and compete with them for food as this becomes scarce with the approach of winter, and how this movement spreads until all the members of the species are involved, although many of them might have been able to subsist some time longer in their breeding ground if they had been undisturbed. We have seen that this has commended itself to northern natural- ists as a sufficient reason for the acquisition of the migratory habit, and the fondness for their birthplace which is so strongly marked in birds has been thought enough to draw them back; but love of home is itself a result of natural selection, and the necessity for finding safe places for the eggs and young is enough to account for the migration without the aid of geological changes. While we know little as to the means by which birds find their way over land and water, we know that, as a matter of fact, they are able to do so; and we also know that the instinct which leads them to seek safe places for their nests is so firmly implanted in their nature that centuries of domestication weaken it but little, for it is still almost as strong in the Guinea fowl and the turkey and the hen as it is in wild birds. As birds of powerful flight have a range of choice almost as wide as the earth itself, it is not surprising that the continual destruction of those born in the least safe nests has at last resulted in the survival of the ones which make their nests thou- sands of miles away from their natural or ancestral home. While most writers have thought migration had its origin in an annual journey which, while short, was definitely fixed for all the members of the species, and while they have felt forced to call in the aid of geology to account for the gradual separation of the two termini and the lengthening of the journey, the hypothesis of geo- logical change seems gratuitous and unnecessary, since the known habits and instincts and needs of the birds are in themselves a suf- ficient explanation of all the broader and more general character- istics of migration. It seems much more simple, and more con sistent with our knowledge of the past history of living things in general, to believe it had its origin in an intense but geographically

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MIGRATION. 797 indefinite impulse which led birds to scatter at the breeding season and to hunt out safe hiding places for their nests; and that, as ene- mies also improved in power to find the most accessible nests, the instinct has been gradually shaped into definiteness by extermination and natural selection, until at last safe breeding grounds, far away from home and far out of the reach of natural enemies, have become established, and until many species and all the members of each species have come to share the impulse to resort to the selected breeding places on the approach of sexual excitement, and to follow the same path between distant points; that the increasing safety of the eggs and young has permitted a low birth rate and the improve- ment by selection of the power of rapid and long-continued flight; and that this has in its turn permitted the migration to become longer and longer, and more and more protection to the eggs and young. The history of migratory birds has been long and compli- cated, and there has been time for great changes in climate and in the distribution of land and water, and these have no doubt left some permanent impression on the habits of birds. The birds have not eluded all their enemies, for predaceous birds and their prey are found together at both ends of the journey. New ways to escape enemies and new ways to find food are as important as they ever were, and the details of the subject are very complicated, although it seems clear that its broader outlines admit of explanation without recourse to geological changes or the inheritance of the direct effects of the conditions of life. In conclusion, I wish to remind the reader that our present inter- est in migration lies in its value and simplicity as an illustration of the general law that the adaptations of Nature are for the good of the species and not for the benefit of the individual. This law is universal, but since the welfare of the species is usu- ally identical with that of the constituent individuals, it is not obvi- ous unless the good of the species demands the sacrifice of individuals. Long journeys are hazardous. Every California salmon which enters on the long journey to the breeding ground is destroyed, and the whole race of adult fishes is wiped out of existence, for the good of generations yet unborn. Few shad ever return to the ocean, and storm and accident and ruthless enemies work their will on the migrating birds and decimate them without mercy, although the dangerous return to the safe breeding grounds stil] keeps up, in order that children which are yet unborn may survive to produce children in their turn. ; The safeguards which Nature throws around eggs and infants and the immature, and the indifference to the fate of the mature ani-

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798 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. mals which is exhibited by the influences that have modified species into fitness for their environment, are facts which must never be lost sight of, for if we forget them our attempts to understand the history of the properties of living things are certain to mislead ug and to end in failure. PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. By DAVID A. WELLS, LL. D., D.C.L., CORRESPONDANT DE L’ INSTITUT DE FRANCE, ETC, XVII.—THE CASE OF KIRTLAND US. HOTCHKISS. yew above designation has been popularly given to one of the most important questions that has ever come before the legal tribunals of this country, and the record of which has been hereto- fore so difficult of access that it has not attracted the attention it merits, but which it is to be hoped will prove at no distant period a subject of popular interest and future judicial consideration. The particulars of the case are in the main as follows: In 1869, or previous, Charles W. Kirtland, a citizen of Wood- bury, Litchfield County, Connecticut, loaned money, through an agent, a resident and citizen of Lllinois, on bonds secured by deeds of trust on real estate in the «ity »* Chicago. Each of these bonds declared that “it was made under and is in all respects to be con- strued by the laws of the State of Illinois,” and that the principal and interest of the obiigation were payable in the city of Chicago. The deed of trust also contained a provision that all taxes and assess- ments on the property conveyed should be paid by the obligor (bor- rower) without abatement on account of the mortgage lien; that the property might be sold at auction, in Chicago, by the trustee, in case of any default of payment, and that a good title, free from any right of redemption, on the part of the obligor, might in that case be given by the trustee. Another interesting feature of the case not to be overlooked was, that pending the proceedings to be next related, the loans as originally made became due and were paid; when the proceeds, without being removed from Illinois and re- turned to Mr. Kirtland in Connecticut, were reinvested in Chicago by his agent, under terms and conditions as before. These facts becoming known to the tax officials of the town of Woodbury, they added in 1869 to the list of property returned by Kirtland for the purpose of taxation, as situated within the State, the sum of eighteen thousand dollars; and in 1870 the sum of twenty thousand dollars, to represent the amount of property owned and

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 799 loaned by Kirtland, in each of these years, as was conceded, without the territory of the State. The sums thus added were subsequently assessed in the town of Woodbury in the same manner and at the same rate as was other property which Mr. Kirtland owned within the State and there situated. Payment of the taxes thus assessed on the amount of these Illinois loans being refused by Kirtland, the tax collector (Hotch- kiss), in April, 1873, levied his tax warrants on the real estate of the alleged delinquent in Woodbury, and advertised the same for sale; and-on petition for injunction to restrain the collector from such proceedings, on the ground of the illegality of the tax in question and its assessment, the case came before the court of last appeal in the State, known as the “Supreme Court of Errors ”’; it being agreed by all parties concerned that the only question in the case was whether the bonds owned by Kirtland, drawn in the form and manner stated, were liable to taxation in Connecticut. CasE FoR THE ResponpEnt.—In the argument before and in the opinion rendered by this court the following were the points mainly relied upon in support of the position that the petition for in- junction in restraint of the collection of the tax should not be granted: First, that the statutes of Connecticut explicitly authorized and required the taxation of debts due its citizens from parties out of the State. Second, in respect to the power of the Legislature of Connecticut to authorize and require such form of taxation, it was claimed that there was no provision in the Constitution of the State limiting and defining such power of taxation. Third, the follow- ing characterization of the nature of a debt or a chose in action, and its suitability as a subject for taxation for the purpose of obtaining revenue, was put forward by the counsel for the State as a statement of economic conclusions worthy of full acceptance. “It (a chose in action) has not a visible, tangible form. The note, bond, or account even, may be evidence of a debt, but it is not the debt itself. The specific money when loaned, and received by the borrower, is no longer the property of the creditor. It is soon merged in the circulating mass, and the creditor can neither identify and claim it, nor put his hand upon any property purchased with it, and say that that is his, The money may be invested in real estate, or manufac- turing, or mechandising, or speculation. It may prove a profitable investment, or it may in a short time prove a total loss. _It is all the same to the creditor so long as his debtor’s ability to pay is unim- paired. He has simply a right to receive a given sum of money with interest or damages for its detention. It is a personal right, and accompanies the person of the creditor. The debtor is under a corresponding obligation to pay the demand. The right to receive is

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 800 valuable, and through it an income is derived. That right may with propriety be taxed. The obligation to pay is a burden, and hag never, to our knowledge, been the subject of taxation. It seems, therefore, that the appropriate place to tax money at interest jg where the creditor resides, and that for that purpose it may with propriety be said to be located with the creditor.” * The respondent attached much importance to the analogy “ be. tween a money demand, evidenced by a note or bond, and shares of stock in a corporation”; and to the fact that the United States Supreme Court had decided that shares of stock in national banks are property, separate and distinct from the property of the corporations which they represent, and are taxable” (National Bank vs. Com- monwealth, 9 Wall., 353). Reference was also made to the case of Minot vs. The Phila- delphia, Wilmington & Baltimore Railroad Company, in which the United States Supreme Court was held to have recognized a distine- tion between shares of railroad stock and the capital (property) of a corporation, and in respect to which it was assumed that the court maintained that the share of a stockholder is something different from the capital stock of a company; the latter being the property of the company only, while the former is the individual interest of the stockholder, constituting his right to a proportional part of the dividends when declared and to a proportional part of the effects of the corporation when dissolved after payment of its debts. Re- garded in that aspect, it was held to be an interest or right which accompanies the person of the owner and having no locality inde pendent of its domicile. But whether, when thus regarded, it can be treated as so far separable from the property to which it relates as to be taxable inde- pendent of the locality of the latter, was a question which the counsel of the State did not hold to be decided; but there was a strong intimation that the United States Court intended to decide that shares of railroad stock can only be taxed in the State where the owner resides. Casr For THE Petitioners.—On the other hand, the following is a summary of the arguments and reasons advanced (mainly by one of the most learned and distinguished members of the Court of Errors of the State, and of the American Bar, Hon. L. F. S. Foster, for- merly president of the United States Senate and acting Vice-Presi- dent of the United States), in support of the petition for an injunc tion in restraint of the collection of a tax upon the plaintiff: * Reference in this connection is made to the opinions on this general subject expressed by the Supreme Court of California, given in chapter xvi, Popular Science Monthly, pp. 651-653.

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 8o1 “Taxation and protection are correlative terms. Protection to the person is the ground on which the right to tax the person rests. Protection to the business, protection to that portion of the property not taken by the tax, is the consideration or compensation for all legitimate taxation on business or on property. The person must be domiciled within the State to be subject to a personal or poll tax; the business or the property must also be within the territory of the State to confer jurisdiction over them. That the person of the plaintiff is within the jurisdiction, and subject therefore to the taxing power, is apparent from the record. This tax, however, is not im- posed on the person; it is imposed on the property of the plaintiff, and as such it must be sustained, if sustained at all. The case does not require any description of the various species of property, real, personal, etc. eal property has, of course, an immovable situs, and can never be subject to any taxation except that imposed by the government within whose jurisdiction it is situate. The reason is, that that government, is the only one that can afford it protection. Personal property, of whatever it may consist, though capable of be- ing transported from place to place, if it be of a visible and tangible kind, would seem, in the nature of things, to follow the same rule and for the same reason—that is, to be subject to taxation by the State within whose jurisdiction it is situate, as that State only has dominion over it, and as that State only can afford it protection. “Now, if the property in question be considered real property, it being in the State of Dllinois, any tax upon it by Connecticut would be extraterritorial and void. If it be considered personal property, of a visible and tangible character, it is still in the State of Illinois, and so just as much out of the dominion and beyond the jurisdiction of the State of Connecticut as though it were real prop- erty. If we consider the property to be an interest in real or per- sonal property, or a title, inchoate, equitable, or legal, to such prop- erty in Illinois, such interest, or such title, is no legitimate subject of taxation in Connecticut. The corpus and situs of this property being in Illinois, and subject, of course, to taxation there because within her jurisdiction, no interest in it, no title to it, can be taxable in Connecticut. Such a claim involves one of two absurdities: either that the same property may be in two places at the same time, or that two independent governments can have jurisdiction over the same subject-matter at one and the same time. “But the property of the plaintiff on which this tax has been imposed is not real property, nor is it personal, of the character here considered. It may be well to describe it precisely, that there may be no room for misunderstanding. “ The plaintiff loaned money in the city of Chicago, in the State VOL. LI1.—59

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802 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. of Illinois, on bonds conditioned for its repayment, and secured by deeds of trust. One of said bonds, and one of said deeds, as a speci- men of all, is made part of the record. This bond declares ‘ that it is made under, and is in all respects to be construed, by the laws of the State of Illinois, and is given for an actual loan of money [$3,000] made at Chicago, by Charles W. Kirtland [the plaintiff], to Edmund A. Cummings [the obligor] on the day of the date hereof’ [July 17, 1869]. The deed of the same date is a convey- ance in fee, by Cummings and his wife, of a lot of land in Chicago, to Norman ©. Perkins, of said city, to be held by him in trust, as security for the payment of said loan, with power to sell and convey the same, and apply the proceeds in payment of the loan, in case of default on the part of said Cummings to perform the stipulations of said bond. It is quite obvious that Cummings has incurred a debt to Kirtland, and that Kirtland has a claim against Cummings. Cummings is the debtor, Kirtland the creditor. Has this debt a situs? If it has, where is it? In Illinois, or in Connecticut? The contract to loan was made in Illinois, there the creditor parted with his money, there is the property pledged for its repayment, there the debtor is domiciled, there the trustee. “This seems to indicate Illinois as the situs of this debt. So far as it is a thing having a substantial existence, it is there, and not elsewhere. The Connecticut statute provides in terms, ‘ that money secured by mortgages upon real estate in this State shall be set in the list and taxed only in the town where said real estate is situated.’ This manifestly recognizes the situs of the property pledged as security for a debt, as the situs of the debt. But a debt has no situs. Only a material thing can have a corpus, and only a corpus can have a situs, for it is the location of the corpus that constitutes a situs. A debt is neither visible, tangible, nor ponderable; it has no situs, no corpus. It isa misnomer to call it property. In legal phrase it is but a chose in action, a jus incorporale. It is an equitable title in the property of the debtor, and it adheres, as a title, in the prop- erty it represents. It does not follow the person of the owner in his domicile, though he may transfer it there. “These views are fully sustained by the United States Supreme Court, in the case of Brown vs. Kennedy, 15 Wall., 591.* *In this case, which covered a proceeding under the confiscation act of 1862, the United States Court rejected the theory that a credit has a legal situs where the owner resides, and held that a bond and mortgage form of credit could be confiscated by the United States where the mortgage debtor resided, though, in point of fact, the bond and mortgage were never in the State of Kansas where the proceedings in forfeiture took place, and were, in fact, in possession «f the owner, in the rebel ‘lines, in the State of Virginia. The court accordingly passed a decree, and ordered that the said bond, mortgage, and credit be condemned and declared forfeited to the United States. The decree also ordered

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 803 “The same court also held to similar conclusions in a number of other cases. Thus, in the case of Pelham vs. Rose, 9 Wall., 103, a note, the evidence of the credit, not the credit itself, was the thing proceeded against. In the case of Pelham vs. Way, 15 Wall., 196, where the court also held that the proceedings, not having been against either the debt or credit, but only against the material evi- dence of it, and that material evidence having been out of the marshal’s jurisdiction, no confiscation had been effected. “ Now, if these decisions,” said Judge Foster to his colleagues in the Court of Errors, “are to be recognized as law, how can it be claimed that on this credit, given by Kirtland to Cummings in the State of Illinois, secured by a deed of real estate there situate, held by a trustee resident there, the debtor being domiciled there, the debt made payable there, the laws of Illinois by express agreement to govern the contract; how (for the question bears repeating) can it be claimed that there is any subject-matter within the jurisdiction of Connecticut on which to impose a tax? “ That the land in Illinois which is the security for this debt, and of which this debt is the representative, has borne its full share of taxes without diminution on account of this debt is not denied. If the land were in Connecticut, this would suffice; no tax could be collected on the debt. That the land is in Illinois can not affect the principle. If each State has dominion over the property, real and personal, within its territory for the purposes of taxation—and he must be a bold man who denies it—that dominion must, from its nature, be exclusive. No other State can have concurrent jurisdic- tion. Nor does any other State become invested with the power to tax, if the State in which the power is vested omits to exercise that power. Should a State exempt the property, real or personal, within its limits, belonging to non-residents, from taxation, by what au- thority could any foreign State impose taxes on such property? The question is purely jurisdictional, and the matter of double taxation isnot involved. The point is not whether the State may tax a thing Kennedy, one of the obligors and mortgagors, to pay the debt into the court, for the use of the United States; and in pursuance of the decree the payment was made to the officers of the court. After the termination of the war, or in 1868, Brown, the obligee and mort- gagee in this bond and mortgage, having obtained a pardon from the President of the United States, filed a bill in the United States Circuit Court for the district of Kansas against Kennedy and wife, for the foreclosure of this mortgage. The principal defense was, that the mortgage and the debt secured by it had been confiscated under the act of Congress. That, of course, put in issue the validity of those proceedings. It was admitted as matter of fact and agreed, that Brown, the complainant, was and always had been a resident of Virginia, had been a continuous resident of the State from June, 1860, to Sep- tember, 1865, and neither the bond nor mortgage in question was during any part of that time in the district of Kansas.

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 804 twice, but whether there is anything within its jurisdiction that it can tax at all. “Resort must be had to a legal fiction to draw this debt into Connecticut. It does not appear from the record that even the eyi- dences of the debt, the bond and deed, were held in Connecticut,” Under such circumstances, it is curious to note, as Judge Foster especially pointed out, to what a singular and absurd hypothesis and procedure the Connecticut authorities, as if conscious that they had abandoned reason and were dealing with sentiment, had recourse in order to get a basis and a warrant for their action. They first assumed that there was an imaginary property, separate and distinct from the material property; and then gave to such imaginary prop- erty an imaginary situs, thus “going far into the domain of the sentimental and spiritual for the purpose of taxation.” Bishop Berkeley, it will be remembered, held to the opinion that matter does not exist, and that we only imagine that it exists; but it is not at all probable that he ever hoped, when alive, that his views would be so practically indorsed, and at so early a day, in the State of his literary adoption. He would have made, moreover, a desirable tax assessor and tax collector under the present Connecticut tax laws; for being logical, even if he was sentimental, he would doubtless have been willing to take the taxes in the pure product of the imagination. His successors, however, were not only sentimental but illogical; for, not content with assuming that the imaginary is the real, they tried to do what the good bishop never would have sanctioned—namely, take something out of nothing. But apart from these curious and novel politico-economic and legal features, this Kirtland case involves constitutional questions of the highest interest and importance—as much so, perhaps, as any case ever brought to judicial arbitrament since the formation of the Federal Constitution. The power of the State to tax the business of loaning money, like the power to tax any business transacted within its limits, by way of license or otherwise, whether the money be loaned to parties within or without the State, is unquestionable. But this, however, can not be exercised by a State when the business is done without the State, though it be done by citizens of the State. Citizens of Connecticut transacting business in Illinois must, therefore, be subject to the laws of Illinois, and not to the laws of Connecticut. Again, if each State of the Federal Union has dominion over the property and business transacted within its ter- ritory for the purpose of taxation, that dominion must from its very nature be absolute and exclude the dominion of any other State over the same property and business. Again, the sovereignty of coequal

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 805 States involves a full recognition of the dominion and sovereignty of all sister States; and hence section one, Article IV, of the Federal Constitution requires that “full faith and credit shall be given to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other States.” Each State, then, in entering the Federal Union, entered into a con- tract of non-interference with the dominion and prerogatives of other States; and it will not be disputed that the power of taxation is an incident of sovereignty or dominion. The dominion, therefore, of one State for the purpose of taxation over persons, property, busi- ness, or the incidents of business, must exclude the dominion of other States over the same persons, property, business, and incidents of business at the same time. Neither in constitutional law in the United States nor in mathematics can the same property, persons, business, or incidents of business occupy two places and two sover- eignties at the same time. Hence, the taxation by Connecticut of credits, choses in action, bonds, notes, book accounts, verbal and other contracts, the incidents of actual business transacted in Illinois, must be in legal effect extraterritorial taxation of such business, and so an infringement and violation of the sovereignty of Illinois; or else it must be assumed that business does not include its incidents, or the whole its parts. Furthermore, if Connecticut has the power of taxing extraterri- torial contracts for the loan of money, she has the power to fix any rate and to discriminate as to the States upon whose citizens the burden shall fall; or she may adopt a rate that shall be prohibitory on contracts made by her citizens with citizens of designated States, or citizens of all the States, as her caprice may dictate. And in this way she may obstruct and to a great extent prevent interstate commerce, which the United States Supreme Court in re- peated instances (since the Kirtland case) has decided that the sepa- rate State governments can not under the Fedzral Constitution do either directly or indirectly. From these considerations, reasoning, and precedents the conelu- sions of Judge Foster would seem to have been incontrovertible— namely, that “the plaintiff,” Kirtland, “ was not liable to taxation ” in Connecticut “for debts owing to him in Illinois”; and infer- entially that, although possibly warranted by the letter of the statute, the act was an attempt on the part of Connecticut to. exer- cise extraterritorial dominion over persons, contracts, or business, and was, therefore, unconstitutional and void. It would also seem to be clear that if property in action (choses in action) is made by fiction of law an entity, having a situs in one State separate from the property which it represents in another State, an opportunity for the grossest inconsistencies will be perpetrated, and the most

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806 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. inharmonious, arbitrary, and capricious tax laws and other laws wil] be enforced by conflicting legislation of States, required by constitu- tional obligations to “ give full faith and credit to the public acts of other States.” The Connecticut Court of Errors, however, dissolved the injune- tion and dismissed the petition, Judge Foster alone out of a full bench of five dissenting. An appeal being next taken to the United States Supreme Court, the latter (in 1879) affirmed the judgment of the Connecticut court, the essential points of the opinion rendered by Mr. Justice Harlan being as follows: “The debt which the plaintiff, a citizen of Connecticut, holds against the resident - of Illinois is property in his hands. The debt, then, having its situs at the creditor’s residence, and constituting a portion of his estate there, both he and the debt are, for purposes of taxation, within the jurisdiction of the State. It is, consequently, for the State to deter- mine, consistently with its own fundamental law, whether such property owned by one of its residents shall contribute, by way of taxation, to maintain its government, and ‘its discretion in that regard is beyond the power of the Federal Government to supervise or control, for the reason that such taxation violates no provision of the Federal Constitution’; as manifestly it does not, as supposed by counsel, interfere in any true sense with the exercise by Congress of the power to regulate commerce among the several States; nor does it, as is further supposed, abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, or deprive the citizen of property without due process of law, or violate the constitutional guaranty that the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges’ of citizens in the several States. “Whether the State of Connecticut shall measure the contribu- tion which persons resident within its jurisdiction shall make by way of taxes in return for the protection it affords them, by the value of the credits, choses in action, bonds or stocks which they may own (other than such as are exempted or protected from taxation under the Constitution and laws of the Unted States) is a matter which concerns only the people of that State, and with which the Federal Government can not rightfully interfere.” It remains but to indicate the legitimate deductions and conse- quences of this decision, and point out some of the circumstances pertinent to the treatment of the case when it was before the United States Court. In the first place, it decided that debts are property; a legitimate deduction from which is that the creation of debts creates property, and the extinguishment or payment of debts annihilates property; a conclusion which has not received the sanction of the judiciary, or

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 807 found a place in the tax system of any country other than the United States. Second, the decision next gave a miraculous power to resi- dence, by making iti capable of producing property out of nothing. Third, it sanctioned the right of a State to subject its citizens to double taxation in respect to one and the same property, and in- dorsed the justice and morality of the act. If the situs of the prop- erty—in the sense of an actuality—and the owner of a mortgage upon it, are within the territory of one and the same State, and the actu- ality is fully taxed by it, the separate and duplicate taxation of the mortgage would not be sanctioned except at the demand of the debtor, and which, as equivalent to his asking that the burden of his debt be augmented, he would be not likely to make. But when the actuality and the mortgage are in different States of one and the same nation, as was the situation in the Kirtland case, a different rule is held to prevail, whereby that which in one State was regarded as an incident of property, and as such properly exempt from taxation, becomes by mere transference to auother State actual property, and so rightfully subject to taxation. Fourth. If debts are property, and rightful subjects for taxation, the sphere of the application of this principle should not be restricted to debts created by a mortgage, but should embrace every form of indebtedness created by the loan of capital—as promissory notes, book credits, and policies of life insurance—which are valuable to just the extent that they represent the indebtedness of the company issuing them to the holder of the policy. But if all the forty-four States of the Federal Union or the different countries of the rest of the world were to undertake to pursue capital in the form of debts due their respective citizens for the purpose of taxation, the resulting inextricable and disastrous confusion would be almost be- yond the power of imagination. Fifth. The United States Supreme Court held that there was nothing in the form of taxation involved in this case that interfered with the power of the Federal Government to regulate interstate commerce; but if, as was further held, there was no constitutional limitation on the exercise of the power of taxation by the State of Connecticut, and that the Federal Government can not rightfully interfere with the measure of taxes that a State may impose on credits and choses in action that its citizens may own, it is difficult to see why Connecticut might not impose such taxes on all extrater- ritorial contracts of pecuniary value as would greatly impair or altogether prevent the commercial intercourse of her citizens with, the citizens of other States. Finally, nothing more clearly exhibits the anomalous issues involved in this case than the fact that it coull not have come up before any of the courts of England, France, Bel-

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808 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. gium, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, or Lower Canada; for in none of these countries are debts regarded in the light of property, subject to taxation. The following facts pertinent to the history of this case are also worthy of record: When the appeal from the decision of the Con- necticut Court of Errors was made to the United States Supreme Court, one of the most distinguished members of the bar of the State of New York, and who in repeated instances had commanded the respect and attention of the former court, was moved, through his abstract interest in the legal and economic principles involved in the case, to volunteer his services for its future argument and pres- entation to this high and final tribunal. But on the day assigned for its hearing, serious illness prevented his attendance on the court, and the case in question went before it practically without verbal argument, and mainly on the presentation of a brief. Some years after the decision was rendered, the then chief justice of the court (the late Morrison R. Waite) told the writer, in a familiar interview, that he had no recollection of the case, and expressed much interest in a presentation of the economic points involved in it. Another fact especially worthy of the consideration of those who have been instrumental in enacting and defending statutes in respect to taxation in the United States which find no justification in economic principles, or any parallel in the laws or fiscal systems of other countries of high civilization, is, that since the final deci- sion in the Kirtland case, the State of Connecticut, where it origi- nated, has derived no material advantage from it. Nay more, a somewhat extensive inquiry made of its tax officials renders it doubt- ful if a single extraterritorial mortgage has since been made subject to taxation as property in the form of a debt in the State of Connecti- cut. And the same is generally believed to be true of a vast number of mortgages of real estate—especially of farming lands of the West- ern States of the Federal Union—which in recent years have been negotiated and sold by the large number of the so-called “ loan and trust companies ” in the Eastern States. The fact is, the American people, whose interests have called their attention to this form of taxation, regard it as unequal and unjust, and so clearly in the nature of double taxation on one and the same person and property, and an exaction, that evasion of it is clearly warranted; the whole record of experience under it constituting another demonstration of the fact that under a popular form of government any law regarded as unjust or unnecessary can not be efficiently executed; and to avoid the necessity of evasion it has now become almost the universal practice, in executing mortgages in the United States, that if the mortgage is made subject to taxation the mortgagee shall pay the taxes in addi-

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 809 tion to the interest on the loan of capital represented by the mort- gage. Nore.—In addition to what may be termed the historical elements of this celebrated case, the more strictly legal features of it, as set forth subsequent to the action of the United States Supreme Court, are here pertinent and worthy of consideration : No. 1. This case seems from ita very nature to involve questions of conflict of State dominion. It is admitted that Mr. Kirtland, the plaintiff, so far as the question of taxation at issue is concerned, has not been assessed and taxed upon his body, person, poll, or head, or for any substance, the embodiment of labor, and which alone constitutes property, owned or possessed by him within the territory of Connecticut; nor for any business transacted by him within the State. The plaintiff has, however, been assessed and taxed for dealing in money or doing the business of loaning money, by an assessment and taxation of bonds and mortgages made in Ilinois—the necessary incidents and evidence of the business of money lending, performed by himself or through a resident agent in the State of Illinois. It is conceded that the loans were actually made at Chicago in the State of Illinois, as the bonds and mortgages taken state that all the business and acts connected with the loaning and reloaning were actually done, from time to time, there, that the obligations were payable there, and that the contracts of loan were strictly Illinois contracts, to be interpreted as valid or invalid and as to their force and effect according to the laws of that State, The State of Illinois imposes a tax on resident agents making loans in that State; but it is not important to inquire whether in this instance the business of loaning was done through a resident agent or what that State does actually tax, but what she can constitutionally tax by virtue of her dominion and sovereignty. Illinois can undoubtedly tax, if the tax is not dis- criminating but uniform on residents and nonresidents, all occupations and also all business transacted within her borders. She can tax money dealers or money lenders by license or otherwise, and she can impose stamp or other taxes and to any degree, in her discretion, on all contracts at the time when made within her jurisdiction. No other State has concur- rent jurisdiction over any legitimate subject of taxation within her jurisdiction. Her sover- eignty in taxation is absolute except as limited by the national Constitution. But the sover- eignty of coequal States involves a full recognition of the dominion and sovereignty of all sister States, and hence section 1, Article IV, of the United States Constitution requires that “ full faith and credit shal! be given to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other States.” This is a compact of noninterference in the dominion of other States in mat- ters of taxation or in reference to other subjects of State dominion. The power of taxation is an incident of sovereignty or of dominion. The dominion, therefore, of one State for the purpose of taxation over persons, property, or business, or the incidents of business, must exclude the dominion of other States over the same persons, property, business, and inci- dents of business at the same time. Neither in constitutional law in this country nor in mathematics can the same persons, property, business, and incidents of business occupy two places or sovereignties at the same time. The taxation by Connecticut of credits, choses in action, bonds, notes, book accounts, verbal and other contracts, the incidents of actual business transacted in Illinois, must be in legal effect extraterritorial taxation of a part of such business, or otherwise it must be assumed that the incident is not a part of the principal. The making of contracts is of itself a business in the strictest sense, nor can any business exist without the power to make contracts written or verbal. Money can not be loaned unless there is a business of lending money, and for the time being the voca- tion of a money lender. The amount or duration of a business in a State can have no influence on the question of the jurisdiction of the State over the business or the transac- tion. A State can tax all sales at auction, including the sales of goods in unbroken pack- ages owned by nonresidents and just brought into the State and sold by nonresidents or by resident agents (Woodruff vs. Perham, 8 Wallace 123). In New York mere wandering ped- dlers are taxable on money invested in business in every town in which they peddle. If actually assessed in more than one town the same year the remedy is to appeal to the assess-

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810 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ors (Hill vs. Crosby, 26 Howard, par. 413). It would seem that business, occasional, tran. sient, or permanent, transacted in a State by a resident or nonresident, by the force of State sovereignty, may be made subject to a uniform rule of taxation. Extraterritorial taxation can have no force in American jurisprudence. Protection and taxation are correlative terms. Protection to that portion of property not taken or ab. sorbed by the tax is the consideration or compensation for all legitimate taxation, and extraterritorial taxation is therefore a mere arbitrary “ taking of private property without due process of law.” When property is not protected by the law of a country or of a State and beyond the process of its courts, there can be no power to tax it (this principle is manifestly as applicable to business as to property—Rice vs. the United States, 4 Wheaton 246). In the foreign-held bond case, 15 Wallace 319, the United States Supreme Court said that “ property lying beyond the jurisdiction of the State is not a subject upon which her taxing power can be legitimately exercised. Indeed, it would seem that no adjudication should be necessary to establish so obvious a proposition. The power of taxation, however vast in its character and searching in its extent, is necessarily limited to subjects within the jurisdiction of the State. These subjects are persons, property, and business.” These admitted facts and the opinions cited indicate that Connecticut is endeavoring in this case to enforce an extraterritorial tax on extraterritorial business, and a further con- sideration of the subject might here be dismissed, but a more detailed examination may show more clearly the unconstitutionality of this arbitrary exaction, Errect oF THE FourTEENTH AMENDMENT OF THE ConsTITUTION oF THE Unrrep States 1n Respect To THE ARBITRARY APPROPRIA- TION OF Property By Taxation orn Ornerwise.—Another point preliminary to reform, and in respect to which it is important that there should be a clear understanding on the part of the people, is that there is a broad and philosophical distinction between “ taxa- tion ” and “arbitrary” taking. It is often assumed that a State, because of its sovereignty, may, through form of law and delegated authority, deal with the persons and property of its subjects as it may see fit; and, repugnant as this assumption is to the principles which are assumed to constitute the foundation of all free govern- ment, it is not to be denied that previous to the adoption of the fourteenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States in 1868, it would be difficult to show that restraint existed upon the complete sovereignty of the States of the Federal Union over persons and property within their unquestioned jurisdiction; the right to hold a certain class of their population in slavery, and the right to take private property for public purposes without making any com- pensation, being illustrative of the exercise of such arbitrary powers in the utmost extreme. But since the decision of the United States Court in the Kirtland case, the same court has for the first time given a decided opinion on this subject, unmistakably as follows: “ There is no such thing in the theory of our Government—State or national —as unlimited power in any of these branches. The executive, the legislative, and the judicial departments are all of limited and de fined powers. There are limitations of power which arise out of the essential nature of all free governments, implied reservations of

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oo * PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 811 individual rights, without which the social compact could not exist, and which are respected by all free governments entitled to the name. Among these is the limitation of the right of taxation” (Loan Asso- ciation vs. Topeka, 20 Wallace, 658). In connection with this general subject, the opinion expressed by Chief-Justice Marshall is also historically worthy of notice. It had its origin in the case of Baron vs. The Mayor of Baltimore, in which the city of Baltimore, in the exercise of its corporate authority over the harbor, etc., so diverted certain streams of water that they made deposits of sand and gravel near the plaintiff's wharf, and thereby prevented the access of vessels to it. A writ of error was taken from the judgment of the Maryland Court of Appeals, refusing damages, to the Supreme Court of the United States, on the ground that this decision was in violation of the fifth amendment to the Constitu- tion of the United States, which prohibits the taking of public prop- ery for private use without just compensation; the plaintiff con- tending further, “ that this amendment, being in favor of the liberty of the citizens, ought to be so construed as to restrain the legislative power of a State, as well as that of the United States.” The court, however, by Chief-Justice Marshall, held that this amendment of the Constitution “1s intended solely as a limitation on the exercise of power by the Government of the United States, and is not ap- plicable to the legislation of the States”; which was equivalent to saying, viz., that if the several States choose to arbitrarily take or confiscate the property of any of its citizens, there was no higher sovereignty to restrain them. At the close of the late civil war, howevér, when it was deemed desirable by Congress to impose some restrictions on the recon- structed States, so as to prevent the former disloyal element of their population, in the event of the contingency of regaining legislative power, from dealing arbitrarily or unjustly with any class of their fellow-citizens who might happen to be obnoxious, the following clause was made a part of the fourteenth amendment, and through its adoption has become the supreme law of the land: “ Nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.’” Now, the force of this amendment obviously depends upon the meaning of the last clause, “ due process of law’; and it is also clear that “due process of law ” does not mean a procedure in conform- ity with any law which a State legislature might enact, or with any provision which the people of a State might put in their Constitu- tion; for if such be the interpretation of this phrase, then this clause of the fourteenth amendment referred to would practically read as follows: “Nor shall any State deprive any person of life,

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812 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. liberty, or property, except in conformity with such laws as it may enact.” The general meaning of the phrase “ due process of law,” and of the synonymous expression “law of the land,” has, however, been made so often the subject of discussion and legal decision as to be in no sense a matter of doubt. Mr. Webster, in the Dartmouth College case, defined these terms as follows: “ By the law of the land js most clearly intended the general law, which hears before it con- demns, which proceeds upon inquiry, and renders judgment only after trial. The meaning is that every citizen shall hold his life, liberty, property, and immunities under the protection of the gen- eral rules which govern society. Everything which may pass under the form of an enactment is not the law of the land.” And in com- menting on this definition, Justice Cooley, in his treatise on Constitu- tional Limitations, uses this language: “ This definition of Mr. Web- ster is apt and suitable as applied to judicial proceedings, which can not be valid unless they proceed upon inquiry, and render judgment only after trial. It is entirely correct, also, in assuming that a legislative enactment is not necessarily the law of the land. The words ‘ by the law of the land,’ as used in the Constitution, do not mean a statute passed for the purpose of working wrong. That con- struction would render the restriction absolutely nugatory, and turn this part of the Constitution into mere nonsense. Due process of law,” therefore, continues Judge Cooley, after reviewing the inter- pretations of various other authorities, means “such an exertion of the powers of the Government as the settled maxims of law sanction, and under such safeguards for the protection of individual rights as these maxims prescribe.” “The very idea of taxation, the very elements of the terms tax —taxation—implies that it is an imposition or levy upon persons or property in due course or order, treating all alike in the same condi- tion and circumstances. The burden of taxation must be equalized by this mode in order to preserve its character. It is in any view taking private property for public use; and it can not be so taken without an equivalent both as to the Government or the citizens. It is not competent for the Government to convert private property to public use, by way of taxation and without compensation, any more than by any other mode.”—Red field. Now, the exact applicability of the fourteenth amendment in restraining the several States in the exercise of their so-called “ tax- ing powers ” would appear to be this: Taxation implies protection. It is held by every authority to be the equivalent for the protection which the Government affords to the property of its citizens. When, therefore, a State (like Connecti- =

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PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION. 813 eut) taxes property, either directly or indirectly, out of its territory and jurisdiction, which it can not protect, and which its processes can not reach, the act is not taxation, but a mere arbitrary exercise of power; not in accordance with any “ process of law,” and forbid- den by the Constitution of the United States, and as involving a principle under the Constitution. Furthermore, the question of restraining a State from the exercise of such arbitrary powers would seem to be one legally within the right of any citizen aggrieved, in virtue of the fourteenth amendment, to carry from the courts of his own State to the Supreme Court of the United States. As another method by which a citizen of a State aggrieved by the imposition of an ex-territorial tax might test the constitutionality of the same, the following is also worthy of consideration: A citizen of Connecticut, for example, taxed on personal prop- erty in Illinois, might obtain a writ of certiorari in an Illinois court, and raise the question that, inasmuch as personal property is held in law to follow the person, the property in question was not taxable in Illinois. And after the courts of Illinois had rendered an adverse ‘judgment, as they undoubtedly would, the owner taxed for the same property in Massachusetts could obtain a writ of certiorari in the courts of that State, and raise the following questions: 1. Want of jurisdiction in respect to the property on the part of the State of Massachusetts. 2. Violation of the Constitution of the United States in denying full faith and credit to the “ public acts (tax laws of Illinois) and judicial proceedings ” of a sister State. It needs no argument to prove that under the provisions of the Constitution of the United States, above referred to, both the laws and judicial proceedings of one State are as valid and as much to be respected in another State as the laws and judicial proceedings of the latter State itself. If the courts of Massachusetts, following prece- dents in that State, should decide that personal property situated beyond the State follows the person residing in Massachusetts, and so disregards the judicial proceedings and public acts of Illinois, a question under the Constitution of the United States would arise, which would give jurisdiction in the United States Court. And as one and the same thing can not occupy two places at the same time, the Federal court must finally decide in which State is the situs of the property for taxation in the case presented. The principle involved in this case would seem to be identical with an attempt on the part of a State to convict a citizen for an offense committed be- yond her jurisdiction, in respect to which judgment had already been rendered in a sister State, where the offense had been committed. As further bearing upon this subject, reference is made to the

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814 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. following judicial decisions: The Court of Errors of New York some years ago, decided that private property could not be forcibly taken for a private road, even if compensation was made by the party benefited, because the act was the taking property arbitrarily, and not according to due process of law. The national bank act acknowledges, and the courts of the United States have so held, that a bank has a situs and its shares a situs where the bank is located, and not where the stockholders reside, The national bank act, therefore, discards the usual State principle of taxation, that personal property follows the owner. The principle that two States can not tax at the same time the same property, and that a State can not tax property and rights to property lying beyond her jurisdiction, has been also affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States (December, 1868), in the case of The Northern Central Railroad vs. Jackson (7 Wallace, 262), The railroad corporation in question, extending from Baltimore in Maryland to Sunbury in Pennsylvania, was the result of the consolidation of four railroad companies, one incorporated by the State of Maryland and three by the State of Pennsylvania.” The latter State imposed a tax of three mills per dollar of the prin- cipal of each bond issued by said road, which tax the company, at their office in Baltimore, deducted from the coupons of the bonds of said consolidated road held by Jackson, an alien, resident in Ire- land. The court, by Mr. Justice Nelson, decided adversely to the tax, on the ground that the bonds were issued upon the credit of the line of road, a portion of which was within the jurisdiction of the State of Maryland, and that the security, bound and pledged for the payment of the bonds and of the interest on them, embraced the Maryland portion of the road equally with that portion situated in the State of Pennsylvania, respecting which condition of affairs the court used the following language: “Tt is apparent, if the State of Pennsylvania is at liberty to tax these bonds, that to the extent of this Maryland portion of the road she is taxing property and interests beyond her jurisdiction. Again, if Pennsylvania can tax these bonds, upon the same principle Mary- land can tax them; this is too apparent to require argument. The consequence of this, if permitted, would be double taxation of the bondholder. The effect of this taxation is readily seen: a tax of three mills per dollarof the principal, at an interest of six per centum, payable semi-annually, is ten per centum per annum of the inter est; a tax, therefore, by each State at this rate amounts to an annual reduction from the coupons of twenty per centum; and if this con- solidation of the line of road had extended into New York or Ohio, ——————————————

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SS a EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY. 815 or into both, the deduction would have been thirty or forty. If Pennsylvania must tax bonds of this description, she must confine it to bonds issued exclusively by her own corporations. Our conclu- sion is that to permit the deduction of the tax from the coupons in question would be giving effect to the acts of the Pennsylvania Legislature upon property and interests lying beyond her juris- diction.” 04 ooo EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY.* By tue Rev. Dr. J. A. ZAHM, C.8.C., PRESIDENT OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SECTION. N the present paper it is not my purpose to discuss the evidence in favor of evolution or the arguments which may be urged against it.’ This has been done quite thoroughly in our previous meetings at Paris and Brussels. I shall assume evolution as proved; or rather, that it is the only working theory which is competent to meet the demands of modern science. As against the alternative theory of creationism the evidence, I think, all must admit, is over- whelmingly in favor of evolution. I am quite willing to agree with our retiring president, M. le Marquis de Nadaillac, that as yet the theory is not proved by any demonstrative evidence, for the simple reason that, in the very nature of the case, anything approaching an absolute demonstration, at least in our present state of knowledge, is impossible. But, notwithstanding this, even the most skeptical must concede that evolution is a probable theory, and this is all that need here be claimed. : I freely grant that, a priori, creationism is quite possible, but is it probable? Science answers “ No.” As to affording any positive evidence in behalf of the special creation of species, it is absolutely mute, and the negative evidence is of such a character that there are few, if any, serious men of science who are willing to consider it as having any weight whatever. A priori, creationism is possible; a posteriori, it is so highly improbable as to be practically ruled out of court. Indeed, those who still cling to the theory rely either on negative evidence, which in such questions is never conclusive or sat- isfactory, or appeal for support of their view to the account of crea- tion given in the book of Genesis. They assume that the Genesiac narrative is to be interpreted literally, whereas all contemporary biblical scholars of note declare that it is to be understood not liter- ally but allegorically. Nor is there anything new in thus envisag- * Read before the International Catholic Scientific Congress, Fribourg, Switzerland, August 20, 1897.

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816 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ing the scriptural record, for it was, as is well known, the view accepted by some of the most illustrious of the Greek and Latin Fathers. The Alexandrine school was almost a unit in favor of allegorism as against literalism.* All are familiar with the contep- tion of the late Bishop Clifford, who regarded the first thirty-four verses of Genesis as a ritual hymn, and as nothing more than a pre- lude to what follows. Even some of the most conservative of our modern commentators of Scripture freely admit that the history of creation, as unfolded in Genesis, may be understood in an allegorical as well as in a literal sense. From this is manifest how weak is the argument in favor of creationism which is based solely on the Gene- siac narrative. The argument founded on the doctrine of the fathers is of no more weight than that based on Scripture, while that which may be adduced from the teachings of modern biblical research is practi- cally nil. Creationism, then, I repeat, is possible, but there is nothing in a reasonable interpretation of Genesis which makes it at all probable, while all the conclusions of contemporary science ren- der it not only in the highest degree improbable, but also exhibit it as completely discredited and as unworthy of the slightest con- sideration as a working hypothesis to guide the investigator in the study of Nature and Nature’s laws. But this en passant. My theme is not evolution, but rather the bearing of evolution on teleology, or the doctrine of the final causes of things. Paley, Chalmers, and the authors of the Bridgewater Treatises laid special stress on the argument from design, and, indeed, the chief object they had in view in writing their books, which were classics in their day, was to exhibit the purposiveness of Nature, to prove that from the evidence of design, which is everywhere mani- fest in the visible universe, we must necessarily infer the existence of a designer. And so conclusive was the argument, as then framed, that even the most skeptical and those most opposed to revealed truth were forced to admit that the facts of Nature bear witness to the existence and controlling influence of mind in the universe. Vol- taire declared, “ Rien n’ébranle en moi cet axiome, tout ouvrage dé- montre un ouvrier”’; and Hume, in words no less positive, affirmed that “the whole frame of Nature bespeaks an intelligent maker.” With the appearance, however, of Charles Darwin’s epoch-mak- ing Origin of Species it was at once recognized on all hands that the design argument had to be materially modified if it were any longer to have the slightest validity. As for the exponents of the mechan- ical school of philosophy, especially those who rejoice in the new- * See the writer’s work, Bible, Science, and Faith, Part 1.

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EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY. 817 fangled name of Monists, they loudly and triumphantly proclaimed that it was all over with teleology, and that it could, without further ado, be relegated to the limbo of exploded theory and fanciful hy- pothesis. Biichner asserted that “ modern investigation and natural philosophy have shaken themselves tolerably free from these empty and superficial conceptions of design, and leave such childish views to those who are incapable of liberating themselves from such anthro- pomorphic ideas, which, unfortunately, still obtain in school and Church to the detriment of truth and science.” * And Haeckel, with his usual dogmatism, writes, “I maintain with regard to the much-talked-of purpose in Nature, that it really has no existence ex- cept for those persons who observe phenomena in plants and animals in the most superficial manner.” + | The more profound and philosophic men of science did not, however, share the notions of Haeckel and Biichner. They ad- mitted, it is true, that the teleology of Paley and of the authors of the Bridgewater Treatises was no longer tenable, but they did not, there- fore, conclude that teleology was completely annihilated. Far from it. Teleology, they said, must be modified so as to meet the de- mands of modern science and research, and, as so modified, it is stronger, nobler, and more comprehensive than ever before. So thought among others Huxley and Gray, and so think also Wallace, Mivart, and the Duke of Argyll. “The most remarkable service to the philosophy of biology ren- dered by Mr. Darwin,” writes Huxley in his Darwiniana, “is the reconciliation of teleology and morphology, and the explanation of the facts of both which his views offer. . . . It is necessary to remember that there is a wider teleology which is not touched by the doctrine of evolution, but is actually based upon the fundamental principle of evolution.” $ America’s great naturalist, Prof. Asa Gray, is no less explicit. “Let us,” he says, “recognize Darwin’s great service to natural science in bringing back to it teleology, so that, instead of morphol- ogy versus teleology, we have morphology wedded to teleology.” * “The idea of development in all its logical forms,” declares the Duke of Argyll, in his late admirable work, The Philosophy of Be- lief, “is not antagonistic to, but in perfect harmony with, the idea of purpose. Design, from first to last, from its first conception to the attainment of its farthest aims, is, and so far as we know, must be a process of development. That development may be slow, or it may be quick and sudden in its steps. It may be effected in ways widely various, as by outward building or inward growth, but its * Force and Matter, p. 218. History of Creation, vol. i, p. 19. P y P t Page 110. * Darwiniana, p. 288. VOL, Li1.—69

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818 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. one essential character remains unchanged. It is a peculiar relation of cause and effect operating in time and exhibiting the one egsen- tial characteristic of having been directed in the past, and of being continually directed in the present, to some end which is future the direction being of that nature which we instinctively ada accurately call an aim.” * In a recent article on Darwinism and Design, in the Contem- porary Review, Prof. F. C. S. Schiller concludes his interesting contribution as follows: “We have discussed so far only mechanical theories of evolu- tion. But in itself evolution is not necessarily bound to be me- chanical; it is perfectly possible to regard it as the gradual working of a divine purpose. And once we adopt the evolutionist stand- point, it is clear that the argument from design is materially and per- ceptibly strengthened: (1) Positively, because evolutionism lets us, as it were, behind the scenes and shows us how means are adapted to ends in the gradual process of evolution. This renders easier and more comprehensive the belief underlying all teleology in a power that intelligently adapts means to ends. (2) Negatively, evolution- ism greatly weakens the objection to the teleological argument based on the imperfection of existing adaptations. We are no longer com- pelled to proclaim everything perfect; it suffices that we can find nourishment for the faith that everything is being made perfect. “Tf, then, evolutionism strengthens the argument from design, the latter indirectly owes a debt of gratitude to the theories which have led to the general adoption. of the evolutionist standpoint. And among these Darwinism stands pre-eminent. Evolutionism was as old as one of the earliest Greek philosophies; but it was not until Darwinism made it a household word that it could force its way into the consciousness of men at large. And.as a philosopher who re- gards evolutionism in some form as affording the most hopeful method of approaching the mystery of existence, I am inclined to hold that when historical perfection has cleared away the mole-hills we have made into mountains, it will be here that will be found Darwin’s most momentous and enduring service to knowledge and to mankind.” From the foregoing it would seem that all unbiased minds should be forced to acknowledge that teleology, far from being weak- ened or completely eliminated from the circle of the sciences, is, on the contrary, demonstrably in a far more impregnable position than ever before. We have, however, to deal with a certain class of agnostics who insist on reducing everything in creation to force * Pages 145 et seq. + June, 1897, p. 883.

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EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY. 819 and matter, and all the phenomena which can come under our observation to the action of force on matter, or to the fortuitous clash of atoms and molecules. They wish to eliminate from their discussions all reference to a creative, directive and intelligent Mind, for, as they contend, such a mind is not only unnecessary but is something which is absolutely unknowable and unthinkable. Elim- inating mind from the universe means eliminating purposiveness from Nature, and carries with it, of course, the destruction of all forms of teleology. Herbert Spencer’s works, for instance, are remarkable for their undisguised attempt entirely to eliminate all teleological language and eschew all teleological implications. But, strive as he may, the great corypheus of agnosticism is utterly unable, even in the simplest definitions, to find language that does not, directly or in- directly, imply aim and purpose, and, consequently, an intelligent designer. Thus, in his Principles of Biology, he says that “ physi- ology, in its concrete interpretations, recognizes special functions as the ends of special organs; regards the teeth as having the office of mastication; the heart as an apparatus to propel blood; this gland as fitted to produce one requisite secretion, and that to pro- duce another; each muscle as the agent of a particular motion; each nerve as the vehicle of a special sensation or a special motor im- pulse.” * All this, however, is teleological language of the most pro- nounced character. It is seen in the word “function,” which im- plies adaptation and, consequently, preparation and purpose; it is seen in the word “end,” which here signifies “aim”; it is seen in the word “apparatus ”—ad-paratus—which means a mechan- ism contrived for a specific purpose or operation—a means devised for obtaining some special end, for accomplishing something which has been foreseen and intended. Similarly the words “ office,” “agent,” “ fitted to,” “recognizes,” are all teleological, and replete with the idea of mental purpose. In spite, then, of all agnostic philosophy, in spite of all abstractions which would distort the original signification of words, we have in this simple definition of Spencer’s words which are positively surcharged with teleology. But they do no more than express what the observer actually sees and what actually takes place in the economy of Nature. In spite, therefore, of all-his attempts to avoid teleological terms, Spencer, like others of his school, is forced, by the very nature and structure of language, to employ them and to make use of expressions which indicate aim, preparation, purposiveness; which imply intelligence, foresight, design, a designer. * Pages 155 et seq.

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820 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. One of the reasons, no doubt, why certain modern philosophers and men of science have made such onslaughts on teleology is to be found in the too common attribution to teleologists of a crude anthropomorphic conception of the Deity. “The idea of a superin- tending and designing Mind ” conveys, it is asserted, “an unworthy idea of a Supreme Being. It lowers the Creator to the level of an artificer.” “ But, whether the idea be unworthy or not, it is fair to remem- ber,” as a writer in a recent number of the London Quarterly Re- view pertinently remarks, “ that, if Supreme Mind works in Nature it can only be through such mental characteristics as are recog: nizable by men that such a mind could disclose itself. The objec- tion demands a loftiness of method which would serve to conceal its intelligence from the intelligent creatures of its hand. But, further, the divine working is not wholly like the human; it is loftier; it is not the process of a mere artificer. Man produces manufactures; the Divine Mind produces growth and development. It thus works in a fashion more majestic than man’s. This concep- tion of the difference between divine and human working does not dissipate the impression that mind works in Nature. There is a distinction in man’s workmanship between the mental conception and mechanical execution. This is a real and constant distinction. In Nature this distinction disappears, but the important question here is, Is the conceiving mind lost in the mechanical artificer? This is precisely what does not happen. In the slow, orderly, and well-directed processes of Nature it is the lower—the artificer— action which vanishes; the evidence of the ruling mind remains un- impaired. The objection, therefore, rests on an incomplete analysis. It confounds the high functions of a conceiving mind with the far lower functions of a mere executive mechanic.” * Another reason for the prevalent confusion of thought regard- ing the relation of teleology to evolution arises from erroneous notions entertained by so many respecting the true signification of creation and evolution. They fail to distinguish between absolute creation ex nihilo and derivative creation. Absolute creation em- braces only spiritual intelligences and the material elements of which the universe is composed. Derivative creation, on the con- trary, means only the formation of something from pre-existing material, and, includes all organic and inorganic compounds, all forms of vegetable and animal life, for all these have been produced from those elementary bodies which constitute alike the earth and all the orbs of the firmament. Only absolute creation, therefore, is creation properly so called. Derivative creation, however, is * July, 1896, p. 218. eee

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EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY. 821 nothing more than development under the action of the laws of Nature imposed by God on the elements in the beginning. It is evolution from lower to higher forms under the action of what St.: Thomas calls the Divine Administration, and in consequence of the action of what St. Augustine terms seminal reasons—rationes semi- nales. Absolute creation is direct, immediate, supernatural; de- rivative creation is indirect, and is effected by the Almighty through the agency of secondary causes. In the beginning God created the elements once for all, but on these simple elements he conferred the power of evolving into all the countless forms of beauty which now characterize the organic and inorganic worlds. What, then, the older theologians called secondary or potential creation or formation —development under the guidance of God’s providence—we may now call, and with the utmost precision of language, evolution. For God, as St. Augustine observes, did not create animals and plants directly, but potentially and causally—in fieri, in causa; potentialiter atque causaliter. This, however, is theistic evolution, not agnostic evolution which relegates God to the region of the un- knowable; nor atheistic evolution which finds in the chance interac- tion of eternal force and eternal matter an adequate explanation of all the problems of the existing universe. For, let me insist, evolu- tion does not and can not account for the origin of things. The best it can do is to throw some light on their historical development; and this for the simple reason that it does not and can not deal with the origin of things, but only with the modus creandi, or rather with the modus formandi, employed by Omnipotence, after the universe had been called into existence by divine Fiat. “ Evolution, then,” as I have elsewhere shown,* “ postulates creation as an intellectual necessity, for if there had not been a creation there would have been nothing to evolve, and evolution would, therefore, have been an impossibility. “ And, for the same reason, evolution postulates and must pos- tulate a Creator, the sovereign Lord of all things, the Cause of causes, the terminus a quo as well as the terminus ad quem of all that exists or can exist. But evolution postulates still more. In order that evolution might be at all possible, it was necessary that there should have been not only an antecedent creation ex nihilo, but also that there should have been an antecedent involution or creation in potentia. To suppose that simple brute matter could, by its own motion or by any power inherent in matter as such, have been the sole efficient cause of the evolution of organic from inor- ganic matter, of the higher from the lower forms of life, of the rational from the irrational creature, is to suppose that a thing can * Evolution and Dogma, pp. 431, 432.

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822 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. give what it does not possess, that the greater is contained in the less, the superior in the inferior, the whole in a part.” Still another difficulty for the opponents of teleology arises from their inability to understand the purpose of many things in Nature, This, however, far from being an objection to the argument from design, should only make one more conscious of his ignorance, and of the limitation of human knowledge. If we can discern manifest evidence of design—and this no reasonable man can deny—in even a few things, and if, of the manifold purposes exhibited in any given object, we can discover but one, we have evidence which is quite sufficient for the validity of the design-argument, and quite suf- ficient, likewise, to meet all the requirements of the teleologist. It is, indeed, passing strange that those who are always so prompt to deny the existence of purpose in Nature, when there is question of teleology, or when theological implications are suspected, are the very first to insist on the evidence of mind and purpose when in their own case it is demanded by the exigencies of argument or dis- covery, and especially when it is demanded by the exigencies of special pleading. A case in point is the argument for the great antiquity of man based on the existence of arrowheads and flint flakes, found in cer- tain deposits whose age is indisputable. Contrary to the traditional view regarding the recent advent of man on earth, we have anti- teleologists who claim as the date of the appearance of our race one which carries us back tens, yea, hundreds of thousands of years. And on what do they base their argument? On evidences of mind and purpose. The arrowheads and flint flakes, they declare, and rightly, could not have been fashioned by chance; they could not have been formed by even the highest representatives of the brute creation. They indicate intelligence, design. They must, therefore, have been produced by man. Man, therefore, must have existed long prior to the period usually assigned as the date of his apparition on our planet. Now, while no one can object to the argument, as thus presented, we find it strangely inconsistent that its validity should be ques- tioned where the evidence of mind and purpose is far more striking —to wit, in the multifarious phenomena of the universe, all of which betoken far more than human intelligence and power. I shall here limit myself to only a single but a most telling illustration—the preparation of the world as the dwelling place of man. The storage of coal as fuel, the introduction of certain plants and animals shortly before the advent of our species, and in strict correlation with it— plants which were almost indispensable as articles of food, and the appearance of animals, such as the sheep, cow, and horse, which

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EVOLUTION AND TELEOLOGY. 823 contribute so materially to our comfort and enjoyment—can never, by any sane man, be regarded as the result of mere fortuity, or of the blind and indeterminate action of force on matter. No, the whole grand march of development from the Archean to the Quaternary period, from the simplest forms of life to the most complex, from monad to man, all speak in the most eloquent and unequivocal language of mind and providence, of a Being who foresees, designs, directs, governs; who in the language of Holy Writ “reacheth from end to end mightily and ordereth all things sweetly ”; “ Who hath ordained all things in measure, and number and weight.” But teleologists, while maintaining that design and purpose are everywhere manifest in Nature, and while proclaiming that every- thing is under the government of law, are not guilty of the error into which materialistic scientists so often lapse—that is, of regard- ing law as a cause, or a power, or as a kind of demiurge independent of the Deity. Far from it. Law in itself is nothing, does nothing, explains nothing. Law is not a force, is not an agent, is not and can not be the efficient or operative cause of anything whatever. Law is only the method according to which force acts; it is but the ex- pression of the mode of divine action. Science has been able to discover a few of the laws of Nature, as it has been able to disclose evidences of design and purpose in the divers realms of creation. And as from the few known laws of Nature men of science are justified in asserting that the entire universe and all it contains are governed by law, so also is the teleologist, from the knowledge he already possesses, equally warranted in declaring that not only the world as a whole, but also everything in it, attests the presence and action of Mind and exhibits such obvious traces of purposiveness that it may truthfully be affirmed that the doctrine of final causes reposes on as firm a basis as does the teaching, universally accepted, that the whole of Nature, animate and inanimate, is under the con- trol of divinely imposed law. No, it is not true that teleology has been banished from science and theology by recent research, or by the confirmation which is daily being given to the theory of evolution. Teleology has been modified, not destroyed. It has been expanded and ennobled and rendered more subtle and comprehensive than ever before. We now no longer look upon the Creator as directly producing the myriad species of plants and animals which variegate and beautify this earth of ours, but we regard him as operating through second- ary agents—creatures of his hand, ministers of his wisdom and power. He is not the immediate cause of the infinitude of forms which characterize the organic and inorganic worlds, but rather the Causa Causarum. He is not, as St. Athanasius observes, a car-

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824 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. penter, but a creator—«riotns ob texvirns. In the beginning he created all things and then impressed on them the power of de- velopment, of evolving into the innumerable species we now behold. All things existed in idea before they existed in fact, and the design and purpose which are revealed in animate and inanimate Nature are the witnesses of the foresight and providence of creative wisdom. Paley and the older school of teleologists pointed to a watch as a beautiful and convincing evidence of design. To the modern teleologist, studying the universe in the light of evolution, it is not simply a watch that presents itself as a witness of purpose running through all things created, from atom to star, but it is a watch which is competent to produce other and better watches. God makes things, it is true, but he makes them by making them make themselves. Similarly, we read purpose in Nature not only by limiting our view to the present and to simple individuals, but also, and more particularly, by studying the species and the class to which individuals belong, in the light of their past history or in the changes they may undergo in the future by reason of varied conditions or continued development. In the words of Mr. Aubrey L. Moore: “If ontogeny, the history of the individual, gives us no answer, we fall back on phylogeny, the history of the race. Organs, which on the old theory of special creations were useless and mean- ingless, are now seen to have their explanation in the past or in the future, according as they are rudimentary or nascent. There is nothing useless, nothing meaningless in Nature, nothing due to caprice or chance, nothing irrational or without a cause, nothing outside the reign of law. This belief in the universality of the reign of law is the scientific analogue of the Christian’s belief in Provi- dence.” * THE principal feature in the orography of South America, from Cape Horn northward, says Mr. Otto Nordenskjold, in describing his journey in southwestern Patagonia, is the contrast between a high Pacific mountain chain and a wide Atlantic table-land. This circumstance causes different parts of the country to wear aspects that are very dissimilar, but nowhere does the contrast appear so strongly as in Tierra del Fuego, where the sum- mits of the Cordilleras, covered with perpetual snow, and very often also by clouds, rains, and fog, can all be seen from the dry Atlantic coast. Not quite so rapid, but still very wonderful, is the transition in Pata- gonia ; and the region lying between 50° and 52° south latitude is in addition more interesting than any part of Tierra del Fuego, owing to the peculiar character given to parts of it by the presence of masses of basaltic rocks and lava cones in the east, and of great ice fields in the western valleys. * Science and the Faith, p. 197.

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DISCOVERY OF NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.. 825 DISCOVERY OF NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. By CLEMENS WINKLER. N his studies of the relative frequency of the different elements I composing the crust of the earth, Mr. F. W. Clarke supposes that to a depth of ten miles below the level of the sea the composi- tion of the ground is the same as is given by the examination of the surface strata and the depths which we have reached. The mean specific gravity of these strata is 2.5, or not quite half the density of the earth as a whole. Including the oceans and the atmosphere, the exterior crust of the earth is composed half of oxygen and one fourth of silicon, while the other fourth is represented by other elements—aluminum, 7 per cent; iron, 5.10; calcium, 3.50; mag- nesium, 2.50; sodium, 2.20; and potassium, 2.20 per cent. Some of the elements of which the numerous compounds have long been very obvious to the human ken are, therefore, from the point of view of their quantity, of very little importance; thus, hydrogen stands for only 0.94 per cent of the general composition of the crust of the earth, carbonic acid for 0.21 per cent, phosphorus for 0.09 per cent, and nitrogen for 0.02 per cent. These elements, which are the constituents of immense seas and form the basis of life, therefore furnish only a minute fraction of the mass of the ten- mile-thick ring contemplated by Mr. Clarke. Since the soundings thus far made indicate that they do not exist or hardly exist at greater depths, we have a right to say that so far as regards quantity they may almost be neglected, in considering the mass of the whole globe. The content in chlorine does not exceed 0.15 per cent, yet the common salt alone held in the oceans is sufficient to cover all the continents and bury the highest mountains. We perceive from this showing how little the impression the outer surface of our globe gives us corresponds with its real nature as we judge of it from its mean density. There can not be the least doubt that the internal parts of the globe are composed of different substances from those which appear in the external strata. But, while the elements of light specific weight or great vola- tility which, like hydrogen and nitrogen, exist in large quantities around us, constitute only a very minute part of the constituents of our globe considered as a whole, we presume that the elements called rare only enter in an infinitesimal degree into the general composition of the earth; the more so, because, so far as we as yet know, these elements are not found at great depths. I, at least, do not know that the heavier metals—gold, silver, lead, etc.—have ever been found in the materials extracted from deep soundings or

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826 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. voleanic ejections. After the mighty eruption of Krakatoa, for example, I sought in vain for these elements in the cinders cast out, which probably came from great depths. The supposed discovery of a new element in the ancient lavas of Vesuvius has been found to be erroneous. Elementary bodies seem to multiply as we approach the surface of the globe. Two hypotheses suggest themselves in explanation of the fact: that of displacements of cosmical matter, and that of the new formation of elements on the surface. The displacements of cosmic materials are incessant; falls of meteorites furnish a particularly striking example of them, but it is probable that as to quantity the cosmical dusts are of more impor- tance. Yet neither the meteorites found at various points nor the dust collected by Nordenskiold in the ice fields of the polar regions, the extra-terrestrial origin of which can not be doubted, contain the rare elements of the earth. The hypothesis of an increase by accretions from without appears to lack foundation. The new formation of elementary bodies seems to be still less probable; at most it might be explained by the possibility, often indicated but never established, of a new reduction of bodies here- tofore supposed to be simple. Spectrum analysis, it is true, reveals to us transformations which are gradually going on in the matter of the fixed stars, but they are only of known substances becoming con- verted into other substances equally known. Moreover, the con- ditions of temperature and aggregation of the fixed stars and those of the earth can not be compared. It is evident that the increase of simple bodies in the outer strata of the earth is only apparent. It should be recognized, besides, that science has made great progress, and this progress can not be with- out influence on the discovery of new substances. The first electro- lytic decompositions accomplished by Davy with an inferior vol- taic pile made known at the beginning of this century the existence of metallic radicles in the salts and the earth of which there had not been before the slightest suspicion; while Moissan, by the employ- ment of the powerful currents now available, has been able to disengage fluorine—hitherto almost unknown—from its combina- tions. Spectrum analysis has cast light on a whole series of ele ments of characteristic spectra. The presence of one of these ele ments, helium, had been demonstrated in the sun before it was known that it likewise entered into the composition of our globe The conclusions drawn by D. Mendeleef from the periodical law have also led to the discovery of several elements the existence of which was indicated by theory before the chemist had isolated them. I mention, first, scandium, discovered in 1879 by Nilson in exonite,

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ET DISCOVERY OF NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 827 gadolinite, and yttrotitanite. This metal, the oxide of which exists only in quantities of a few grammes, and which no person, perhaps, other than the author of the discovery has had in his hands, pos- sesses considerable scientific importance, because its atomic weight of 44, as determined by Nilson, is precisely that indicated by Men- deleef for ekabor, an element the existence of which was predicated by the periodic law. In 1794, Gadolin had separated from the gadolinite of Ytterby an earth which he called the earth of Ytter, and which was afterward known under the forms of erbia, terbia, and yttria proper. These earths were found in a considerable number of rare minerals, but the oxides extracted from these minerals exhibited different natures and aspects, presenting themselves rather like mixtures in which the separation of the different constituents was attended by con- siderable difficulties, for the different elements gave no very distinct reaction. It was necessary to recur to spectrum analysis and to the determination of atomic weights, and to try to isolate them by repeated fractionings, under the action of sulphate of potassium or of ammonia, or else by the partial decomposition of the nitrates by heat. The bulk of these analyses, the results of which are not, however, entirely clear as yet on some points, have been performed within the last quarter of a century, and, besides securing more pre- cise knowledge of scandium and yttrium, have revealed the exist- ence of numerous other rare elements, the reduction of which does not seem impossible; among which we cite erbium, holmium, thulium, dysprosium, terbium, gadolinium, samarium, decipium, and ytterbium. Cerium, lanthanum, and didymium have been the object re- cently of very attentive researches having a practical end in view— the constitution of mantles for incandescent gaslights. Didymium has been long suspected of not being a simple substance; but Carl Auer von Welsbach, the inventor of this method of illumination, is entitled to the credit of having succeeded, in 1855, in separating didymium into its two elements of prasodidymium and neodi- dymium. The utilization of monazite afterward permitted the prep- aration of the salts of these remarkable metals in larger quantities, and the practical use of them. The existence of metacerium, announced by M. Brauner, does not yet appear to be fully established, nor that of russium, which M. Crushchow has found associated with thorium in some zircons and in monazite, and the atomic weight of which is cal- culated at 220. The jargonium of Sorby, the austrium of Lin- neman, the norvegium of Dahl], the actinium of Phipson, the idumium of Websky, the masrium of Richmond and Off, and

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828 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. an unknown element which M. K. J. Bayer thought he had found in French bauxite, have returned to nothingness. We men- tion also merely as a matter of curiosity a kosmium and a neokos- mium, deriving their names not from Cosmos, but from Kosmann, who took out a patent for the preparation of their oxides. Gallium was discovered in August, 1875, by Lecoq de Boisbau- dran in the blende of Pierrefitte, through two very distinct lines in the violet of the spectrum of that mineral, which, however, as after- ward appeared, contained only a slight proportion of the new metal —not exceeding 0.0001 per cent—while in the richer blende of Bernbryer it amounted to 0.001 per cent. The preparation of gal- lium in any considerable quantities was attended with great difficul- ties on account of the want of a proper mineral to be practicably sub- mitted to the extraction process, and none has as yet been found. Still, the study of the new metal was very interesting, in view of the theoretical speculations of Mendeleef. Scandium and germanium had not yet been discovered, and there was therefore nothing to justify or confirm the conclusions drawn from the law of periodicity. As early as 1869, Mendeleef had affirmed the existence of simple bodies still unknown, the atomic weights of which should be com- prehended between.65 and 75; he had even gone so far as to describe in detail the properties of the three hypothetical elements—eka- boron, eka-aluminum, and ekasilicon. We can imagine the in- terest attached to the question whether the properties of gallium corresponded with the anticipations of the Russian chemist. At first, the correspondence did not seem to exist; the deter- minations made on the small quantities of gallium that could be obtained gave the specific gravity the unexpected value of 4.7. But as many of the properties of the new metal—such as the precipitation of its solutions by carbonate of barium, its tend- ency to form basic salts, and its capacity of forming alums— denoted a relationship with aluminum, Mendeleef had no hesita- tion in declaring that the new element appeared to correspond with the one the existence of which he had indicated in 1874 as similar to aluminum, and which he had called eka-aluminum. A new de- termination, made with considerable quantities of gallium obtained by electrolysis, brought the value of the specific gravity up to 59, which correspond exactly with the value calculated by Mendeleef for the hypothetical eka-aluminum. The specific heat (0.08) was afterward found to correspond with Mendeleef’s estimate, and the justness of his previsions was established. It was therefore shown to be reasonable to deduce from the properties of known elements those of others still unknown, but the existence of which is antici- pated. Mendeleef had not expected so quick a confirmation of his

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DISCOVERY OF NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 829 previsions; but his triumph was destined to be still more com- plete, for to gallium were afterward added scandium (ekaboron), discovered by M. L. F. Nilson in 1875, and germanium (ekasilicon), discovered by me in 1886. The discovery of germanium, predicted under the name of eka- silicon by Mendeleef, bears a resemblance to the discovery of the planet Neptune, the existence of which had been shown by the cal- culations of Adams and Leverrier. That discovery was not due to a concurrence of favorable circumstances or to a happy accident, but was the result of researches inspired by theoretic previsions, and the concordance between the predicted and the real properties was so great that Mendeleef regarded the discovery of germanium as an im- portant verification of the periodic law. On only one point—that touching its formations in Nature—did germanium completely fail expectations. The search for it would be more likely made as an oxide in the rare minerals of the north, along with titanium and zirconium, than as a sulphide accompanying similar compounds of arsenic and antimony in gangues of silver-bearing minerals. This fact, with the comparative rarity of its mineral, argyrodite, has con- tributed no little to delaying the elucidation of its real character. For myself, I was at first inclined to regard it as eka-antimony, while Mendeleef, after my first incomplete communications, thought it was ekacadmium. At the same time, M. von Richter expressed the con- viction that germanium was nothing else than the long-expected eka- silicon, a conclusion that was justified by the correspondence of atomic weights. The success of the bold speculations of Mendeleef permits the affirmation that the elaboration of the periodic system constitutes a great forward step for science. In the course of only fifteen years all the predictions of the Russian chemist have been con- firmed. New elements have come to fill the vacant spaces in his table, and there is every reason to hope that a like fulfillment awaits the rest of the natural system. Yet the two elements last discovered, argon and helium, do not seem to present any relation with the periodic system. The physical properties of argon are very distinct; its characteristic spectrum distinguishes it with great certainty from all other sub- stances; but chemically the gas manifests an extraordinary indiffer- ence, and it has not so far been possible to make it enter into the usual compounds with other elements. This peculiarity, and the impossibility of introducing a simple body of the molecular weight of argon (39.88) into the periodic system, have given occasion to all sorts of hypotheses concerning the gas; and the question of its rela- tions has not yet been answered.

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830 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Another most interesting discovery is that of helium, which was made by Professor Ramsay, in 1895, while examining the mineral cleveite for argon, when, besides the spectrum of argon, he observed another bright line not belonging to that spectrum, which Mr. Crookes recognized as identical with the line D*® which Pro. fessor Lockyer had observed in 1868 in the spectrum of the solar chromosphere, and which he attributed to an element not yet known on the earth—helium. The same line was afterward found in the spectra of other fixed stars, and the conclusion was drawn that helium exists in large quantities outside of the earth. On our planet it seems, however, to be very rare, and may even be ranked among the rarest elements. Yet it has been almost discovered several times. Palmieri observed the line of helium in his re- searches on the lava of Vesuvius, but did not push the matter further; and Hillebrand in 1891 obtained in the spectrum of the gas formed by uranite lines which were presumptively those of helium. Since its discovery, helium has been found in a consider- able number of minerals, generally associated with uranium, yttrium, and thorium; in mineral waters and, in extremely small quantities, in atmospheric air. Next to hydrogen, it is the lightest of the gases, and from this peculiarity Stoney draws an explanation of the fact that these two elements exist only in very small quantities in a free state on the earth, while they are diffused in enormous masses through the universe. The relatively small force of the earth’s gravitation does not furnish an adequate counterpoise to the ve locity of their molecules, and they escape from the atmosphere of the earth, unless they are restrained by chemical combination. They then collect around the great centers of attraction constituted by the stars, in the atmosphere of which they exist in large quan- tities. The study of the spectrum of helium is extremely important, because it gives interesting data concerning the nature of distant celestial bodies. It also, as the labors of Runge and Paschen have shown, suggests doubts concerning the elementary character of the new substance. Whatever it may be, if we have to suppose that helium is composed of two gases (Mr. Lockyer has proposed the name of asterium for the second), one of the two gases probably has a boiling point very near the absolute zero, and in any case below —264° C.; for the master in liquefaction of gases, M. K. Olszewsky, has not up to this time succeeded in provoking a change of state of helium, and he proposes to use this gas for filling gas thermometers for measuring extremely low temperatures. Helium has shown itself thus far as refractory as argon to all chemical combination, and so great an uncertainty reigns over the position to be attributed

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DISCOVERY OF NEW CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 831 to it that I pass by the hypotheses that have been set forth with respect to the matter. It is not impossible that the discovery of these two new elements, argon and helium, may give occasion for a remodeling or a trans- formation of the periodical system—a remodeling by means of which some uncertainties and even contradictions now existing will undoubtedly be removed. Thus, for example, the atomic weight of tellurium, as recently determined by B. Brauner and Ludwig Standenmaler, does not enter at all into the periodical system; on the other hand, the existence in this substance of a foreign element, such as the austriacum suggested by B. Brauner, does not seem to be established. As to the much-agitated question whether and to what extent the atomic weight of nickel differs from that of cobalt, I believe I have given a satisfactory answer, and have refuted the hy- pothesis of Gerhard Kriiss and F. W. Schmid of the existence in one of the substances of a third element which has been called gnomium. The rapid glance which we have cast over the discovery of new elements during the last twenty-five years shows that researches have been pursued in this direction with great activity, and with the return of considerable results. Yet the speculations for which these researches have given occasion with respect to the possibility of an ultimate decomposition of apparently simple bodies, and re- ciprocally respecting the progressive development of the primitive substance and the formation of many of the present elements, may be considered very uncertain. I mention among these Mr. Lockyer’s hypothesis of the dissociation of the elements within the solar atmosphere. Hypotheses of this kind must remain hypotheses so long as we do not succeed in splitting a substance unequivocally re- garded as simple, or in transforming some element into another; yet they need not be considered wholly inadmissible. Something un- expected may happen at any time that will open to science new roads of investigation.—-Translated for the Popular Science Month- ly from the Revue Scientifique. From the results of an investigation as to the use of fermented drinks by prehistoric peoples, M. G. de Mortillet concludes that the lake dwell- ings of Clairvaux in the Jura and of Switzerland show that the neolithic people of central Europe had a wine made from raspberries and mul- berries ; and the dwellings of Bourget in Savoy and various stations in the Alps, that the use of this wine continued through the bronze age. On the southern slope of the Alps the relics of the dwellings between the prehis- toric and the protohistoric ages reveal the use of another fermented liquor, prepared from the dogwood. Traces of the use of wine from grapes are found in the terramares of the plain of the Po, going as far back as the earliest bronze age.

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE. By MICHEL BREAL. ONE of the works on linguistics which come out one after another, whether for the use of students or of the general public, seem to me to offer exactly what they ought. To one who knows how to question it, language is full of lessons, because man has laid up in it for many centuries the acquisitions of his material and moral life. If only the changes of vowels and consonants are con- sidered, the study is reduced to the proportions of a secondary branch of acoustics and physiology; if the study is directed to the counting of the losses suffered by the grammatical mechanism, it gives the illusion of a building falling to ruin; and if one confines himself to vague theories on the origin of language, he adds a chapter of not much value to the history of systems. It seems to me that there is something else to be done. The extraction from linguistics of what can be drawn from it as food for reflection and as a rule for our own language (since each of us is doing his part in the evolution of human speech) is the thing that should be made most prominent, and that I shall attempt. My present effort is to study the mental causes which have in- fluenced the transformations of languages. In order to give system to the investigation, I have arrayed the facts under a series of laws— to which term we must not attach an imperative significance, for none of these laws is without exceptions; and I take pains to define for each law the limits within which it is operative. I aim to show that the history of language, besides achieved changes, furnishes numerous cases of attempts that have been carried only part way. To introduce the will as a factor in the history of language after so much pains have been taken within the past fifty years to exclude it, seems almost like heresy. But while it was proper to discard the puerilities of the science of the past, we have been content to ‘ake up with the opposite extreme of a too simple psychology. We shall have to shut our eyes to the evidence to fail to see that an obscure but persevering will presides over changes of language. How shall this will be represented? I believe it should be repre- sented under the form of thousands and millioris and milliards of ten- tative essays, usually unsuccessful, but sometimes followed by a quar- ter or a half success, which, thus guided, corrected, and improved upon, at length take some precise direction. The object, in lan- guage, is to be understood. The child exercises itself for months in speaking the vowels and articulating the consonants; and how many failures does it make before it clearly pronounces a

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE. 833 syllable! Grammatical innovations are of the same kind, with the difference that a whole people collaborates in them. How many awkward, incorrect, and obscure constructions, before finding the one which will be, not an adequate—for there is none such—but a passably sufficient expression of the thought! There is nothing in this long labor that is not of the will. In pursuing this study, we have no need to look for facts of a complicated nature. As in every- thing where the popular mind is in play, we find a surprising sim- plicity in the means, in striking contrast with the extent and impor- tance of the effects. 1 have designedly taken my examples from the best known languages. We give the name of repartition to the intentional process by which words that were synonymous take on different meanings, and can no longer be used for one another. Most linguists deny that there are repartitions, and, when confronted with examples, assert that they are made by scholars and are not popular. The public, however, are not of this opinion. They admit the existence of repartition, and do not believe that there are two absolutely identical terms. Now, since the public is the depository and the author of language, its verdict that there shall be no synonymy is effective to work the disappearance of any synonym in a short time. A class of distinctions between words is discredited by their having been made in the study by pretentious teachers of language who have not been called to the task. There are no real distinctions other than those which are made without premeditation, under the pressure of circumstances by sudden inspiration, under the impulse of a real need, by persons who are dealing with the things themselves, asso- ciating the words with them the moment they see them. When two languages or two dialects exist together, a work of classification takes place, and synonymous words are given different ranks. Words rise and fall in dignity as an idiom is considered superior or inferior. Linguistics is here a social or a national affair. As M. J. Gillieron relates of the Lower Valais, where French has encroached upon the Swiss dialect, that the latter has been debased and become vulgar and trivial. Since the French word chambre has come in for the bedroom, the old word pailé has been applied only to the garret. In Brittany, according to the Abbé Rousselot, gardens were formerly called courtils, but now that the word jardin has been introduced, a kind of slight has been attached to the old rustic word. It makes no difference if both terms are of the same origin. The Savoyard calls his own parents pére and mére, French, while the fathers and mothers of his cattle are his native paré and maré. What the people do by instinct, all constructive science, all deep analysis, all discussion that has an object, every reflective opinion that would VOL, Lu.—61

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 834 define itself, does with the same spontaneity. Two words, formerly synonymous, are differentiated by an immediate apperception. The history of language is a series of repartitions. The earliest stam- mering of a child is nothing else, for it is by repartition that he applies to distinct objects the sylables which he at first bestowed in- differently on everything he met. When the popular mind has once determined a repartition of a certain order, it is naturally tempted to complete the series. There are languages in which the different acts of life are not designated in the same way when performed by a person of high dignity and by a common person. To express that a man eats, the Cambodians use the word si; in speaking of a chief, pisa; and of a bonze or king, sot. In speaking to an inferior, I is anh; to a superior, knhom; to a bonze, chhan. The followers of Zoroaster, who regard the world as divided between two opposing powers, have a double vocabulary, according as they speak of creatures of Ormuzd or of Ahriman. Nothing, in fact, is more natural or more necessary than reparti- tion; for our mind collects words from different ages and different mediums, and would be in absolute confusion if it did not give some kind.of order to them. We all do what the dictionaries of synonyms do; when we examine the terms which usage distinguishes or subordi- nates, we find that etymology rarely gives a reason for the differences we assign to them. If we take, for example, the words genus and spe- cies, what reason is there for giving one a larger capacity than the other? There is nothing in the words division, brigade, regiment, and battalion to indicate the special and exact subordination of one to another that exists between them. Passing to moral ideas, we per- ceive no gradation imposed by etymology in the words esteem, respect, and veneration. It required precise and clear minds, a society well ordered and careful of its ranks, to establish some of these distinctions. Still, repartition has its limits. First, as it does not create, but attaches itself to what is to be distinguished, terms to be differentiated must exist in the language. We might cite instances of confusion from which, for the lack of a word, the most perfect idioms have never succeeded in freeing themselves. On the other hand, the mind may not always be able to fructify all the riches the language offers it. Grammatical mechanism, by combining existing elements, could produce such a quantity of forms that the mind would be embarrassed with them. George Curtius calculated that the number of personal forms in the Greek verb rose to 268, but this is much inferior to the 861 forms of Sanskrit. Another limit is imposed. Certain shades of meaning are possible only among cultivated peoples. In syn- onymy we can discern what objects the thought of a nation is occu-

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE. 835 pied with. Distinctions are made first by the finer minds; then they become common to all. Intelligence consists largely in per- ceiving the difference between similar things. It is imparted, in a certain degree, by language, for, in order to recognize differences which the best endowed were at first the only ones to feel, the view of each one becomes keener. From what has gone before, we draw the conclusion that lan- guage designates things incompletely and inexactly. Substantives are labels attached to things, and include just that part of the truth which a name can contain. The names most adequate to their ob- jects in our languages are abstract nouns, because they represent a simple operation of the mind. When I pronounce the word com- pressibility or immortality, all that is in the idea is contained in the word; but if I take a real being, an object existing in Nature, it will be impossible for language to put into the word all the notions which that being or that object awakens in the mind. Language is forced to select. Among all the notions it chooses one, and thus creates a name which at once becomes a sign. There is no reason to fear that the importance of language in education will ever be depreciated. We can trust that to the mothers. Their first impulse is to speak to the child, their highest joy to hear it speak. Then come masters of all degrees and sorts, each of whose art supposes language. In every country, ancient and modern, language has supplied the instrument and the prime material of instruction. This universal agreement is natural. We shall have no difficulty in understanding the nature of the action of language on the mind if we reflect that we do not, any of us, receive it in block all at once, but are each obliged to reconstitute it anew. An apprenticeship takes place which, although it escapes notice and is not recognized even by the one who passes through it, is never- theless a sort of training school of mankind. Since the best teachers are those who give us the most to do ourselves, what more profitable study can we conceive for the child? What attention is required simply to distinguish the word! We have to disengage it from what precedes and from what follows it; to discriminate between the per- manent and the variable elements, and to understand that the per- manent element is committed to us to handle in our turn and subject to the same variations. The simplest phrase is an invitation to decompose the thought and see what each word contributes to it. The adjective and the verb are the first abstractions comprehended by the child. Imagine the effort which the ancient languages re- _ quired even to speak them passably! There was a whole chapter of inner life in it which began again in each person. The people carried within themselves an unwritten grammar, which indeed - = A

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 836 slipped into errors and faults, but which nevertheless had a degree of fixedness, for these languages were transmitted from generation to generation for ages. When we consider how much trouble it takes now to learn these languages, we are surprised. But we must recollect that education in the maternal language has the advantage that it is going on all the time and everywhere, that it is stimulated by necessity, that it addresses itself to fresh minds, and that it offers the unique characteristic of associating words with things, and not the words of one language with those of another. The same conditions are in play in all mother tongues, and in all the child’s mind achieves a triumph. Our modern languages, while less encumbered with formal apparatus, are still not far from it; and the complication bears upon another point, consisting in the use of words of slight meaning, and so abstract and servile that we never think of them, while we always put them in their proper places. In this we observe intelligence passing to a condition of instinct. This is not through any kind of a notion of the value of the word, but by virtue of a certain number of locutions which memory retains, and which serve as models. Our intelligence derives the same services in daily operations from language that we derive from calculations. In consequence of the infirmity of our understanding, it is easier for us to deal with the signs of ideas than with the ideas themselves. Be- fore the invention of writing, men counted with pebbles. Doubt- less this idea must come first; but it is vacillating, fugitive, hard to transmit. Once incorporated into a sign, we are sure we have it, and can direct it at will and communicate it to others. This is the service performed by language; it renders thought objective. If I had to say in what the superiority of the Indo-European languages consists, I should not seek for it in the grammatical mechanism, or in the compounds, or in the syntax; but in the facility with which those languages, from the most ancient times of which we know, have created abstract nouns. If we observe the suffixes which serve this purpose, we shall be surprised at their num- ber and variety. It is the presence of these nouns in large number, as well as the possibility of making others after the same type, that adapts the Indo-European languages so well to the expression of all the operations of thought. Accustomed as we are to language, we do not easily conceive of the accumulation of mental labor which it represents; but, to satisfy ourselves concerning it, we have only to take up some book and eliminate all the words which, not corresponding to any objective reality, summarize a mental operation. Hardly anything would be left of the page thus pruned. The peasant who talks of time and seasons, the tradesman who expatiates on his stock of goods, and

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SKETCH OF CARL SEMPER. 837 the child who brings his certificate of conduct or advancement, move in a world of abstractions. The words number, form, distance, situation, are so many mental concepts. Language is a translation of reality, a transposition in which objects figure already generalized and classified by the labor of thought.—Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue des Deux Mondes. oe ooo SKETCH OF CARL SEMPER. ARL SEMPER is characterized by Dr. August Schuberg * as a student who, while being especially thorough in a particular line of research and generally preferring it, was remarkably free from that kind of specialism which is so common and often detri- mental to science as a whole. . “ There are few investigators who have made themselves so familiar with the most various groups of the animal kingdom through their own researches as he; and he most catholicly busied himself with all branches of zodlogy—anat- omy, histology, embryology, physiology and general biology, sys- tematic biology, and geographical distribution—in all of which he pursued his own lines of investigation, so that it may be said that there are few regions of zodlogy which he did not explore.” He was also an industrious student in anthropology and ethnology. Cart Gortrrrep Semper was born at Altona, July 6, 1832, the son of the manufacturer Johann Carl Semper, and died at Wiirz- burg, May 29, 1893. He attended the gymnasium of his native city till he reached the Secunda, and then entered the school for naval cadets which was founded by the “ Provisional Government ” of Schleswig-Holstein at Kiel in 1848. Not finding the conditions here very attractive, he joined the artillery as a volunteer and en- gaged in a brief campaign against the Danes. When Schleswig- Holstein was given up to Denmark, he, by his father’s advice, attended the Hanover Polytechnic School from 1851 to 1854. At the University of Wiirzburg (1854 to 1858) he gave special atten- tion to comparative morphology and histology. Having received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Wiirzburg in 1856, he con- tinued his studies there and at the Kiel High School in 1857, and in November of that year started on a tour through Ger- many, France, and Spain, the object of which, he said, was partly study in the museums and libraries, and partly to find associates who would join him in a more extensive scientific journey. His inten- *In Arbeiten aus dem Zoologisch-zootomischen Institut in Wiirzburg, in an article whence the material for this sketch is derived.

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838 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tion, in which he was encouraged and assisted by his liberal-minded father, was to visit the Philippine Islands, alone if he should not find suitable companions. In the hope that he might thereby fur- ther advance his scientific purposes, as well as in order to gratify his taste for a sea life, he determined to make the voyage on a sailing vessel. Reaching Manila in December 1858, he devoted the first half year of his stay there to making himself acquainted with the country and the people and to mastering the language, and, limiting his zodlogical rambles at first to the neighborhood of the town, did not undertake any more extensive excursion till August, 1859, when he went to the southern part of the Philippines. During a residence of seven months at Zamboanga and on Basilan, in addition to his zo- ological and other scientific researches, he studied the anthropology and ethnology of the Mohammedan Malays living there. Returning to Manila in March, 1860, he began the next month a second long journey to the northeastern part of the island of Luzon, where, be- sides zodlogical studies, he had an opportunity to become acquainted with the heathen tribes of Malays and collect much new and valu- able anthropological and ethnographical material. His activity was interrupted for several weeks by illness, and, following the advice of a physician, he embarked for the Pelew Islands, where he intended to study the coral formations. His vessel was leaky and unseaworthy, and the voyage was lengthened by the necessity of running in often at the different islands for re- pairs. His stay at the Pelew group was prolonged for months by delay in putting the vessel in proper condition for the return voyage, and he suffered great hardships, but formed very pleasant relations with the natives; and this, with the richness of the scientific and ethnological treasures he acquired, was ample compensation for all. Having returned to Manila, he was married to Anna Hermann, of Hamburg, and they soon afterward went to the island of Bohol, north of Mindanao, whence he in the same year (1862) made brief excursions to the neighboring islands of Cebi, Leyte, and Min- danao. The last of the series of expeditions from the Philippine Islands was made to the interior of Mindanao from May till Decem- ber, 1864; and in May, 1865, Semper left Manila for home. Near the close of this year Semper was licensed by the Philo- sophical Faculty of Wiirzburg as Privat Docent in zodlogy. In February, 1869, he was appointed professor extraordinary. Ten days later he became a temporary supply for Professor Leiblein, who was ill, and on Leiblein’s death, in August of the same year, he was appointed regular professor and director of the zodlogical cabinet. In 1870 he was invited to go to Gottingen, but decided to remain at Wiirzburg.

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SKETCH OF CARL SEMPER. 839 This preference was recognized by the authorities of the univer- sity in an assurance that a reorganization of the zodlogical cabinet— the arrangement of which was poorly adapted for purposes of instruc- tion—should be begun, to be completed in five years. Professor Semper proceeded at once with a provisional rearrangement, and with the foundation of a museum of comparative anatomy; and the former zodlogical cabinet was named by the Aeademical Senate in December, 1871, the Zodlogical Zodtomical Institute. The number of his pupils increased, and many valuable studies were undertaken by them under his lead and at his suggestion; but all their work was hampered by want of means and of space. A site for a building had been granted the university by the city authorities of Wiirzburg in 1875, but no building money had been appropriated, and the ques- tion of the way in which funds could be obtained offered a serious problem. His work at Wiirzburg suffered several interruptions. During the war of 1870 his characteristic energy found full sway in the diree- tion of the transportation of provisions and hospital furnishings to the seat of hostilities, in which he was several times engaged. A sojourn in Heligoland in 1873 and 1874, and a visit of a few months in 1876 in company with some of his pupils to the Balearic Islands, were of much advantage to his scientific work. Most important results of his residence in Heligoland were his thorough investigations of the excretory organs of the shark. In 1877 Professor Semper was invited to deliver the Lowell Institute Lectures in Boston, and improved the opportunity to travel over the western part of our continent. The substance of the twelve Lowell Lectures was afterward embodied in the book, Animal Life as affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence, which was pub- lished as No. 30 of the International Scientific Series, and is char- acterized by Dr. Schuberg as one of his most important works. In 1887 Professor Semper suffered a stroke of apoplexy, by which his life was immediately endangered and his vigor was per- manently weakened. For a short time he seemed to recover very rapidly, but the evidence of advancing disease which was destined to end in his death became gradually plainer. Still, he would not spare himself, but labored on, as he had done in his younger days, to his injury. One joy, however, was still to be afforded him. The Bavarian Landtag in 1887 voted money for the erection of a zodlogical insti- tute. He was permitted to have this building constructed according to his own views. It was ready for use in November, 1889, and he was able to enjoy it for a short time; but his health continuing to fail, he was not permitted to carry on the investigations for which it had

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840 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. been constructed, and was compelled to ask to be relieved of the work of teaching at the end of the year 1892. His successor as director of the institute was appointed at the beginning of the sum- mer semester of 1893, and his own death followed shortly after- ward. The versatility by which Professor Semper was distinguished, and of which we have spoken at the beginning of this sketch, was rarely favored, in Professor Schuberg’s view, by his long sojourn in the tropics; for when one is so situated, as he was then, as to be able to spend seven years and a half in the study of the exceedingly diversified and interesting animal forms of luxuriant tropical nature, without being concerned about outside conditions and without hay- ing any other duties, he enjoys facilities and is assisted to an extent which few zodlogists can hope for; and he used these opportunities in a manner which attests his extraordinary energy and his capacity to give equal and impartial attention to every branch of his science. His earlier works, before going to the Philippine Islands, and his first researches there were in comparative morphology and histology. As his investigations continued, they were extended to numerous and diversified animal groups, and gave rise to many important dis- coveries. Of special interest among his publications concerning these researches were his papers on the origin of coral reefs, on the Trochosphera, and on the alternating generations of stone corals. Of special permanent value likewise are his monographs on holo- thuria and land mollusks. He busied himself, too, with questions of geographical distribution and general biology; and he is credited by Professor Schuberg with having contributed much to the build- ing up of Darwin and Wallace’s doctrine of descent, by his efforts to bring some of the questions nearer solution, and by his objective criticisms. Two works are especially mentioned which advanced the discussion of the questions raised by the theory of descent. One of these embodies a series of connected investigations, the results of which go to close a gap which had to be bridged if the theory of de- scent were to be set upon a stable foundation. Professor Semper, almost simultaneously with the Englishman Balfour, had made the important discovery of the presence of structures in sharks, both embryos and full grown, which attested a conformity of the struc- ture of the urogenital system of vertebrates with that of the anne- lids; and he believed that he had at last found the bridge which was to be laid from the vertebrate to the invertebrate type. Thus arose, in the building up of the theory based upon this first observation, a series of researches, in which he tried to demonstrate a conformity in structure of the vertebrates and the articulate worms for other organs than the urogenital apparatus, and materially promoted the

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SKETCH OF CARL SEMPER. 841 solution of extremely important problems of animal morphology, particularly those of segmentation, budding, and strobilation. Professor Semper did not succeed in obtaining general accepta- tion of his views on the derivation of vertebrates, but the observa- tions and arguments on the special point, and on general questions, too, set forth in the works relating to them, exercised a remarkably stimulating influence on the further discussion of the problems in- volved. The second work in which Professor Semper considered the zo- ological problems raised by Darwin’s theory is the book on Animal Life as affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. The funda- mental thought of this book, as defined by the author in his preface, was that, as Jaeger had said, enough had been done in the way of philosophizing by Darwinists, and the task now presented was to apply the test of exact investigation to the hypotheses that had been laid down. Without pretending to have made a complete pres- entation, his end would be attained if he should have given an impulse to research, on however small a scale, so long as it should be systematically conducted and thoroughly carried out—* if only it should contribute to extend my own conviction as to the use- lessness of casual and disconnected observations.” The book is de- scribed by Dr. Schuberg as a remarkably stimulating one, and no compilation; for, besides permeating and enriching the subject with numerous new thoughts, he incorporated in it a very large number of his own observations, made for the most part during his voyages. Professor Semper further contributed to the literature of zodlogy numerous smaller and special papers, a considerable proportion of which, his own, or composed with the co-operation of his pupils, were published in the Arbeiten aus dem Zoologisch Institut in Wiirzburg. The whole list of his writings, as given by Dr. Schuberg in the biog- raphy published in that journal, comprises ninety titles. Professor Semper contributed also to other fields of literature. His journeys in the Philippine Islands took him into regions rarely visited by Europeans, and of the anthropology and ethnology of which little was known. He included these features within the range of his studies, and was able to cast considerable light upon them. Besides single essays, two works are especially worthy of notice as fruits of his industry in these lines of research—The Philip- pine Islands and their Inhabitants, which treats of the geographical and ethnological aspects of the group; and The Pelew Islands of the Pacific Ocean, presenting a corresponding view of that still less ‘known region. In 1869 he became one of the editors of the Archiv fiir Anthropologie. Considerable literary value also attaches to his academical lectures.

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 842 Professor Semper had a rare art of attaching his students to him- self. His manner of meeting and greeting them attracted them. His intercourse with them was friendly and cordial, and was not confined to the hours of instruction. The students of the Wiirz- burg Institute, Dr. Schuberg says, when Professor Semper was in the height of his power as a teacher, constituted a family, of which he was the head. He knew how to pick out the students inclined to independent thought, to draw out their peculiar traits, and to prompt each of them to develop his individuality, or cultivate his habit of independence. Hence, although he had many students, he formed no “school.” A WRITER in the London Spectator, visiting the Zodlogical Gardens in Amsterdam, was much interested in the colony of nesting cormorants on one of the small canals crossing parts of the grounds, where the “domes- tic side of cormorant life could be seen at close quarters.” The birds car- ried on there their daily work of “fishing, nest-building, sitting on eggs, rearing the young, quarreling for ‘stands’ for future nests, or basking in the sun within a couple of yards of the path. At the time of the writer’s visit there were five nests built close to the water. They were made of large sticks piled to a height of from two feet to three feet. One held a pair of young cormorants, covered with close, black down. In the second were three birds of rather larger growth. Ona third nest an old hen bird was still sitting on her eggs, while the cock kept guard on the ground in front. The compact and glossy plumage of both shone with gleams of black and purple luster, set off by the pale yellow skin on the cheek and bill. The cormorant is not usually credited with beauty, but, like the star- ling, it is a lovely bird in the breeding season, when the sight of the old cock rushing to battle with all intruders, exchanging rapierlike thrusts of the beak with his enemies, croaking, swelling his throat, and even throw- ing himself on the ground to prevent access to the nest, makes a pretty illustration of bird courage. All this fuss and excitement is confined en- tirely to the male birds. The hens are quite ready to see a little company when sitting; and two were seen sitting side by side on eggs laid in a joint nest.” CarL VoerT’s publication of his theory of microcephalism caused great offense in certain circles in Germany, and even the children in the streets would sometimes call after him “Affenvogt.” William Vogt relates in his Vie dun Homme that, desiring to examine a specimen of microcephaly in a strictly closed convent at Eger, Carl took advantage of the doors being opened for General de Gablenz, and attached himself to his party. They were all received cordially and given the freedom of the house. The friar pastor exhibited as the greatest curiosity of the convent “a real man- monkey,” a microcephal, which Vogt examined at great length. While he was measuring its angles, the monk exclaimed : “ A real man-monkey, isn’t it? Wouldn’t that pestilent monster of a Carl Vogt be happy if he could see it! I am not malicious, but if he should come within a league of this place he would be lost !”

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EDITOR’S TABLE. Editor’s Zable, EVOLUTION AND DESIGN. PON another page of the pres- ent number will be found an interesting article by an eminent Catholic theologian, the Rev. J. A. Zahm, C. S. C., under the title of Evolution and Teleology. The point of view which the writer takes up is not one that we can share; but he states his case with candor and abili- ty, and we hold that views so stated are entitled to expression in a peri- odical which stands, and has always stood, for the freest discussion of all scientific and philosophical ques- tions. It will be observed that Father Zahm is prepared to make, and very frankly makes, large concessions to modern science. He considers that the doctrine of evolution in its gen- eral aspect may be considered as proved. As to what Huxley has called the Miltonic doctrine of crea- tion, he says that “all the conclu- sions of contemporary science render it not only in the highest degree im- probable, but also exhibit it as com- pletely discredited, and as unworthy of the slightest consideration as a working hypothesis to guide the in- vestigator in the study of Nature and Nature’s laws.” He admits further that, in the light of the Darwinian theory, the reasonings which satisfied our fathers on the subject of design in Nature have become to a large extent obsolete. The authors of the Bridge- water Treatises, excellent observers of Nature as they were, regarded the adaptation of a given organism to its environment as the result of direct purposive action on the part of the Creator, entirely analogous to the action whereby a locksmith fits a key to a lock. From the modern point of view adaptation is simply the ne- cessary condition of existence. Giv- en a geometrical rate of increase in vegetable and animal forms, and the sifting or selective action of the en- vironment will do the rest. Father Zahm accepts the modern point of view, but does not on that account abandon the idea of design. He quotes certain modern writers, among whom he erroneously in- cludes Huxley. as saying that the teachings of Darwin have simply rendered necessary a restatement of the former argument. Instead of regarding each form of life as mirac- ulously adapted to its environment in the act of creation, we are to con- sider that the evolutionary process was designed to develop just such forms of life as we now see. A cer- tain Professor Schiller is quoted as maintaining that “ once we adopt the evolutionist standpoint, the argu- ment from design is materially and perceptibly strengthened,” and that in two ways: positively, by letting us behind the scenes and showing us how effects are produced; and nega- tively, by removing the necessity for proclaiming everything perfect, see- ing that some things, if not all, may properly be considered as only in course of being made perfect. Inas- much as the view of creation which Huxley, to avoid offense, called Mil- tonic is really the view which accepts in a plain sense the plain teachings of the book of Genesis, and as that view involves the perfection of all things as they came from the hands of the Creator, who pronounced them “ very good,” it is evident that Father Zahm adopts a standpoint far in advance of the literalism of popular theology. He recognizes that these matters be- eo

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844 long to the domain of science, and that scientific investigation can not be arrested by any dictum uttered in the name of purely theological stud- ies or merely traditional opinions. The main question, however, which his article summons us to consider is whether the doctrine of evolution, which he accepts, lends it- self to a teleological interpretation ; and upon this point we must say that he, and the authors whom he cites, seem to place their argument on avery unsubstantial foundation. How does the matter stand? There is no question that Nature abounds in examples of what, for want of a more suitable term, we may call adaptation. The eye is “adapted” for seeing, the hand for grasping, the stomach for digesting, and so on. The older naturalists and philoso- phers, not being able to conceive of any other method by which adapta- tions could be brought about than that of purposive action, by some power capable of molding the forms of life as the human mechanic shapes the materials in which he works, argued, naturally and reasonably from their point of view, that a spe- cial divine power had designedly fashioned each form and each organ so as to fit them for the precise place they were to fill and the work they were to perform in the general econ- omy of things. Paley’s argument from a watch was considered irresisti- ble in its day. If, he said, it would be idle to pretend that the parts of a watch, discovered by accident on a common, could have come together of themselves in harmonious correla- tion, so as to achieve the purpose of correctly measuring time, is it not still more idle to pretend that the vastly more numerous and complex adaptations discoverable in such an organ as the human eye or hand could have been brought about with- out the aid of an intelligent design- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. er? Itis true that certain considera- tions which were obvious enough in Paley’s day, and had been so for cen- turies before, might have suggested a doubt as to whether this argument was conclusive—considerations as to the fashioning process which things undergo by simple contact with their environment, as when a man be- comes polished by contact with so- ciety, or exposed surfaces h=~dened to resist the impact of external ob- jects—but, speaking generally, nei- ther the scientific nor the unscientific world was in a position at the time to deny in any effective manner the force of Paley’s analogy. To-day it is different. Father Zahm himself acknowledges that Paley’s argument, examined in he light of the doctrine of evolution, becomes untenable. Things were not put together, once for all, by the divine artificer in the way the wor- thy dean imagined. As Topsy would say, they “growed” into those con- ditions of adaptation in which we at present behold them through the combined forces of heredity and nat- ural selection—the former reproduc- ing qualities once spontaneously de- veloped, the latter rejecting forms not fitted to thrive, or at least less fitted than others to thrive, in their actual environment. The question, therefore. at present is, Can we as- sert with confidence, on the strength of some strong analogy such as that to which Paley—as is now evident erroneousl y—appealed, that the evo- lutionary process was set in motion with a distinct intention on the part of an intelligent Creator to produce pre- cisely those forms and modes of life which prevail, and heretofore have prevailed, in the world? Adapted structures, it is conceded, exist, but is it certain that intention or purpose presided over their adaptation? On this question it does not appear to us that either Father Zahm or any of

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his philosophical ‘allies shed any light. An argument is attempted to be founded on the fact that the lan- guage used by Herbert Spencer him- self in dealing with biological ques- tions shows teleological implica- tions; but there is nothing in this. Mr. Spencer is not a teleologist; and if he were, we should have to con- sider his reasons for being one, and not stop short with the fact that he was one. Science does not permit such an abuse to be made of authori- ty. The reason why Mr. Spencer's language and all language has a te- leological character is that man has been obliged to frame language on lines prescribed by his own mental activity. Man is essentially a de- signer, and he reads design more or less into everything that he sees. There is one passage in our con- tributor’s article which seems to evince that his conversion to the doctrine of evolution is not very complete. He remarks that it is “passing strange that those who are so prompt to deny the existence of purpose in Nature when there is a question of teleology, or when theo- logical implications are suspected, are the very first to insist on the evi- dence of mind or purpose when in their own case it is demanded by the exigencies of argument or discov- ery”; and he cites as a case in point the conclusions founded by men of science on the discovery of “ arrow- heads and flint flakes in certain de- posits whose age is indisputable.” It is a great pity that Paley is not alive to congratulate Father Zahm on this neat application of his own method. The standpoint here is exactly that of Paley which we were given to understand had been abandoned. Arrowheads are not things that grow. The method of their produc- tion is known to us; and it is in the light of experience that we attribute their origin to human agency, and EDITOR’S TABLE. 845 by the most necessary inference that we form conclusions as to the age of the human race from the situations in which such implements are found. But if, because we are obliged to rec- ognize purpose in the manufacture of an arrowhead, we are equally obliged to recognize it in the first organic form presented to us, what need was there for amending Paley’s argument? Our reverend contribu- tor is making the whole work of Dar- win of none effect by his traditions: and yet he preluded his argument Ly a general acceptance of Darwinism. We fear the new scientific baptism has not yet produced its full effect. So once more we come round to the real point at issue. It is not dis- puted that evolution produces results which present a resemblance to the products of human design, in so far as the accomplishment of definite re- sults by definite means is concerned ; but where is the proof that mind has guided the action of evolution? Where is the proof that the prod- ucts of evolution to-day are precisely the results that a superintending mind aimed at? Can Divine inten- tion be quoted with any greater cer- tainty in the “ adapted ” forms which survive than in the unadapted or less adapted ones that perish? We do not say that the teleological view is false; we only say that it requires to support it something more than a mere partial resemblance between the effects of evolution and those of purposive human action. We are far from quarreling with any opti- mistic creed or any religious inter- pretation of the universe; but it is right to protest when facts are put to a strain which they are not able to bear, and when consequently a sci- entific theory is in danger of losing its scientific value. Our contributor speaks with dis- approval of those who find “in the chance interaction of eternal force

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846 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and eternal matter an adequate ex- | its totality, but to give those partial planation of all the problems of the | explanations of phenomena and existing universe.” The man who | their sequence which are needed to finds in any scientific conception or | safeguard human life and fructify hypothesis an adequate explanation | human effort. The man of science of all the phenomena of the uni- | watches over the integrity of his own verse must be a somewhat fatuous | intellect, and refuses to allow it to be being. Certainly this is not the | entangled in any yoke of bondage usual attitude of the scientific mind. | knowing that he holds his faculty for Mr. Spencer in particular, referred | truth iv trust for the world. When to by our contributor as “the great | he is asked to acknowledge “ design” coryphzeus of agnosticism,” takes | in this or that organism, he says: “] much pains to show that no ade- | recognize the relations which this quate explanation of the phenomena | thing sustains to its environing con- of the universe is obtainable. What | ditions, and I have some limited he has labored to do, for his own | knowledge of its previous course of part, is to formulate the most gen- | development; but I do not know that eral laws of world action which it | it has become what it is through the is in his power to discover, and to | application to it, or to the conditions show how more special methods of | under which it was produced, of aby action are deducible therefrom. At | stress or influence proceeding from a the very basis of his system lies an | conscious will such as alone furnish- unknowable power which does not | es to my mind the type of purposive admit of formulation. If we take | action. A conscious will may well the late Professor Huxley as one of | underlie this universal frame of the representative minds of the mod- | things, but I can not, upon grounds ern scientific world, we shall cer- | of scientific observation, profess to be tainly not find him talking of having | able to discern the presence or ab- discovered an adequate explanation | sence of its action at any particular of all existing phenomena. It isone | point.” This we conceive to be in thing to decline the ready-made ex- | substance the answer of Science to planations of others, and quite an- | the question at issue; and it is one other to claim to be in possession of | with which Theology would do well a satisfactory explanation of your | to be content, for Science will never own. The mission of the man of | knowingly make an affirmation science is not to explain the world in which there are not facts to sustain. Scientific Literature. SPECIAL BOOKS. IN no way can one appreciate more clearly the remarkable advance in ethnographic studies than by comparing the great work of Professor Rat- zel* on The History of Mankind with the early works of Pritchard and Wood. The illustrated work of the Rev. J. G. Wood on the Natural His- tory of Man represented the state of our knowledge on the subject at the time it was compiled, in a popular way to be sure, but nevertheless the * The History of Mankind. By Prof. Friedrich Ratzel. Translated by A. J. Butler, M. A. New York: The Macmillan Company. 1807. Two volumes, pp. 486 and pp. 562. Price, $8.

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 847 reader had presented to him in a graphic way a light sketch of the habits, manners, and customs of the various peoples of the world. There were blunders, of course, such as classifying the Japanese with the uncivilized races! In the work of Ratzel we have a popular exposition of the subject from the same standpoint. It is a compact storehouse of facts, and the in- finite lines of research shown in this remarkable compilation of data give one a just idea of the tremendous strides the science of ethnology has taken within a quarter of a century. A book bearing the indorsement of Pro- fessor Virchow and introduced to English readers by a prefatory chapter from the pen of Dr. E. B. Tylor must be one of importance and merit, and soitis. It hasan unusually large number of illustrations of the weapons, utensils, toys, totems, etc., of all the races of the world. The portraits are derived from the very best sources, while maps and brightly colored plates make up a veritable ethnographic museum, and this feature alone renders the book indispensable to American students. Much of the material illus- trated is derived from museums which have come into existence within recent times. The work is so valuable that it seems an ungracious task to point out omissions. It is, however, necessary to call attention to the very evident fact that the author has derived his material almost exclusively from Euro- pean sources. In that portion of the work dealing with the native races there are but few references to the work of American students. He shows no evidence of ever having seen the magnificent series of volumes issued by the United States Bureau of Ethnology, by far the most important of the General Government's publications. When one recalls the valuable contributions of Mason on the Throwing Stick; Cushing on Zui Fetiches; The Sign Language ond Petrographs, by Mallery; Mortuary Customs, by Yarrow; Burial Mounds, by Thomas; Central Eskimos, by Boas; Point Bar- row Eskimos, by Murdoch; Chiriqui Art in Shell and Pottery and other papers, by Holmes; Pueblo Architecture, by Mindeleff; Masks, Labrets, etc., by Dall; and the contributions by Powell, Stevenson, Henshaw, Mat- thews, Bourke, Hoffman, Mooney, Turner, Dorsey, McGee, Fewkes, and others which enrich these volumes, and a host of American workers in other lines of investigation, as Morgan, Bandelier, Mrs. Nuttall, Brinton, Culin, and many others, one realizes how clearly Ratzel has restricted him- self to the work of European students. It is true many of these memoirs were not published when the first edition of this work appeared in 1884; but when the second German edition was published in 1895 most of these memoirs had appeared and many of them had been widely noticed in Euro- pean journals, and the lavish generosity of our Government in the distri- bution of its publications must have placed them on the shelves of every leading library in Europe. The author in. several instances confounds Japan with China by including both countries under certain general state- ments, and in one case the word Japan appears when it should read Java. There is no evidence that the author recognizes the lowly origin of man. Dealing with the most pregnant facts as to man’s evolution, he questions whether the savage is lower than other races considered civilized. For this reason perhaps the early stages of man are not considered, and therefore one must look elsewhere for the evidences of prehistoric man. Not a cranium or a human bone, unless it represents a trophy or a fetich, is given. It is true the work is for the general reader, but nowadays the general

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848 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. reader, at least in America and England, demands much more than he did twenty years ago. The work is so full of interesting material that it is impossible in a re. view of this nature to do more than quote here and there. An illustration of the persistence of certain traits in man is shown in the Tedas or Tebus, which are supposed to be the Troglodytes described by Herodotus. “ They are to-day no poorer, no richer, no wiser, no more ignorant than they have been these thousands of years; they have acquired nothing in addition to what they possessed then.” He shows in contrast the Europeans emerging from savagery in an exalted place among the peoples of the world. By such a picture do we see the persistence of conditions identical in every respect to those of the animals below us. While a form of Brachiopod may persist nearly unchanged from the lowest geological horizons to the present day, other forms of life may pass through rapid changes and become extinct. A group may go through slow and even changes like the ammon- ites of the Jura and finally culminate in rapid and extraordinary modifi- cations in form. In contrasting the inertness of the Chinese with the progressive Euro- pean nations, he quotes Voltaire as “ hitting the point” when he says that “ Nature has given the Chinese the organs for discovering all that is useful to them but not for going any further.” Peschel presents these contrasts in a clearer way perhaps when he says: “Of all highly civilized nations the Chinese owe least to foreign promptings, whereas until the thirteenth century we—that is to say the Europeans, and especially the northern Euro- peans—owed almost everything but our language to the teaching of other nations. . . . Since our intellectual awakening, since we have come for- ward as the propagators of the treasures of culture, we have indefatigably toiled with the sweat of our brows in search of something, the very exist- ence of which was unsuspected by the Chinese, and which they would think dear at a platter of rice. This invisible object we term causality. We have admired the Chinese for an incalculable number of inventions and Lave appropriated them, but we are not indebted to them for a single theory or a single glance into the connection or the first causes of phe- nomena.” The statement is made that Chinese ships are said to have been cast away on the northwest coast of America. In every case the junks which have been ast away on our western coast or found drifting in the North Pacific ar.. Japanese junks, not Chinese. A reference is made to glazed tiles assov:ated with ancient pottery having been exhumed in the Missis- sippi Valley near Natchez. Asa matter of fact the tile is post-Columbian. The arrangement of cuts is somewhat confusing; they are not always found with the text. As the cuts are not numbered, there is no way of re- ferring to them in the text. On the other hand, a good legend accompanies each illustration, and usually full credit is given to its derivation. Refer- ences to special works on the subject treated would have added greatly to the value of the book. Thus on page 287, Volume II, the author says in speaking of the Hottentots: “If we may believe Kolb, the fortunate hunter undergoes an ‘alterative process’ at the hands of some old fellow-tribesman in the form of a hydraulic application which does not bear more minute description.” Is he referring to Peter Kolben’s remarkable work on the Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, an English translation of which

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 849 was published in 1731? A reference to Kolben’s work would have given the student access to material which depicts the Hottentot before he had been seriously contaminated by contact with intrusive races, and would have explained the curious ceremonies connected with marriage and other rites and functions. In regard to the dwarf tribes of Africa he says: “It is a pity that Stan- ley . . . hasshown his usual tendency to exaggeration. With the dwarfs he has jumbled up children or misshapen beings such as negro chiefs keep at their courts for entertainment.” Among the interesting generalizations is this one: “It has been correctly said that among negroes as elsewhere morality seems to stand in inverse ratio to the quantity of clothing, so that tribes that go naked are, so long as they remain untouched by foreign in- fluence, the most chaste; those that are most clothed the least so.” The missionaries can not or will not see the significance of this truth, and in- stantly demand a sudden change in habits engendered under a tropical sun, with the inevitable result of physical and moral degeneration of their converts. His treatment of the African races is by far the most exhaustive, and the mass of new material in statement and in illustration will be of the greatest value to the American student. GENERAL Tue important question of memory and its cultivation is the subject of the last volume in the Internaiional Scientific Series to reach us.* What memory is, its place and importance in the economy of the human mind, its divisions and special functions, and, finally, methods for its cultivation, is the ground covered by Mr. Green’s book. The great importance of a good memory is manifest; in fact, our intelligence depends almost entirely on the ability to remember what we learn, or, more accurately, what we perceive, as learning a thing implies the use of memory, so that any suggestions which may help to improve our ability to remember are worthy of close attention. Mr. Green says that in his own case, after a use of the methods he recommends, he found that he could learn a subject in about a fifth of the time that it previously took him. The special rules for memory cultivation occupy only the last fifty-five pages, although the whole sub- ject is treated with special reference to this aspect of the question. The rules are simple, and, in fact, those which common sense would dictate—such as concentration of attention on the subject which it is desired to remem- * Memory and its Cultivation. By F. W. Ed- ridge-Green, New York: D. Appleton and Com- pany. Pp. 307. Price, $1.50. VuL, Li —62 NOTICES. ber; the exclusion of unimportant and con- fusing details; frequent recalling of the im- pression; the use of as many faculties as possible in fixing the original impression ; studying when the nervous force is abun- dant, etc. When the political uncertainties of the scientific departments at Washington are considered, it seems really remarkable that anything at all is accomplished by them. For the successful prosecution of original re- search freedom from the petty cares of polit- ical maneuvering would seem essential, and yet some of these sections, notably the ethno- logical and geological, are constantly turning out valuable material. The last of their publications to reach us are a number of Geological Survey bulletins.* The first one, No. 87, is by Charles Schuchert, and gives a synopsis of the American Fossil Brachiop- oda, including a valuable bibliography and synonymy. The richness of North America in well-preserved Paleozoic brachiopods gives Mr. Schuchert’s work a special interest. No. 127, by N. H. Darton, is a catalogue and in- dex of contributions to American geology, and while there can be little said of it in the * Department of the Interior. Recent Bulle- tins of the United States Geological Survey. Nos. 87, 127, 138, 189, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146.

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850 way of a review, the value of a carefully pre- pared bibliography of geological literature as a reference book for libraries and geological writers can not be overestimated. No. 138 is entitled Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region, and is by the same author as No. 127. It seems that in this region of the Atlantic slope there are no large supplies of potable surface water. For- tunately, however, it has a geologic structure particularly favorable to the accumulation and flowage of underground waters, and from these underground streams several cities at present obtain their water supply. Mr. Dar- ton tells us that during the past six years he has been engaged in a geological study of this coastal plain region, and has given espe- cial attention to the question of subterranean waters ; and while this investigation is as yet very imperfect, he thinks that it will in a measure meet the great demand for informa- tion as to well prospects and the general re- lation of the water horizons. In No. 139 Messrs. Weed and Pirsson give us a general study of the geology of the Castle Mountain mining district of Montana. No. 140 is a report of the progress made in the division of hydrography in the calendar year of 1895. The author is F. H. Newell. The Eocene Deposits of the Middle Atlantic Slope in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, A Brief Contribution to the Geology and Paleontology of Northwestern Louisiana, The Moraines of the Missouri Coteau and their Attendant Deposits, and The Potomac Formation in Virginia are the titles of the next four bul- letins. No. 146, by F. B. Weeks, is a Bibli- ography of North American Geology, Pale- ontology, and Petrology and Mineralogy for 1895. No. 147 is a record, by C. D. Perrine, of the earthquakes occurring in California in 1895, of which there seem to have been about fifty. Messrs. Clarke and Hillebrand, in No. 148, publish some analyses of rocks and analytical methods used in the United States Geological Survey between the years 1880 and 1896. In The Social Mind and Education,* by G. E. Vincent, an effort is made to bring conceptions from social philosophy to bear * The Social Mind and Education. By George Edgar Vincent. New York: The Macmillan Com- pany. Pp. 155. Price, $1.25. POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. upon the problem of education, with the hope that there may result both clarification of ideas and greater definiteness of purpose, Stress is laid chiefly upon the cognitive func. tion of society and of the individual. Such one-sidedness of treatment is adopted, not from any failure to recognize the organic unity of the mind, but because the vastness of the general subject precludes its treat. ment in a single volume. The parallel be. tween the development of the race and the individual has of late been subjected to criti. cism. “It has been pointed out that there are short cuts by which in individual evolu. tion whole stages of the race’s growth may be omitted. . . . Education sets before itself the task of relating the individual intrinsic. ally to the social tradition so that he may become an organic part of society... . It should be therefore a definite aim of the higher education to direct the student in a purposeful integration of his various pur. suits, a putting back of these abstractions into a concrete conception of life.” Dr. Shufeldt has at last brought together in one volume* the majority of his popular scientific papers on Naiural History. Most of the material has already appeared as magazine articles, and hence does not form a systematic treatise, but is rather a series of Nature stories selected at random, and ranging from the cedar bird to the polar bear. Technical descriptions are avoided, and the text has been prepared chiefly with the view of stimulating the unscientific to an interest in the common forms of animal life which are so abundant and interesting, and which usually receive so little intelligent attention from the average country stroller. The first two chapters deal with methods of study and the classification of animals, and serve as a sort Of introduction to the main portion of the book. There is also a final chapter on museums and their uses. This class of books on popular natural history has been enormously increased of late, and while even the poorest of them have some value, & new one in order to justify itself ought to have special claims to originality, and in or- der tv be of scientific value, some system in * Chapters on the Natural History of the United States. By R. W. Sbufeldt. Illustrated. New York: Studer Brothers. Pp. 472.

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at its treatment of the various groups. This volume is unfortunately devoid of the latter qualification, but does contain a number of reproductions from actual photographs of the living forms ; some of them actually very good and others very bad, but all of them remarkably good when one considers the great difficulties in the way of photograph- ing the living animal in its native woods. These pictures and Dr. Shufeldt’s facility in presenting scientific facts in a readable and entertaining form no doubt help to justify the book. The State Geologist of Indiana, W. S. Blatchley, informs us, in his Twenty-first An- nual Report of the Department of Geology and Natural Resources, that abandoning, for the most part, “the unscientific method of county surveys, which is impeded by artifi- cial boundaries having no relation to geo- logical conditions,” he has adopted that of taking up each of the great natural resources of the State, and preparing a monograph thereon, based upon actual field investiga- tion. The present report contains papers by him and his assistants upon the natural resources of the State, the petroleum indus- try, composition of coals, the Black Slate or Genesee Shale of New Albany, Indiana Caves and their Fauna (finely illustrated), the Geol- ogy of the Middle and Upper Silurian Rocks of Clark, Jefferson, and neighboring coun- ties, the Bedford Odlitic limestone (the fa- mous building stone), natural gas, mines, oils, the geology of Vigo County, and the unculti- vated ferns, fern allies, and flowering plants of the same county. The report is illustrated by maps and plates. A lecture on The Protestant Faith, or Sal- vation by Belief, read on various occasions before the Young Men’s Christian Union by Dwight Hinckley Olmstead, is published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons, with an introduction on the Limitations of Thought. It is a criti- cism of the Protestant principle of freedom in thought, and maintains that belief is in- voluntary, and therefore compulsory, In preparing the second edition of his book on The Psychical Correlation of Re- ligious Emotion and Sexual Desire, the au- thor, Dr. James Weir, has incorporated in it a considerable amount of additional evidence in support of his theory, has verified all ref- SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 851 erences, has endeavored to eliminate un- necessary material, and has divided the work into three parts. He has also added to the volume several other essays in which psy- chical problems are considered. Of the main work, the first part relates to the origin of religious feeling, which is believed to have been first material and prompting to propitiatory offerings. The second part is devoted to Phallic Worship, which, the au- thor argues, dates from a very early period, has been universal, and has survived, even in some parts of Europe, in one form or another, to a very recent period; and the general subject, as defined in the title of the book, is treated in the third part. Dr. Weir’s theory was first announced in a medical journal in New York in 1894; the first edi- tion of this book was printed in June, 1897, and the second edition was all written and in the hands of the publishers in August, 1897—all before another book on the same subject appeared, in October, 1897. The King’s Daughter and the King’s Son, “a fairy tale of to-day,” by Agatha Archer, was written, as we learn from the title-page, by a King’s Daughter in the summer of 1896. It declares its part to be “ to conspire with the new works of new days.” It presents subjects of vital social relations from a new point of view, and aims to enforce the pre- cept that women should be given time and opportunity before marriage to understand clearly what marriage means tothem. (Fow- ler & Wells Company, publishers. Price, $1.) Physical Problems and their Solutions, by A. Bourgougnon (D. Van Nostrand Com- pany’s Science Series), presents a number of problems classified under the headings corre- sponding to the different divisions of physics to which’ they are related, and prefaced by such explanations as render their meaning clearer; also problems which have been set at examinations by the University of the State of New York. The solutions of some of the problems are given, and in cases where similar problems have already been treated, references to such solutions have been made, The author, D. K. Tenney, of a paper entitled Zhe Cooling Universe Refuted: the Earth not Born of the Sun, aiming to awaken inquiry on the subjects treated of, seeks to

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852 show that current theories of the origin and history of the earth and solar system are wrong; that the sun does not project light and heat as such to the earth; that the earth is not a result of nebular evolution, but is self-existent and independent, as are other planets and systems, and along with the other bodies is a great electro-magnet ; and that the forces of that category devel- oped by these bodies are the power behind all phenomena. His argument consists of variations of the familiar one that the pres- ent explanations—accepted for want of bet- ter ones—are unsatisfactory. His electro- magnetic idea—perhaps not intrinsically ob- jectionable as a general principle—stil] leaves the why and the how unaccounted for. A book by Dr. Frank Wood Haveland (pub- lished by the author, 205 West 118th Street, New York, $2), entitled Science, the Ancient Hebrew Significance of the Book of Genesis, is a little bewildering to one not initiated into the mysteries of Christian science. The book of Genesis is described as the founda- tion of all other books of the Bible and of every science, philosophy, and religion of all ages, and as explaining various biblical and human mysteries, including the science of healing of the sick, and revealing the high- est conditions of thought. In connection with the authorized version of Genesis, a paraphrase is published, embodying its sup- posed hidden meaning. The poem of Josiah Augustus Seitz, en- titled The Colloguy, is further designated on the title page as Conversations about the Order of Things and Final Good, held in the Chapel of the Blessed St. John, summarized in Verse. The conversations cover, a con- siderable part of the field of philosophy and knowledge, and relate to subjects, some of which, as in the tenth conversation, “‘ The World of Wrong and Pain,” bearing on the social aspects of life; the twelfth, “ Of the Natural Order,” setting forth evolution ; and the thirteenth, “Excursion to Mars,” relat- ing to cosmogony, bear on subjects coming within the purview of science. (G. P. Put- nam’s Sons. Price, $1.75.) Certain underground structures found in some of the ruined groups of Yucatan have excited the curious attention of explorers, but have not been satisfactorily accounted POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. for. They are generally single chambers, re. sembling vaults in appearance, built ten or fifteen feet below the surface, and having no connection with the outer world except a single opening through the roof. They are’ particularly noticeable at Labn4, and several have been found at Uxmal. Thirty-three of these chultunes, as they are called, at Labna have been explored by Mr. Edward H. Thompson, whose report upon them, The Chultunes of Labnd, is published as a Mem. oir of the Peabody Museum of Ethnology and Archeology. Mr. Thompson found in them much dust, flint implements, potteries, and human bones. He believes that they were primarily built and used for the storage of water in a region where that necessary is very scarce and hard to get, and that some of them were afterward converted into tombs. Suggestions for laboratory and field work in High-School Geology, by Ralph 8. Tarr, is intended as an aid for the teacher, It is an attempt to introduce the object- lesson method into the study of geology, and, while there can be no question of its desira- bility and efficacy, there are many difficul- ties in the way of its adoption in the ordi- nary high school, the chief among which are lack of time and adequate knowledge by the teacher. The subject is taken up chapter by chapter (following the author’s Elemen- tary Geology), field and laboratory work being introduced wherever it seems called for. The latter half of the volume consists of a series of questions for use with the author’s Elementary Geology. (Macmillan, 25 cents.) The elementary course in comparative anatomy of the vertebrates includes, in many colleges, the thorough study of some readily obtained, characteristic vertebrate, followed by studies of the various types. Prof. David S. Kellicott, of the Ohio State University, finds that in the preparation of literary guides for these dissections, the Ophidian, or snake, has been omitted. Considering it as really an important and agreeable type, and easily obtained in the spring, he has undertaken to supply the omission with a little handbook on the Dissection of the Ophidian. The Spreading Viper (Heterodon platyrhinus),a common, harmless snake of fair size, is taken as the type for examina- +

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os tion. The systematic place and external characteristics of the Ophidia are first ex- plained, and then follow chapters on bones, muscles, and the digestive and vascular sys- tems and special sense organs, and brief explanations of methods are given in ap- pendixes. (Published by the author, Colum- bus, Ohio.) Another of Appletons’ Home-Reading Books is Harold’s First Discoveries, in the Nature-Study series, by J. W. Troeger, de- signed for younger children, Harold ob- serves what he sees, or at times goes out to see, and learns or is told about the dispersion of seeds like those of the milkweed, dande- lion, thistle, ete., trees, fruits, vapor, frost, the magnet, metals, crystals, animal life, and budding and germination as illustrated in the willow, lilac, beans, and peas. The works in these series are furnished with practical hints as to the way the subjects may be dealt with in the teachers’ guidance of their pupils, so as to awaken the most lively interest and contribute to real knowl- edge of them. An account of Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Georgia Coast, published by Clarence B. Moore in the Journal of the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, gives the result of five months’ continuous work in the mounds along the coasts of the inland water passage, in the course of which twenty-one of them were examined. Remarks on the methods of burial observed in these mounds and in those of Florida—“ bunched” and “ flexed ”—the burial of infants and burials in baskets and in jars, precede the accounts; attention is called to some rather marked differences in custom and practice found to have prevailed in the region and in Florida, and even in close neighborhood with one another. A chapter is added on Inhumation and Incinera- tion in Europe, by the Marquis de Nadaillac, The paper is illustrated ‘by figures in the text and fifteen excellent large plates. Dr. M. L. Holbrook is of the opinion that “the time has come for man to take special interest in his own evolution, to study and apply so far as possible all the factors which will in any way promote race improvement.” As a contribution to this study he offers his book on Stirpiculture (M. L. Holbrook & Co., New York, $1). We are not yet able, he SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 853 admits, to apply perfectly all the factors that will promote race improvement, but we can make a beginning ; “ greater thoughtfulness may be given to suitable marriages; im- proved environment may be secured; better hygienic conditions taken advantage of; food may be improved; the knowledge we have gained in improving animals and plants, so far as applicable, may aid us ; air, exercise, water, employment, social conditions, wealth and poverty, parental conditions, all have an influence on offspring, and man should be able to make them all tell to the advantage of future generations.” These topics are dis- cussed in so far as they bear upon the main question. Mrs. LZ. LZ. W. Wilson’s manual for teach- ers on Nature Study in Elementary Schools (the Macmillan Company, New York, 90 cents) is characterized by the editor, Francis W. Parker, as “an outgrowth of a rich, varied, and thoughtful experience with child nature and the nature that surrounds the child.” The manner and atmosphere of the book justify the characterization. The meth- od has been tested in the schoolroom with excellent results. It is planned to meet the needs of the ordinary grade teacher in the public schools of a city. It does not pre- suppose special knowledge on the part of the teacher, or special facilities for the collec- tion of material, but earnestness in his work and all that pertains to it. The system is substantially an object-lesson system, and should be assisted by class excursions for material. The excursions of the author’s class were made into the street, in Philadel- phia. To their valuable and attractive series of Home Reading Books, Messrs. D. Appleton and Company have added 7'he Hall of Shells (price, 60 cents), in which the young reader is introduced by the author, Mrs. A. S. Hardy, to the beauty and wonderful structure of mollusks and the habitations they construct for themselves. The characters in a simple story wander along the seashore gathering shells, or find them in their aquarium and converse freely about them—their forms, colors, peculiarities of structure, and the animals that inhabit them—under the guid- ance of one who has some scientific knowl- edge of them. In this way enough informa-

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854 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tion is brought in to give a fair degree of general knowledge concerning the animals or families under study, and the reader is referred for further facts to accessible works which give them. Thus the reader is taught concerning the more common shells, the mythologies and literature concerning them, their microscopic structure, pearls, seaweed, the nautilus, the Medusz, echino- dermis, the Gordonide, the work of mol- lusks, the fate of shells, the use of the drag- net, etc. Another, a little larger book of the Home-Reading Series, is Uncle Sam’s Secrets (75 cents), the purpose of which is defined by the author, Oscar Phelps Austin, “to be to furnish the youth of the land some facts about the affairs of the nation, and to awaken in the mind of the reader an inter- est in kindred subjects.” In this book, too, a thin thread of a story and the conversa- tions of the characters in it are made the vehicle for conveying instruction abous dif- ferent kinds of Government money, the postal service, Americ. n. geology, the mint, the courts, the navy, bimetallism 2» mono- metallism, the history of the c tariff question, the history of parties, and the presidential electoral system. Copious references are made to the books in which further information on those subjects may be found. Among the great variety of information on the special subject given by the Scovill and Adams Company in their American Annual of Photography and Photographie Times Almanac for 1898 (price, 75 cents), we single out for mention the contributed articles conveying instruction as to methods and processes or relating experiments and experiences—the chemical tables, the de- scriptions of the novelties of the year, the standard formulas and useful recipes, tables for the simplification of emulsion calcula. tions, tables of comparative light values, the list of principal chemicals, photographic schools, list of photographic books pub- lished in 1897, the record of photographic patents, lists of American and foreign pho- tographic societies, and a list of hotels hav- ing dark rooms for development. Numerous plates and pictures represent photographic work of rare excellence, or illustrate the acy, the | text. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Agricultura) Experiment Stations. Bulletins and Reports. New Hampshire College, Durham: No. 47. Strawberries. By F.W. Rane. Pp. 24.— New Jersey : No. 126. Small Fruits. By Alva T. Jordan. . 82; Bovine Abortion, Milk Fever, and Garget. By Julius Nelson. . 24.—New York: No. 180. Popular edition. A New Disease of Sweet Corn. Pp.5; No. 131. Popular edition. Oat Smut and New Preventives. . 6; No. 132. Popular edition. Milk Fat from Fat-Free Food. Pp. 6. All by F. H. Hall.—Ohio: Newspaper Bulletin. No. 180. The Sugar-Beet Tests of 1898. . 1.—United States Department of Agriculture, eather Bureau: An Improved Sunshine Re- corder. By D. T. Maring. Pp. 15. American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Economic Relation of Life Insur- ance to Society and State. «ddresses by various rsons at the meeting, December 17, 1897, Phila- elphia. Pp. 48. 25 cents. Bsiley, L. H., and others. Garden Making. Suggestions forthe Utilization of Home Grounds. al York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 417. Bulletins, Proceedings, and Reports. American Microscopical Society. Transactions, Twentieth Annual Meeting, Angust. 1897. Pp. 209.—Amer- ican Railway Association. Meeting of October, 1897. Pp. 106.—American Society of Naturalists. Records, Vol. Il, Part II. Providence, R.1. Pp. 47. _ tina: Anales de la Oficina Meteorologica (Annals of the Meteorolcgical Office), Vol. XI. Walter G. Davis, Director, Buenos Aires. Pp. 502.—Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. The Highest Kite Ascensions in 1897. By 8S. P. Fergus- son. Pp. 21.—City of Springfield, Mase.: Report of the Superintendent of Schools (advanced notes) for 1897. Thomas M. Balliet, Superintendent.— Linnzan Society of New York. Abstract of Pro- ceedings for 1896-"97; with the Fishes of the Fresh and Brackish Waters in the Vicinity of New York City. By Eugene Smith. Pp. 56. Clerke, Agnes M., Fowler, A., and Goré, J. Ellard. er (The Concise Knowledge Library.) New York: D. Appleton and Company. Pp. 581. $2. Eimer, Th. On Orthogenesis and the Impor- tance of Natural Selection in Species Formation. Chicago: Open Court Company (Religion of Science Library). Pp. 56. 25 cents. Frankland, Percy, and Mrs. Percy. Pasteur. New York : The Macmillan Company. (Century Science Series.) Pp. 224. $1.25. Hittell, Theodore HW. History of California. Notice of the third and fourth volumes. Pp. 15. Jones, Harry C. The Freezing-point, Boiling- point, and Conductivity Methods. Easton, Pa. : The Chemical Publishing Company. Pp. 64. 75 cents. Kremers, Edward, Editor. Pharmaceutical Archives. Vol.I, No. 1, January, 1898. Monthly. Office of the Pharmaceutical Review. Milwaukee, Wis. Pp. 24, with plates. $1 a year. Ladd, Prof. George Trumbull. Outlines of Descriptive Psychology. A Text-Book of Mental Science for Colleges and Normal Schools. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Pp. 428. $1.50. Merriam, Florence A. Birds of Village and Field. A Bird Book for Beginners. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Pp. 406. $2. Noyes, Arthur A., and Mulliken, Samnel P. Laborarory Experiments on the Class Reactions and Identification of Organic Substances. Easton, >

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~~ FRAGMENTS Pa.: Chemical Publishing Company. Pp. 28. 50 cents. Parker, T. Jeffery, and Haswell, William A. A Text-Book of ZoSlogy. New York : The Mac- millan Company. Two volumes. Pp. 779 and 683. $9 Reprints. Blackford, C. M., Atlanta, Ga.: A Method of Teaching Histology. Pp. 8.—Deilen- baugh, F. 8.: The True Route of Corcnado’s March. Pp. 36.—Evermann, B. W.: Notes on Fishes collected by E. W. Nelson on the Tres Marias Islands and in Sinaloa and Jalisco, Mexico. . 8.—Galloway, D. H., M. D., Chicago: What ie Eat and What it Costs. . 7.— Marlatt, C. L.: A Brief Historical Survey of the Science of Ento- mology, etc. (President’s Address, Entomological Society of Washington). Pp. 40.—Von Schrenk Hermann. The Trees of St. Louis as influence by the Tornado of 1896. Pp. 16, with plates. Scripture, E. W., Editor. Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory. Vol. IV, 1896. Pp. 141. $1. Smithsonian Institution Publications: Report of 8. P. Langley, Secretary. _ 89.--The Astaci- de of the United States, etc. By Walter Paxton. Pp. 52.—Bibliography of the Metals of the Plat- inum Group, 1798-1896. By James Lewis Howe. Pp. 320.—Supplement to the Annotated Catalogue OF SCIENCE, 855 of the Published Writings of Charles Abiathar White, 1886-1897. J T. W. Stanton. Pp. 16.— Contributions to Philippine Ornithology. By Dean C. Worcester and k 8. Bourns. Pp. 80. Stickney, A. B. The Cusrency Problems of the United States in 1897-"98. Pp. 8z. Titchener, E. B. A Primer of Psychology. York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. 814. United States Commission of Fish and Fish- eries. Publications available for Distribution on June 30, 1897. Pp. 16.—Records of Observations made on Board the United States Fish Commis- sion Steamer Albatross, during the Year ending June 30, 1896. Pp. 82.—Notes on the Halibut Fishery of the Northwest Coast in 1896. By A. B. Alexander. Pp. 4.—Descriptions of New or Little-known Genera and Species of Fishes from the United States. B rton W. Evermann and William C. Kendall. Pp. 8, with plates.— Observations upon the Herring and Herring Fish- eries of the Northeast Coast, with Special Refer- ence to the Vicinity of Passamaquoddy Bay. By H. F. Moore. Pp. 54, with maps.—The Salmon Fishery of Penobscot Bay and River in 1895 and 18.6. By Hugh M. Smith. Pp. 12, with plate. Ward, Lester F. Outlines of Sociology. New York: The Macmillan Company. Pp. $01. $2. Fragments The Origin of Coral Island Forms,— This much-discussed question has been raised again by the boring operation of Pro- fessors Sollas and David at the island of Funifuti. Their results, as far as they have been announced, seem to confirm Darwin’s theory of subsidence. But now we have a letter (American Journal of Science, Febru- ary, 1898) from Alexander Agassiz, who is at present with a scientific expedition in the Fiji Islands, announcing observations which seem to point toward clevation rather than subsidence. Professor David’s bore hole at Funifuti was carried down six hundred and ninety feet, and a preliminary examination of the core indicated that the reef had been built up in the immediate neighborhood, at any rate, of growing coral. Portions of true reef were found in various positions throughout the whole depth. There seems, however, to be a possibility that the boring was situated on a very steep slope of vol- canic rock, covered by a talus of coral dé- bris from a reef on the summit. A further and fuller report from Professor David will no doubt clear up some of these uncertain- ties. The material received from Mr. Agas- siz is only that contained in a private letter. Much to his own surprise, be found the gen- eral appearance of the islands to indicate, ot Science. if not prove, that elevation rather than sub- sidence had taken place. After recalling Pro- fessor Dana’s statement of the beautiful illus- tration which the Fijis gave of the gradual changes brought about by subsidence, he says: “My surprise was great, therefore, to find within a mile from Suva an elevated reef about fifty feet thick and a hundred and twenty feet above the level of the sea, the base of the reef being underlaid by what is locally called soapstone, probably a kind of stratified volcanic mud.” Many other traces of extensive elevation were noted. At Tarutha, for instance, the coral limestone bluffs were probably eight hundred feet high. From a series of such observations Mr. Agassiz “ is inclined to think that the corals of to-day have actually played no part in the shaping of the circular or irregular atolls scattered among the Fiji Islands; furthermore, that they have had nothing to do in our time with the building up of the barrier reefs surrounding either wholly or in part some of the islands. I also believe that their modifying influence has been entirely limited in the present epoch to the formation of fringing reefs, and that the recent corals living upon the reefs, either of the atolls or of the barriers, form only a crust of very moderate thickness upon the underlying base.

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856 This base may be either a flat of an eroded elevated reef or of a similar substructure of volcanic rocks, the nature of that base de- pending absolutely upon its character when elevated in a former period to a greater height than it now occupies. . . . The Fijis are not situated, as was supposed, in an area of subsidence, but on the contrary, they are in an area of elevation, so that the theory of Darwin and Dana is not applicable to the islands and atolls of the Fiji group.” 4s it was a study of these and similar groups which led Darwin and Dana to adopt their theory of subsidence, Mr. Agassiz seems to dispose of the theory as applied to any islands, although he says in a later para- graph, “ The great variety of causes which have been active in shaping the present physiognomy of the reefs and atolls of Fiji shows the impossibility of assigning any one factor . . . as the single cause for the forma- tion of the many different kinds of atolls and barrier-reef islands to be found in the Fiji group.” Mr. Agassiz promises a fully illustrated report some time during the com- ing summer. New Theories regarding the Rainbow.— The old theory of the rainbow, which is still found in optical text-books, only imperfectly accounts for the true bow and fails entirely to explain the “spurious bows” which often accompany the former. It is usually possi. ble by close examination to distinguish cer- tain colors on the inside edge of the primary which are not consistent with the simple series of spectrum colors, accounted for by the Descartes theory. In a paper on The In- tensity of Light in the Neighborhood of a Caustic, Airy seems to have laid the founda- tion for an adequate theory of the rainbow. Ap article in Nature on this subject says that Mr. J. M. Pernter is working out the new theory, and his general conclusions are given as follows: “ The greater the drops the more spurious bows.” A chief bow of intense pink and green (hardly any blue) indicates drops of diameters ranging from one to two millimetres ; intense red always speaks for big drops. Secondaries (spurious bows) of green and violet (the blue is marked by con- trast) without yellow, immediately forming the chief bow, correspond to drops of 0.5 milli- metre, while five and more secondaries with- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. out white and without breaks mark drops of 0.1 millimetre. A partly white bow is pro- duced by drops of 0.06 millimetre, and when the drops are still smaller, a real white bow with orange-yellow and blue margins is the result. The net result of these elabo. rate investigations will be to add a new in. terest to a natural phenomenon already en. dowed with many associations of magic and beauty.” The Recent Total Eclipse of the Sun,— While there have been no complete reports from any of the observation parties of the total eclipse of the sun of Saturday, Janu- ary 22, 1898, enough information has been received to indicate that the majority of them were successful and that much data of extreme scientific value has been obtained. The only district in which the weather was not propitious seems to have been southern Russia, only a few good photographs being obtained. A telegram received from the Rev. J. M. Bacon, in charge of the British Astronomical Association at Buxar, an- nounces perfect weather and “ observations satisfactory all round.” This party is re- ported to have taken a successful series of cinematograph pictures. The party located at Jeur, from the Lick Observatory, under the direction of Prof. W. D. Campbell, re- ports very successful observations. The unusually favorable weather, the number of trained observers on the ground, and the delicate and powerful instruments at hand, have evidently combined to make this one of the most important scientific events in the closing years of the century. In calling attention to this fact Nature says: “ With such a list of successes we may safely say that this eclipse, as befitting the last one of the century, has surpassed all previous rec- ords; but, unlike many eclipses at the be- ginning of the century, it can not be truly said that the event of Saturday was over at the end of two minutes of totality. To many the eclipse has yet to begin and will last for many months, during which time each line in the spectrum, each streamer of the coro- na, each prominence on the sun, will be an- alyzed little by little to discover if we have similar streamers in other coronas or identi- cal lines in our laboratories. It may be con- fidently expected that the results obtained

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FRAGMENTS on Saturday will enable us to solve some of the enigmas of solar phenomena and consti- tution.” Souree of the X Rays.—Professor Trow- bridge, of Cambridge, and J. E. Burbank have recently published (American Journal of Science, February, 1898) the results of an investigation into the source of the X rays. The experiments were conducted with Crookes tubes containing no interval be- tween the anode and cathode, so that no dis- charge in the usual sense occurred in the tubes. A continuous conductor was led through the rarefied tube, and it was discov- ered that X rays were given off from every element of this conductor at right angles to its surface when a disruptive discharge oc- curred in the circuit of which the tube formed a part. This remarkable result was obtained by means of the very high electro- motive force from a Planté rheostatic ma- chine which was charged by ten thousand storage cells. Among the interesting data obtained were some regarding the so-called Xray burn. When the back of the hand- was exposed to the brush discharge from one of these tubes, a peculiar pricking sensation was experienced and all the symptoms of an X-ray burn developed. The skin when ex- amined under a microscope exhibited centers of inflammation surrounded by regions of lesser degrees of burn. It thus seems evi- dent that the so-called X-ray burn is due to an electrification—a discharge at the surface of the skin—and this electrification may or may not be accompanied by the X rays. The results of the experiments are summed up as follows: 1. A Crookes tube inclosing a con- tinuous conductor is well suited, with the employment of high electromotive force, for the study of electric lines of induction. 2. The direction of the so-called X rays and cathode rays can be changed by electric in- duction. 8. The socalled X-ray burn can be produced by an intense state of electrifi- cation. 4. The so-called cathode rays and X rays are given off from every element of @ continuous conductor at a high stage of the vacuum in a Crookes tube, both when this conductor constitutes the cathode and when it forms the anode of the electrical circuit. The term electric rays, possibly rays of polarization, would appear to be OF SCIENCE. 857 more comprehensive than the terms cathode rays and X rays. Early Observations of the Zodiacal Light. —Apparently the earliest mention of the zodiacal light is a notice by Diodorus Siculus, of the appearance in the sky, in B. c. 373, “ofa great light for several nights, which was called, from its shape, the burning beam.” Nicephorus, in his Ecclesiastical History, tells of a remarkable appearance in the sky for a considerable time during the summer and fall of a.p. 410, which he thought could not be a comet, because it had not a stellar nucleus. Cassini saw a simi- lar phenomenon in March, 1668, and his nephew Maraldi another in March, 1702; but Cassini’s observation was of a comet, the head of which was not visible to him, while it was seen in the East Indies and at the Cape of Good Hope. The first person to give a definite description of the zodiacal light was Joshua Childrey, who is quoted by W. T. Lynn in the Observatory as saying that “ in February, and for a little time before, and a little after, that month (as I have observed several years together), when the Twilight hath almost deserted the Horizon, you shall see a plainly discernible ray of the Twilight striking up toward the Pleiades or seven stars, and seeming almost to touch them. It is to be observed any clear night, but is best illue nocte, There is no such ray to be ob- served at any other time of the year (that I can perceive), nor any other ray at that time to be perceived darting up elsewhere. And I believe it hath been and will be constantly visible at that time of the year. But what the cause of it in nature should be, I can not yet imagine, but leave it for further inquiry.” The Importance of Public Baths.—Some interesting statistics are given by Walter Channing regarding the municipal public baths of Brookline, Mass. The baths were opened in January, 1897, and at the time Mr. Channing’s article was written, about the middle of May, there had used the baths 17,089 bathers, or an average of 451 daily. A somewhat curious difference was noted between the number of males and females, The bathers during the last six weeks, for instance, being divided as follows: Men and

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858 boys, 3,813; women and girls, only 1,080. When the baths were first opened the policy was to have as many free days as possible, but it was found quite impossible to keep order even with the aid of a police officer. Under a new arrangement by which a fee of five cents was charged, which included soap, towels, and bathing dress, a great improve- ment was manifested, even this small fee seeming to make the bathers more self-re- specting and conscientious and doing away with that irresponsible and reckless feeling which an unadulterated charity seems so prone to produce. Instead of the fees de- creasing the number of bathers, there was a constant and steady increase. An interest- ing experiment in connection with these baths is the giving of iastruction in swim- ming to the public-school children. The town pays for this through the school com- mittee. The pupils as well as the teach- ers have taken great interest, and already large numbers have been taught how to swim. At the end of the school year there will be thorough tests, and certificates of proficiency will be given. Aside from the value which this bath has as a swimming school and healthy recreation ground for the children, its successful continuance can not fail to have a most beneficial effect on the general personal cleanliness and sanitation of the town, a clean individual being much less patient with nasty streets and houses and neighbors, than a dirty one. The im- portance of the public bath does not seem to be generally appreciated in this country. It is when properly handled one of the most powerful and far reaching of the munici- palities’ institutions for promoting cleanli- ness, both mental and physical, and good citizenship; in several of the European states where this fact has been appreciated the public baths of the cities and towns are among their most important institutions. Incastrial Instability in Russia.— In- dustrial labor in Russia, as pictured in the bulletin of the Musée Social, is usually un- stable and can not be depended upon. In most of the shops the workmen scatter at once in the spring. The operatives who come in after the Easter vacation, which lasts several weeks, are generally new ones, who have never worked in that kind of in- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

dustry, and a new apprenticeship is neces. sary. Hence arises an obstacle to the de. velopment of professional skill. The new hands are very awkward, and are more quickly tired than those who are accustomed to work methodically. The workman is con- tinually changing his place, and passes from one trade to another, as he would from one place to another, becoming now a shop oper- ative and now an agricultural laborer, As M. Anatole Leroy Beaulieu says, he is a nomad. He is not identified with his ma. chine, does not understand it, and does not know how to bring out its latent power, Hence in many industries which have been long organized on the grand scale in the West, the Russian does better work at home in the old way than can be turned out in the factories.: Besides this, the Russian work- ing class takes to machines with a bad grace, and will not use them except under compul- sion. A curious condition, resulting partly from this disposition, is that when crops are good and the demand for manufactured products is lively, the workmen abandon the shops because they can live without the labor. It is of no use to raise wages, for that offers no attraction to the peasant who has enough to live upon in his usual way, While in the West the best-fed workman is the most efficient, in Russia the one who is satisfied is the most idle. Where women are found in the shops, it is an indication of improvement and of better development and more stable conditions. Defects of the Metrie System.—<An ad- mirable summary of the arguments against the enforced adoption of the metric system of weights and measures is presented by Mr. George W. Colles, in a paper read by him before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Having examined what has been said in favor of the system and against it, he concludes that the claim for its scientific accuracy is not justified, none of its units being what it purports to be; that the metre, as a scientific standard, can claim no superiority over the yard, and leaves us, moreover, without that most useful of meas- ures, the foot ; that while uniformity, carried too far, is of doubtful advantage, the metric system in practice has generally served not to introduce but to destroy it, by superadd-

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FRAGMENTS ing new methods without replacing old ones; that the decimal divisions, instead of being the greatest advantage of the system, are its most irreparable defect, and of what- ever uniformity of division Nature and man are capable, it can never be expressed by the number ten; and that the mind can never think in decimal fractions, but inva- riably does think in fractions reduced to their lowest terms, so that they are as im- possible to get rid of as the mind itself. The English system, the author shows, though, like all things in Nature, it bears the marks of imperfection, the decay of time, and the usages of civilizations long since passed away, yet in its essential elements embodies the wisdom and experience of ages, and is, in fact, the survival of the fittest. English Composition “as it is Taught.” —aAn idea of the value of instruction in Eng- lish writing given in our common and pre- paratory sehools may be gained from the report of the Committee on Composition and Rhetoric to the Board of Overseers of Har- vard University. The committee gave out as a subject to the students for voluntary com- position a description of the instruction and what they thought it was worth. Thirteen hundred and eight students in the college, Scientific School, and Radcliffe College hand- ed in papers. These are classified and com- pared according to the advancement of the writers in the college course. The most no- ticeable feature in the papers corresponding with the freshman grade, taken as a whole, is their extreme crudeness of thought and execution ; and they reveal various defects in the system of instruction used in the schools from which the writers came. The papers of the next grade were better and showed benefit from instruction received in the pre- vious course, but with evidence of the de- ficiency in early elementary training still ap- parent. The work of the writers of the junior class (average age twenty-one years) was satisfactory, but nearly all of them ex- pressed a decided opinion that the instruc- tion given in the preparatory schools in written English is inadequate. All but three of the seventy papers from Radcliffe College were creditable in execution; but none of them indicated any special capacity for ob- serving, or attempted anything in pointing OF SCIENCE. 859 out defects which might be termed a thought- ful solution of them. The papers from the Scientific School were, curiously, “ noticeably inferior in nearly all respects.” The papers from graduates of normal schools were like- wise not what could be reasonably ex- pected from students of such institutions. The chief value of these papers “ lies in the indirect or unconscious light they throw upon a curiously heterogeneous system of almost undirected natural growth.” They also reveal “ what heretofore has been the great defect in the methods of instruction in written Eng- lish in the common preparatory schools. It has been taught almost wholly objectively, or as an end ; almost never incidentally and as a means.” In the great majority of these schools “Engtish is still taught, it would seem, not as a mother tongue, but as a for- eign language.” The committee believes, however, that, taken as a whole, the infer- ences and conclusions to be drawn from the papers “are distinctly and unmistakably encouraging, because they reveal wherein is to be found the root of the trouble, and indicate the steps now being taken to remove that trouble. It is remarked that while methods of instruction are often unsparingly criticised, schools and teachers are, as a rule, kindly spoken of. The International Scientifie Catalogue. —The proceedings of the International Bib- liographical Conference of 1896 in London concerning the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, Dr. Cyrus Adler’s sum- marized account of which has only recently been published, afford many points of inter- est. Among them was the discussion as to the definition of a contribution to science for the purpose of the catalogue. It was de- cided, with the help of a committee to which the conference had to refer the subject, to mean a contribution to the mathematical, physical, or natural sciences, “such as, for example, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, math- matical and physical geography, zodlogy, anatomy, physiology, general and experi- mental pathology, experimental psychology, and anthropology, to the exclusion of what are sometimes called the applied sciences— the limits of the several sciences to be deter- mined hereafter.” The discussion related

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860 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. not so much to the subjects that should be included, as to the terms under which they should be described and classified. It was further decided, without dissent, that in judging whether a publication is to be con- sidered a contribution to science suitable for entry in the catalogue, regard should be had to its contents, irrespective of the channel through which it is published.” The impor- tance of this rule was emphasized by several German delegates, some of whom pointed out that trade journals, and even a daily paper which was named, often contain scientific articles of great value. Those who are dis- posed to ridicule “ newspaper science”? must hereafter qualify their flings. Regard is to be had first in the catalogue to the require- ments of scientific investigators; entries are to be both by subjects and by authors’ names; the catalogue is to be issued by a central bureau to be located in London, with the Royal Society advising, and in English, with authors’ names and titles in their own language ; and to be begun January 1, 1900. The English (including American) element was influential in the conference, and none of the delegates had more force in its delibera- tions than the American representatives, Prof. Simon Newcomb and Dr. J.S. Billings. The American department of the catalogue will be under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, and an appropriation of ten thou- sand dollars is asked from Congress to carry on the work. A Masieal Experiment.—A somewhat interesting musical experiment was recently made by Prof. E. E. Slosson, of the Univer- sity of Wyoming. Twenty-two persons—seven men and fifteen women—each provided with paper and writing materials, were given a pianoforte concert, and at the expiration of each piece were requested to write down the impressions received from the music, Only one of the twenty-two was a profes- sional musician. The pieces played were: a, Chopin funeral march (sonata, op. 35); 4, S. F. Powell nocturne, Hope (op. 4, No. 1; ¢, 8. F. Powell nocturne, Solicitude (op. 3, No. 2); d, Handel’s aria, He was Despised and Rejected of Men (The Messiah); e, Chopin nocturne (op. 15); and jf, Schubert, Liszt Serenade. The conclusions drawn, from an examination of the answers returned, seemed to show that music has a somewhat definite emotional content, and that impression of this is received by the average listener, but with varying intensity. The formal content seems to be furnished entirely by the mood, associations, or temperament of the individ. ual. A great difference exists both in the capacity of individuals to receive definite im. pressions and of composers to convey them, To overcome a strong individual mood re. quires music of extremely strong expressive. ness. Tee Caves.—Three principal forms in which ice enduring all the year round is found are mentioned by Mr. Edwin Swift Balch in his paper on Ice Caves and the Causes of Subterranean Ice: glaciers, ice gerges, and ice caves. Glaciers are formed from the winter snows, which by their own weight, and melting and regelation, have ac- cumulated into a mass of ice. Ice gorges or gullies occur in fissures or ravines, at an alti- tude greatly below the general snow line of the district, where the winter snow is sufficiently protected from the sun to endure as show or ice through the summer months. The au- thor has, for instance, found lumps of ice in King’s Ravine, on Mount Adams, in the White Mountains, among the big bowlders, late in September. The ice in such gullies is formed in the same manner as that of gla- ciers, or that on ponds and rivers, by the cold of winter and the melting of the snows. Ice caves are roofed, and the ice is formed directly within them, and is not, except per- haps near the entrance, solidified snow. The roof, while not admitting the winter snow, is a protection against warm summer rains, and cuts off radiation—acting as a pro- tector against heat, and tempering the cold. The caves vary greatly in their positions, shapes, and sizes. They are found in vari- ous parts of Europe, Asia, and America, most- ly in the smaller ranges or in the outliers of the snowy ranges, generally in limestone and occasionally in basaltic formations. Many are found in the Jura, a few in Switzerland, a few in the Italian Alps, a number in the eastern Alps; there are some in Hun- gary, several in Russia, one on the Peak of Teneriffe, several in Siberia, one in Kun- duz in central Asia, one in Japan, and one in Korea. Twenty-nine places are mentioned reer ee att

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FRAGMENTS where subterranean ice occurs in North America, two of which are in Pennsylvania The dimensions of the caves vary greatly, some being great halls, three hundred or four hundred feet long, and some small tun- nels in which one can not stand up straight. The forms assumed by underground ice are different from those visible in glaciers or ice- bergs. There are no séracs or crevasses, but stalactite forms are very common. The ice in the bottoms follows the shape of the floor. Sometimes ice is found in them of the pecul- jar structure called prismatic—breaking into regular prisms. Holes or runnels are formed in the lowest parts of the ice floors, where they are cut out by the melting water; and lakes and pools sometimes occur in them. Selentifie Palmistry.—The character and direction of the movements of the digits both in hand and foot, Sir William Turner ob- served in his anthropological address at the British Association, are imprinted on the in- tegument of palm and sole. In the palm of the human hand the oblique direction of the movement of the fingers toward the thumb, when bent in grasping an object, is shown in the obliquity of the two great grooves which cross the palm from the root of the index to the root of the little finger. The deep curved groove, extending to the wrist, which marks off the eminence of the ball of the thumb from the rest of the palm, is as- sociated with the opponent action of the thumb, which is so marked in man that the tip of the thumb can be brought in contact with a large part of the palmar surface of the hand and fingers. Faint longitudinal grooves in the palm, situated in a line with the fin- gers, express slight folds which indicate where the fingers are approximated to or separated from one another in adduction and abduction. In some hands a longitudinal groove marks off the muscles of the ball of the little finger from the rest of the palm, and is associated with a slight opponent ac- tion of that digit, by the combination cf which with a partial opposition of the thumb the hand can be hollowed into a cup —the drinking cup of Diogenes. These grooves are present in the infant’s hands at the time of birth, and the author bas seen them in an embryo. They appear in the palm months before the infant can put its OF SCIENCE. 861 hand to any use. They are not, therefore, acquired after birth. Grooves are also seen in the palm of the hand of the anthropoid apes, differing in various respects from those of man, and respectively characteristic of the group in which they are found. « The Psychology of Humor.—A recent number of the American Journal of Pey- chology contains an inquiry into the psy- chology of “tickling laughter and the com- ic,” by Prof. G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin. Their material was obtained by means of a widely circulated syllabus, sent with the request that the questions be an- swered, and the sheet then returned to the authors, About seven hundred answers -were received, many of these from school teachers having the supervision of a num- ber of pupils, so that the real number of individuals heard from amounted to prob- ably three thousand. The authors discuss the answers received, and then go on to a consideration of the general subject. The many theories since Aristotle, concerning wit and humor, are shown to be either pure- ly speculative or extremely circumscribed in the range of their induction and hence furnishing no foothold for further research. Among the older conceptions of the essen- tials of humor mentioned is Hobbes’s: “ The passion of laughter is the sudden glory aris- ing from some sudden conception of some eminence in ourselves, by comparison with the inferiority of others, or with our own formerly.” Dryden defined wit as a “ pro- priety of thoughts and words, or thoughts and words elegantly adapted to the subject.” Dr. Johnson thought it “a combination of dissimilar images or discovery of occult re- semblances in things apparently unlike. Rich- ard Blackstone conceived it as “a series of high and exalted ferments.” Kant defines laughter “as an affection arising from the sudden transformation of a strained expec- tation into nothing.” Mr. J. L. Ford says: “Careful study of the work turned out by professional joke makers reveals the fact that fully nine tenths of their humor is founded on the simple idea of disaster or misfortune, . . . For a great many years nearly all our national humor had for its foundations the mother-in-law, the goat, the stove-pipe ine- briety, and the banana peel.” The authors

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862 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. find asa result of their inquiry that all cur- rent theories are speculative and inadequate ; they offer several good suggestions for a further study of the subject, two of which are the use of the camera and phonograph as automatic registers. The most important result of the inquiry seems to be the setting forth of how little we know about this de- partment of mental phenomena. The Blae Jay’s Food.—A recent inquiry hy F. E. L. Beal, assistant of the United States Department of Agriculture, into the food of the blue jay resulted in some unex- pected results., The bird is distributed over the whole of the United States east of the great plains, and has a bad reputation, being charged not only with habitually robbing the nests of smaller birds of their eggs and young, but also with being very destructive to the farmer’s grain. Mr. Beal examined two hundred and ninety-two stomachs in all. The remains of a small bird were found in two of these and portions of eggshells in three. He found that vegetable stuff made up three quarters of the blue jay’s food, a good share of which is nuts and mast and wild berries. Their insect food makes up about twenty-three per cent of the whole, and consists largely of noxious and destruc. tive sorts. He concludes as follows: “The most striking point in the study of the food of the blue jay is the discrepancy between the testimony of field observers concerning the bird’s nest-robbing proclivities and the results of stomach examinations. The accu- sations of eating eggs and young birds are certainly not sustained, and it is futile to at. tempt to reconcile the conflicting statements on this point, which must be left until more accurate observations have been made, In destroying insects the jay undoubtedly does much good. Most of the predaceous beetles which it eats do not feed on other insects to any great extent. On the other hand, it de. stroys some grasshoppers and caterpillars and many noxious beetles, such as scara- beids, click beetles, weevils, buprestids, chrysomelids, and tenebrionids, The blue jay gathers its fruit from Nature’s orchard and vineyard, not from man’s. Corn is the only vegetable food for which the farmer suffers any loss, and here the damage is small. In fact, the examination of nearly three hundred stomachs shows that the blue jay certainly does far more good than harm.” MINOR PARAGRAPHS. As the result of some recently conducted experiments on feeding hogs, itis announced by the Cornell University experiment sta- tion that fully twenty-five per cent of the dis- | eases which are supposed by the farmer to be hog cholera, or some other of the -infec- tious diseases which attack hogs, are simply due to unhealthy food or foul surroundings. It was found, among other things, that the dishwater from hotels (which forms the basis of the ordinary swill fed about towns) was especially injurious when any of the pow- dered soaps had been used for dishwashing purposes, and a large number of deaths among several herds were traced to this cause. The amount of free alkali, over fifty per cent, which is present in these soap powders in the shape of sodium carbonate (ordinary washing soda) was found to be the dangerous substance. Is it possible, asks a writer in the Revue Scientifique, “to affirm positively that any particular medicine is injurious or any treat- ment bad? Assuredly not; what we con- demn to-day will be good to-morrow. Did not the Sorbonne condemn quinine, tartar emetic, and antimony as injurious medicines ? It was the same with transfusion. Science is revolutionized every moment by new dis- coveries. A doctor practicing laparotomy thirty years ago as it is practiced now would have been regarded as guilty of imprudence ; | yet the operation is very easily performed, | perhaps too readily. There was a time when to give more than a gramme and a half or two grammes of iodide of potassium would have been a great fault; now, eighteen and even twenty grammes are given. Twenty-five years ago some doctors and even academi- cians denied that smallpox was contagious.” Dr. Brinton, in a recent number of Science, calls attention to a paper by the Marquis de Nadaillac on The End of the Human Race, and comments as follows: “ Making anew the calculation of the increase of population as compared with the increase —_—-—~ a - - >

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FRAGMENTS of food supply, he reaches the gloomy con- clusion that in a few centuries there will inevitably be too little food to supply all the mouths. Russia alone, at its present rate of births, will in one hundred years be obliged to feed eight hundred million per- sons. What, he asks, can stem this over- whelming tide of population? He gives up the problem, and says we must leave it to God, a solution which is more creditable to his piety than to his position as a scien- tist. The real solution is to educate men and women to the point where they will not recklessly produce offspring, nor yet ruthlessly prevent them, as is the case now in some departments of France. Unfortu- nately, prejudice stands in the way of a fair and free discussion of this solution.” LikE our bison and the giraffe, the African wildebeest, or white-tailed gnu, is at the point of extinction. It is computed, the London Spectator says, that there are only about five hundred and fifty of these animals surviving in a wild condition, though they were at no great distance of time numbered by tens of thousands. Four herds are mentioned as still surviving in the Orange Free State, three of about one hundred each, which are fenced in, and one belonging to a wealthy Boer farmer, Mr. Plet Terblans, consist.c5 of some two hundred and fifty animals, running perfectly wild, but protected on his wide do- main by the vigilance of his sons and black servants. Having found the dead bodies of twenty-seven of these animals, all shot at one drinking place on the same day, from only one of which the skin and meat had been taken, he determined to stop the slaughter and did it. His farm is thirty square miles in area, and the wildebeests seem to be aware that they are exposed to danger elsewhere. They will go twenty miles in a night to feed upon some particularly good grass on other land, but gallop back to sanctuary at sun- rise, NOTES, Tue Report of the New York or American Section of the Society of Chemical Industry for 1896-97, Dr. H. Schneitzer, New York, local secretary, speaks of the continued growth and prosperity which the section, as well as the society at large, enjoyed during the year. Seventy-nine members were added to the New York section, and the number of OF SCIENCE. 863 members residing in America is now four hundred and seventy-one. Seven general meetings were held during the session repre- senting the year, at which, besides the open- ing address of Chairman C. F. Chandler, twenty-four papers were read, most of which have been published in the Journal of the Society in London. The society is regarded by its promoters as a necessary addition to the existing Chemical Socicty, its aims being the promotion of the mdustrial and manu- facturing branches of chemistry. Tae British Association at its recent meeting made appropriations for grants for scientific purposes amounting to £1,350. The sum was larger than had been voted for several years, because the committee desired to make some grants for the pursuit of local investigations, to be expended by the vari- ous committees which had been appointed for the purpose of study and research in Canada. These committees relate to the establishment of a meteorological observa- tory on Montreal Mountain, Canadian photo- graphs of geological interest, the biology of the lakes of Ontario, the industrial and so- cial conditions of the northwestern Indian tribes, the organization of an ethnological survey of Canada, and the establishment of a biological station in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Proressorn Leonarp has recently shown that cathode rays in air form regions of mist condensation. A jet of steam, a short dis- tance from the aluminum window of a Crookes tube, becomes of a bright whiteness and of a cloudy nature. The cathode rays seem to act far more powerfully than the X rays in this way. A. Paulsen has formed a cathode- ray theory of the northern lights. Tue scientific value of Prof. 0. C. Marsh’s collections just presented to Yale University can not be overestimated. Perhaps the most important of these is the collection of verte- brate fossils, which contains the famous series illustrating the genealogy of the horse. The only conditions attached to the gift are thdse necessary to insure the permanent care and preservation of the collections themselves. Tue Franklin Institute of Philadelphia is making part of its building fireproof, for the safer storage of its valuable library. In con- nection with the change a much larger space will be provided for the reading room and for the display of models and apparatus and for general museum purposes. Buieepine has long been discarded by the doctors, but if the experiments of the Rus- sian physiologist Essipor have any signifi- cance there may be some virtue in it, after all. This gentleman has found that an abup- dant drawing of the blood has important ef- fects on the chemical composition and prop- erties of what is left. After drawing large quantities of blood, amounting to as much as

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864 one fortieth the weight of the body, from rabbits, guinea-pigs, and pigeons, Mr. Essipor affirms that the fluid acquired a marked bac- tericidal power, particularly against the mi- crobe of cholera. The effect took place gradually, and attained its maximum in about twenty-four hours. At the same time the animal became refractory against inoculations. Epwarp Germano recently conducted a series of experiments to determine the time which the typhoid bacillus could retain its vitality under various conditions. The results showed that in dry air the cultures were dead within twenty-four hours, but in moist warm air they retained their vitality for sixty days. He concludes that aérial transmission in the ordinary acceptation of the term—that is, being blown about as dust or as a miasm in the wind from infected districts—is highly improbable; but that in imperfectly disin- fected and apparently dry blankets and woolen clotbing the microbes may retain their vitality for some time and be conveyed long distances. Some recent experiments by Professor Oliver and Dr. Bolam on the immediate cause of death by electric shocks seem to indicate that death is due to a sudden arrest of the heart’s action and that simultaneous failure of the respiratory center and the heart, ex- cept with unusually high voltage, is very rare. It follows from this that resuscita- tion in apparent death from electric shock is made much more difficult than if the fatal result were brought about by respiratory failure. Tue oldest oak tree in France, the St. Bernard oak at Cunfin, is more than eight hundred and twenty-five years old, having been planted in a. p. 1070, and is mentioned in the Annales ecclésiastiques du Diocése de LIangres. It measures twenty-two feet in cir- cumference at the collar of the roots; and is forty-two and a half feet high to the first branches. The trunk is hollow, and the wood has nearly all disappeared, leaving little else than the bark, which, too, has been eaten away in spots; one of the holes is large enough to let a man inside. A niche was made in the upper part of the trunk by the curé of Cunfin in 1749, and the statue of the Virgin was placed in it. That was swept away during the Revolution, but the old tree still lives, A siurr of clay marl capped with yellow gravel, fronting Raritan Bay, near Cliffwood, N. J., the extreme northeastern exposure of the cretaceous clay and marl outcrop of the State, is a source from which collections of the fauna have been made, and the only spot where the flora of the horizon has been observed. It has been explored geologically by Messrs. Arthur Hollick, Lester F. Ward, and N. L. Britton, who have collected con- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. siderable material from it, The specimens as a whole, are not very satisfactory, con. sisting of poorly preserved mollusks, frag. ments of crustaceans, fruit, leaves and branches of trees, and masses of lignite. many of them occurring in ferruginous con. cretions which soon disintegrate on exposure to the air. Mr. Hollick, in his paper describ. ing and figuring them, notices twenty-six species of plant remains, ten of which are apparently new. THE result of a careful study of four hun- dred alcoholics by Forel, of Zurich, again emphasizes the great importance of heredity, Forty-three per cent of the cases had one or both parents alcoholic. Fifteen per cent of the patients were wholesale or retail liquor dealers, All cases showed various physical mental, and moral alterations. Fourteen per cent were epileptics. A comparison of the fossil foraminifera of the marine clays of Maine is adduced by Mr. F. S. Morton, in a communication to the Portland Society of Natural History, as fur- nishing additional evidence that the climate when they were deposited was very much colder than now. Many of the forms are still found living in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but the forms found still farther north more perfectly agree with them. Those found by the late H. B. Brady in the shallow-water dredgings from the Novaya Zemlya Sea are almost identical with the Maine fossil forms. Dr. Dawson Witt1ams, who has been connected with the editorial staff of the British Medical Journal for seventeen years as assistant editor under Mr. Ernest "art, has been appointed editor-in-chief to succeed the latter. In the list of recent deaths of men associ- ated with science are recorded the names of Arthur Kammermann, astronomer, at Geneva, Switzerland, December 15th, aged thirty-six years: Prof. Knud Styffe, director of the Schooi of Technology at Stockholm, a great authority on iron and steel and author of a report on The Elasticity, Extensibility, and Tensile Strength of Iron, which has been translated into English, February 3d, in his seventy-fifth year; Jean Albert Gauthier Villars, printer to the French Academy of Sciences, and publisher of the works of La- grange, Fermat, Fourier, Cauchy, and other scientific investigators, February 5th, at the age of sixty-nine years; Dr. Rudolf Leuck- art, professor of zodlogy and zodtomy at Leip- sic, February 7th, aged seventy-four years ; and John Carrick Moore, an eminent, geolo- gist in the earlier part of the century, author of papers on Silurian strata, Tertiary fossils of Santo Domingo and Jamaica, Erosion of Lake Basins, and the Influence of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic on Climate ; in London, February 10th, in his ninety-fifth year—a nephew of Sir John Moore. en a

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INDEX. ARTICLES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK ARE ILLUSTRATED. PAGE Ago of Treen, The. (Wung.)......cccccccccscccccccccccccecscccccces 717 American Evolutionist, An Early. C. M. Blackford, Jr.*............ 224 American People, Are they Civilized? (Table)...................... 123 Ancient Man in the Delaware Valley. (Frag.).....................- 281 Animals’ Stores. (Frag.)........ PS AP Ee ROS I POTN 181 rr ree, 2. PP mi. sccnnnddcnseessscecccedonsodes 177 Anthropology, Criminal, in Italy. Helen Zimmern*................ 743 Antivivisectionists, The Cruelties of. (Frag.)................0..0005. 714 Apostate Democracy, An. Fi. Smith. ...........ccccccccccccccsccess 654 Archeology and the Antiquity of Man. Sir J. Evans................ 93 . Fabric-marked Pottery. F. 8S. Dellenbaugh*........... 674 COR ON. CEs cncccccccnsodeunnssasossancsesees 570 Astronomy. In a World Half as Large. M. J. Delboeuf............ 678 Barr, J. Miller. Animated Pictures*...............cccccccscccccces 177 Baths, School and Workmen’s, in Germany. (Frag.)................ 568 Baxter, William, Jr. The Electric Transmission of Water Power*... 730 Bering Sea Controversy, Expert Testimony in. T.C. Mendenhall.... 73 Bernard, Mrs. Henry. Feet and Hands*.....................0005 333, 522 | COD GID EE covccscnccccenctcesccsecconcenans 326 i WUE 6a .wc iced cgnadiotedsabesbacesaoosniie 136 Blackford, C. M., Jt. An Early American Evolutionist*............ 224 Blake, Lady Edith. Aborigines of the West Indies*................. 313 ee Ce, Ces icccccsccunsscsesenscieusdawnesennes 862 ESS REE EERE I ae eee 130, 269, 418, 558, 706, 846 Ab, The Story of. 8. Waterloo, 563. Archeology. Certain Aboriginal Mounds Acloque, A. Les Insectes Nuisibles, 276. of the Georgia Coast, 853. Alabama State Geologist, Report of, 428. — The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Andrews, C. F. The Living Substance as Adjacent States. G. P. Thruston, 274. Such and as an Organism, 709. — The Chultunes of Labné. E. H. Thomp- Animal Electricity. A.D. Waller, 711. son, 852. Anthropology. Religions of Primitive Peo- Archer, A. The King’s Daughter and the ples, 278. King’s Son, 851. — Sex Worship. C. Howard, 277. Archibald, D. The Story of the Earth's — The History of Mankind. F. Ratzel, Atmosphere, 424. &46. Architecture. Stones for Building and — The Story of Ab. 8S. Waterloo, 563, Decoration. G. P. Merrill, 188. Arbitration, International. Lake Mohonk Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col- Conference, 566. lege. Part Il of Vol. XXVI, 424.. VOL, Lir.—63

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Books Noticed : Astronomy, The Dawn of. J. N. Lockyer, 560. Atwood, J. E. Constituents of the Uni- verse, 564. AustinSO. P. Uncle Sam's Secrets, 854. Bailey, L. H. The Principles of Fruit Growing, 421. Baldwin, J. M. Social and Ethical Inter- pretation in Mental Development, 559. Bardeen, C.W. Government Class-book of Michigan, 711. Bayiiss,C. K. In Brook and Bayou, 275. Beard, J. C. Curious Homes and their Tenants, 711. Bell, A. M. Science of Speech, 423. Biology. The Living Substance. G. F. Andrews, 709. — TL». Story of Germ Life. H. W. Conn, 852. Blatchley, W.S. Geology of Indiana, 851. Borden, J. Value; 565. Botany. Botanical Observations on the Azores. W. Trelease, 566. — Eighth Annual Report, Missouri Botan- ical Garden, 565. — Tubeuf’s Diseases of Plants induced by Cryptogamic Parasites. William G. Smith, 132. Bourgougnon, A. Physical Problems and their Solutions, 851. Brinton, D.G. Religions of Primitive Peo- ples, 273. Bullock, C.J. Introduction to the Study of Economics, 422. Chester, A. H. Catalogue of Minerals, 564. Christiansen, C. Elements of Theoretical Physics, 276. Climatology, A Handbook of Medical. E. 8. Solly, 130. Commelin, A.C. Not in It, 711. Comstock, J. H. Insect Life, 131. Conn, H.W. Story of Germ Life, 852. Cooke, F. E. History for Young Readers (England), 182. Cooley, L. C. Physics, 275. Crime and Criminals. J. 8. Christison, 423. Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings 1893 to 1897, 565. Dixon, D.B. The Mechanical Arts Simpli- fied, 276. Dowden, E. A History of French Litera- ture, 562. Ecomonics, Introduction to the Study of. C. J. Bullock, 422. — Value. J. Borden, 565. Edridge-Green, F. W. Memory, 849. Education. Art. The True Industrial Edu- cation. W. T. Harris, 135. — Bibliography of. W.8. Monroe, 563. — From a Publisher's Standpoint, 710. — Natural System of Vertical Handwriting. Newlands and Row, 712. — Nature Study in Elementary Schools, 858. — Report of Commissioner of, for 1895-'96, 425. INDEX, Education. The Kindergarten System. C. W. Bardeen, 562. — The Social Mind and. G. E. Vincent, 850. — Working System of Child Study for Schools. M. P. E. Groszman, 566. Electricity. Induction Coil in Practical Work. L. Wright, 566. Embryology. The Development of the Frog’s Egg. T. H. Morgan, 134. Entomology. Insect Life. J. H. Comstock, 181. — Les Insectes Nuisibles. A. Acloque, 276. — Life Histories of American Insects. C. M. Weed, 564. Ethnology, Fifteenth Annual Report of Bureau of, 133. — Fourteenth Annual Report of Bureau of, 424. Evolution. The Descent of the Primates. A. A. W. Hubrecht, 276. — The Present, of Man. G. A. Reid, 272. Faith or Fact. H. M. Taber, 564. French Literature, A History of. E. Dow- den, 562. Fruit Growing, Principles of. L. H. Bailey, 421. Fuertes, J. H. Water and Public Health, 134. Gamble, E. B. The God Idea of the An- cients, 134. Geikie, Sir A. The Founders of Geology, 560. Geography, Natural Elementary. J. W. Redway, 275. Geological Survey, United States. Bulletins, 849. Geology of Indiana. W. 8. Blatchley, 851. — of New Jersey. Annual Report of State Geologist for 1896, 710. — Suggestion for High School. R. 8. Tarr, 852. 2 — The Founders of. A. Geikie, 560. Groszman, M. P. E. Working System of Child Study for Schools, 566. Hallucinations and Ilusions. 561. Hardy, A.S. The Hall of Shells, 858. Harris, W.T. Art Education, the True In- dustrial Education, 135. Harvard Observatory Annals, Vol. XXVIII. Spectra of Bright Stars, 183. Haveland, F. W. The Ancient Hebrew Significance of the Book of Genesis, 852. Health of Body and Mind. T. W. Topham, 565. Holbrook, M. L. Stirpiculture, 853. Holt, L. E. Diseases of Infancy and Child- hood, 421. Hough, E. The Story of the Cowboy, 420. Howard, Clifford. Sex Worship, 277. Hubrecht, A. A. W. The Descent of the Primates, 276. Induction Coil in Practical Work. L. Wright, 566. Recent E. Parish,

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Books Noticed : Ingersoll, E. Wild Neighbors, 561. Insects, American, Life Histories of. C. M. Weed, 564. Iowa Geological Survey. Sixth volume, 423. Jones, J.T. Ten Noble Poems, 565. Jordan, D.S. Matka and Kotik, 131. Kellicott, D.S. Dissection of the Ophidian, 852. Kindergarten System, The. C. W. Bardeen, 562. Kingsley. Elements of Comparative Zodl- ogy, 564. Kipling, R., The Works of (Outward Bound Edition), 269. Kroeker, K. F. History for Young Readers (Germany), 132. Labor, Bulletin of Department of, May, 1897, 138. — Department of, Bulletin for 1897, 424. — Eleventh Annual Report of Commissioner of, 1895-"96, 709. Le Conte, Joseph. Sight, 422. Lewis, H. C. Genesis and Matrix of the Diambdnd, 277. Life-Saving Service. Report for 1896, 565. Light, Visible and Invisible. Royal Institu- tion Lectures, 1896, 563. Lockyer, J. N. The Dawn of Astronomy, 560. Lydekker, R., etc. Natural History, 422. Maltbie, M. R. English Local Government of To-day, 276. Manacéine, Marie de. Sleep, 558. Mason, William P. Water Supply, 419. Mathews, C. 8. Familiar Features of the Roadside, 274. Means, D. M. Industrial Freedom, 707. Medicine. Lectures on Appendicitis. R. T. Morris, 134. — Manual of Bacteriology. Muir and Ritchie, 708. —Sleep. Its Physiology, Pathology, etc. M. de Manacéine, 558. * Merrill, G. P. Stones for Building and Decoration, 133. Meteorology. The Story of the Earth’s At- mosphere. D. Archibald, 424. Mineralogy. Catalogue of Minerals. A. H. Chester, 564. — Genesis and Matrix of the Diamond. H. C. Lewis, 277. Missouri Botanical Garden. Eighth Report. 565. Monroe, W. A. Bibliography of Educa- tion, 563. Moore, C. B. Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Georgia Coast, 858. Morgan, T. H. The Development of the Frog’s Egg, 134. Morris, R. T. Lectures on Appendicitis, 184. Muir, R., and Ritchie, J. Manual of Bac- teriology, 708. Mythology. The God Idea of the Ancients. E. B. Gamble, 134. INDEX. Natural History, Chapters of the, of the United States, 850. — Curious Homes and their Tenants. J. C. Beard, 711. — Matka and Kotik. D. 8. Jordan, 181. — R. Lydekker, ete., 422. — Somali Land Mammals, 277. — Wild Neighbors. E. Ingersoll, 561. Newlands and Row. Natural System of Vertical Handwriting, 712. Nicholsand Franklin. Elements of Physics, 134. Oliver Twist, The Story of, 710. Olmstead, D. H. Philosophy of the Unde- niable, 566. — The Protestant Faith, or Salvation by Be- lief, 851. Osteopathy, Journal of, 710. Parish, E. Hallucinations and Illusions, 561. Pediatrics. Diseases of Infancy and Child- hood. L. E. Holt, 421, Philosophy of the Undeniable. D. H. Olm- stead, 566. Photography, American Annual of, for 1898, 854. Physics, Elements of. Nichols and Frank- lin, 134. — Elements of Theoretical. C. Christian- sen, 276. ‘ — L. C. Cooley, 275. — Light, Visible and Invisible, 563. — Physical Problems and their Solutions. A. Bourgougnon, 851. Poems, Ten Noble. J. T. Jones, 565. Pollock, Louise. The Mother's Council, 710. Psychology. Children’s Ways. J. Sully, 707. — Hallucinations and Illusions. E. Parish, 561. — Memory. F. W. Edridge-Green, 849. — Social and Ethical Interpretations in Men- tal Development. J. M. Baldwin, 559. — The New. E. W. Scripture, 421, — The Psychical Correlation of Religious Emotion and Sexual Desire. J. Weir, Jr., 135, 851. — The Subconscious Self. L. Waldstein, 708. Ratzel, F. The History of Mankind, 846. Reagents and Reactions known by the Names of their Authors, 276. Redway, J. W. Natural Elementary Geog- raphy, 275. Reid, G. A. The Present Evolution of Man, 272. Religion. The Protestant Faith, or Salva- tion by Belief, 851. Rodkinsen, M.L. Babylonian Talmud, 566. Russell, I.C. Volcanoes of North America, 418. Sands, Mamie. Opposites of the Universe, 711. Scripture, E.W. The New Psychology, 421. Seitz, J.A. The Colloquy, 852.

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868 Books Noticed : s Shufeldt, R. W. Chapters of the Natural History of the United States, 850. Sight. J. Le Conte, 422. Sleep. Its Physiology, Pathology, etc. M. de Manacéine, 558. Smith, William G. Tubeuf’s Diseases of Plants induced by Cryptogamic Parasites, 132. Sociology, Dynamic. L. F. Ward (second edition), 274. — English Local Government of To-day. M. R. Maltbie, 276. — Industrial Freedom. D. M. Means, 707. — The King’s Daughter and the King’s Son. A. Archer, 851. Solly, 8S. Edwin. A Handbook of Medical Climatology, 130. Somali Land Mammals, 277. Spectrum Analysis. Harvard Observatory Annals, Vol. XXVIII. Spectra of Bright Stars, 133. Speech, The Science of. A. M. Bell, 423. Stewart's Telegraphic Code, 712. Sully, J. Children’s Ways, 707. Taber, H. M. Faith or Fact, 564. Talmud, The Babylonian. M. L. Rodkin- sen, 566. Tarr, R.S. High-School Geology, 852. Tennessee Labor Statistics and Mines. Sixth Annual Report, 423. Tenney, D. K. The Cooling Universe Re- futed, 851. Thompson, E.H. The Chultunes of Labna, 852. Thruston, G. P. The Antiquities of Ten- nessee and the Adjacent States, 274. Topham, T. W. Health of Body and Mind, 565. Trelease, W. Botanical Observations on the Azores, 566. Troeger, J. W. Harold’s Discoveries, 853. Tubeuf, K. F. von. Diseases of Plants in- duced by Cryptogamic Parasites, 132. Botany. The Age of Trees. Bow-making, Ingenuity in. British Association at Toronto, The. Burs and Beggar’s Ticks. Business through Politics. . Caingua of Paraguay, The. Canada’s Oldest Geology. Cavitation and Screw Propellers. Cereal Foods. (Frag.)........... INDEX. a ea ‘ PP iitreveusebutendedstecccetcsdouns Bréal, M. Processes of Change in Pronunciation.................... = The Significance of Language..................eeeeeeeees PE Er ictcendcncnweseeet Brooks, W. K. Migration........... Biichner, L. Scientific Progress in the Closing Century........... : Buck, Winifred. An Experiment in Citizen Training............... i EE ob ceccevctaceeescovesens cesdes (Table). . Canada, Economical Experiences of. (Frag.).. PR De anivceceeeeedncdnawsoesenl Tucker, G.H. Education from a Publisher's Standpoint, 710. United States Fish Commission. Bulletin for 1896, 423. United States Geological Survey. Seven- teenth Annual Report, 424. Universe, Constituents of. J. E. Atwood, 564. University of the City of New York. Exten- sion Bulletin No. 20, 424. Value. J. Borden, 565. Vincent, G. E. The Social Mind and Edu- cation, 850. Volcanoes of North America. I. C. Russell, 418. Waldstein, L. 708. Waller, A.D. Animal Electricity, 711. Ward, L. F. Dynamic Sociology (second edition), 274. Waterloo, Stanley. 563. Water Supply and Public Health. J. H. Fuertes, 134. Water Supply. William P. Mason, 419. Weather Bureau, Report of Chief of, for Year ending June 30, 1896, 424. Weir, J., Jr. The Psychical Correlation of Religious Emotion and Sexual Desire, 135, 851. Wild Neighbors. E. Ingersoll, 561. Wilson, J. Self-Control, or Life without a Master, 711. Wilson, L. L. W. Nature Study in Ele- mentary Schools, 853. Wright, G. F. Scientific Aspects of Chris- tian Evidence, 706. Wright, L. Induction Coil in Practical Work, 566. X-Ray Journal, The American, 710. The Subconscious Self, The Story of Ab, Zoblogy, Elements of Comparative. Kings- ley, 564. — The Hall of Shells. A. 8S. Hardy, 853. ee ee ee ee ee) EE eee eee ee Ce PAGE 281 37 784 486 111 416 400 714 141 139 571

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INDEX. 869 PAGE Chemical Elements, Discovery of New. C. Winkler ................ 825 Chemistry of a Silk Jacket. (Frrag.)............cccccscccccscccccece 428 ee, Ci ciccsccdverctcceckdsneatendsvecoscecses 426 Citizen Training, An Experiment in. Winifred Buck............... 111 Clapp, H. L. School Gardems®............ccccsccccccccccccccsccees 445 Color Photography, History of. (Frag.)................cceeeeeeeeee 138 Coral Island Forms, The Origin of. (Frag.)....................0005: 855 SB, GA crcccccccesniccveccesscsnsecsscscececsandeuk 750 Crater Lake, Oregon. (Frag.)............cccececceeeeees ‘napacenan 716 Cummings, E.G. A Spring Visit to Nassau*.................0.0005 772 Curious Optical Phenomenon, A. H. M. Stanley. (Corr.).......... 412 Dahlias and “Cactus” Dahlias. (Frag.)...............sceeeeesccees 280 ee Ch Pac ndcesetaeeusennsesed coccnéawcckeneee 236 Delbceuf, M. J. Ina World Half as Large..................00eeeeee 678 Dellenbaugh, F.S. Fabric-marked Pottery *...................0005. 674 Distribution of Species by Man. (Frag.).............cceeeeeceeeeees 138 ee Me es ceeeseenecssseessndeseeenes 699 Duhem, M. P. The First Thermometers........ .........2.eeeeeees 688 Dynamite, Explosiveness of. (Frag.)..............0eeee cece eeeeceee 569 Education, Abstractions in. (Table)...........cccccccccccccccccccess 125 * as a Factor in Evolution. (Table).................0seeee 554 “ SR, SU ciccs cransecdedenodasenesveuataiaas 412 in the Animal Kingdom. C. Letourneau................. 527 as GEG TINGE, TO. GUID a inc ccc cccccdessccscceisces 137 ° Physical Training in the Colleges. F. E. Leonard....... 622 . School Gardens. H. L. Clapp*.............ceeeeeeeeeees 445 - SE, Gc ccnccdcansdadasanessncbeeseabonsees 266 Electric Transmission of Water Power, The. William Baxter, Jr r®, 730 ES ME, oon cnecdesccuscesdseeveseeensaaesse 716 English Composition “as it is Taught.” (Wrag.)........... cseeeeees 859 Ethics, Evolutionary. Herbert Spencer..............0:eeeeeseceeees 497 Evans, E. P. Semon’s Scientific Researches in Australia*........... 17 Evans, Sir J. Archzology and the Antiquity of Man................ 93 ER, CUI go cnncaccdxecsusacdesseccssces: 6008 843 7 ee ee. TOD. BB, Bcc ccccccccccssccssssccse 815 = SE, BR Oh Sic ccccncessocorccddtosoeccesecs 433 Evolutionary Ethics. Herbert Spencer. .............cseseeeeeeenees 497 Fairbanks, H.W. The Great Sierra Nevada Fault Scarp*........... 609 Feet and Hands. Mrs. Henry Bernard*....................+00+: 333, 522 Fernald, F. A. Our Liquor Laws as seen by the Committee of Fifty. 216 i, i Mc cnccccnshpueeeseetenrwetassesceoun 236 Fibers, Classification of. (Frag.)........ eunssnwesenniocdabeonebens 285 Floating ee A A, GR ces cnccccncvencewnscvssncees 279 Flora of the Sandwich Islands. (Frag.)..............0.0seeececeeees 571 Ford, W.C. The Question of Wheat. I.... ...........cceeececuees 760 Foreign Element in American Civilization. A. H. Hyde............ 387 Forest Reserves, The United States. C. D. Walcott.................. 456

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870 INDEX. PAGE Geology. EE ree 716 Nature’s Landscape Gardening. (Frag.)................0. 718 . ee ES BE, «Tons cccccscenee cvecscesess 716 ° The Great Sierra Nevada Fault Scarp. H.W. Fairbanks* 609 a Ce CE Te nencccscceendesencadeseseteese 211 Harley, L. R. Francis Lieber. Sketch. (With Portrait)............ 406 Hearing, Limits of the Power of. (Frag.)............0eeceeeeeeeeees 279 Heilprin, A. Aspects of Nature in the Sahara. I*.................. 577 rs i ee ae eee heme tiewnneiens 285 His, Prof. Wilhelm. Carl Ludwig and Carl Thiersch*.............. 338 Se, ee RUONNNT GE, GOURE,) 20.0 cccccccccccccccccccccesees 861 Hyde, A. H. The Foreign Element in American Civilization........ 387 i i ee chee eee e Ch iehneee ses beneeeeoeeeesiwes 860 Ide, K. K. The Primary Social Settlement......................000 534 i, WN 666 cc eg es d60s bees sede dccedcesees 427 Industrial Instability in Russia. (Frag.)................ceeeeeee eee 858 ” Object Lesson, An. 8. N. D. North.................ee00- 721 Infectious Diseases, ADtiology and Distribution. G. M. Sternberg.... 289 International Geological Congress, Excursions of. D. SS. Martin..... 228 . Scientific Catalogue, The. (Frag.) ..............seee0- 859 rr, Cs nich ceesenwensereetcaceceseetes 428 Jordan, D. 8. The Evolution of the Mind.......................000. 433 King of the Woods, The. Norman Robinson.......... .........++4: 322 Kites and Balloons in Meteorology. (Frag.).............seeee eeeees 137 Language, The Significance of. M. Bréal...................eeeeeees 822 ‘ Lauth,C. The Teaching of Applied Science...................00005 247 Le Bon,G. The Life History of Scientific Ideas..................... 251 Leonard, F. E. Physical Training in the Colleges.................- 622 Letourneau, C. Education in the Animal Kingdom................. 527 Lieber, Francis. L. R. Harley. Sketch. (With Portrait) .......... 406 Life History of Scientific Ideas, The. G. Le Bon.................+:: 251 rs hc ceeetegnkedeenniddasedoqsseenesscunee 573 Liquor Laws as seen by the Committee of Fifty. F: A. Fernald ere 216 Lister, Joseph. Sketch. (With Portrait)..................ceeeeeees 693 Ludwig and Thiersch. Prof. Wilhelm His*..................00000% 338 Machon, Dr. The Caingua of Paraguay................ccseceeeeees 400 Martin, D.S. Excursions of the International Geological Congress.. 228 Martin, D. 8. The British Association at Toronto..................: 37 Maya Jewsharp, A Primitive. (Frag.)...............00eeeeseeeeeee: 428 Medicine. Sanitariums for Consumptives. (Frag.)................: 715 Mendenhall, T. C. Expert Testimony in the Bering Sea Controversy 73 rh occ crdderecedenedosseeessesensues .. 713 Pee POUND, DOMNOUO GE, (HURE.) . co cccccccccccccccccccccccccccce 858 Mexican Ruins, Magnitude of. (Frag.)...............0ceeeee ceeeees 283

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Ph, .. 04 Eis Nas 0bs0nded 6dSemeeneSéadeeeeed seed teetes Mind, The Evolution of. D.S. Jordan................ ccc cece eceees 433 i Mi caccccccndeviodedacheudeeesseedéunsesdadedadanien 573 Moon and the Sabbath, The. (Frag.)................ccccccccccceees 284 RE TIO, DB. CE Docc oc ce secccscccccccccscssscccscssve 860 Nassau, A Spring Visit to. E. G. Cummings*....................... 772 i Co cc ccndciieadduasesessacevetesnss 415 Nature’s Landscape Gardening. (Frag.)..............0cceeeeeceeees 718 North, S. N. D. An Industrial Object Lesson....................... 721 Bee Comeet Ga. EL, En, GOP in occ cccccccccccccecévccccccese 211 CU. corcudscuceussecsieesesdseocseseseees 861 Parental Neglect as a Cause of Hoodlumism. (Table)............... 267 Passy, M. Jacques. Natural and Artificial Perfumes................ 86 PE, SPUD c cc ccenscccudscndusecadsnesstccesdsencecsnences 718 Perfumes, Natural and Artificial. M. Jacques Passy................ 86 Photography, The Beginning of. (Frag.)...................eeeeeee 278 Physical Training in the Colleges. F. E. Leonard................... 622 icc cccncccdcccesavcostenessncteus 715 = The First Thermometers. M. P. Duhem.................. 688 Physiology, Thirteen Years’ Progress in. (Frag.).............+.00+: 140 NE S.C ec cndindcdcccccssncectcssctusecencee 717 Planets among the Stars. G. P. Serviss..................eeeeeeeees 171 eh Cn: <icntciieeedenieasebensenebesneadecule 128 Pottery, Fabric-marked. F. A. Dellenbaugh *...................... 674 Public Baths, The Importance of. - (Frag.)................0eeeeeeeees 857 Prestwich, Joseph. Sketch. (With Portrait)....................... 254 Primary Social Settlement, The. K. K. Ide................c0eeeeuee 534 Pronunciation, Processes of Change in. M. Bréal.................+. 188 th, CE, : «cs sedicdeusenaeeeeesesnaaeaeeneeeeabsenetae 699 Psychic Development of Cats and Dogs. (Frag.)............0eeeee: 427 Pure Mathematics, Value of. (Hrang.)........ccccscccccccce cocccces 282 Racial Geography of Europe, The. W. Z. Ripley *... 49, 145, 304, 469, 591 Radiography in Medical Practice. (Frag.)............s0ceeeeeeeeees 569 Rainbow, New Theories regarding. (Frag.)..........-.cseeseeeseees 856 Rhodesia. Dns doce dtenhob 66eeceds dehSese Hadeencetberenetens 572 Ripley, W. Z. The Racial Geography of Europe *.... 49, 145, 304, 469, 591 Road Building, Object Lessons in. (Frag.)............00-eeeeeeeees 429 Robinson, Norman. The King of the Woods.................. 000005 322 Sahara, Aspects of Nature in. I. A. Heilprin*..................... 577 St. Louis Academy of Natural Sciences. F. Starr*.................- 629 Sanitariums fer Consumptives. (Frag.)..........-. banewemigeesdeeen 715 MWe, MEI si cctesccuseawecesccacnecsesvoeteous 445 School Sessions and Health. (Brag.)........cccccccccccccssccccccce 570 Science and Morals. M. Berthelot. ...........cccccccccccccccccecccs 326 “ Pure and Commercial. (Frag.)...........+-++ee0005 5 enema 139 FF, io oki cece cesecs ccccensscceencesscuus 700

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ee > a 872 INDEX. PAGE Cs vc peacesavedsieseewsesesessecseds 263 “Progress in the Closing Century. L. Biichner............. 486 Semon’s Scientific Researches in Australia. E. P. Evans*........ .. 17 Semper, Carl. Sketch. (With Portrait)................ceceeeeeeeee 837 Serviss, Garrett P. Are there Planets among the Stars ?............. 171 Sierra Nevada Fault Scarp, The Great. H. W. Fairbanks*......... 609 i © eins atbaddsestescesesseesedessereeeneeons 715 i. A es Sic cccccccecesccocseces soceees 654 Society, The Upward Struggle of. (Table)................2-seeeeees 703 Bociology. An Apostate Democracy. F. Smith..................... 654 Economical Experiences of Canada. (Frag.)............ 714 - The Primary Social Settlement. K. K. Ide.............. 534 South American Fields for Exploration. (Frag.)............0..++0055 139 Spencer, Herbert. Evolutionary Ethics..................00+seeeeees 497 Stanley, H. M. A Curious Optical Phenomenon. (Corr.) palininieiasiened 412 Starr, Frederick. The Academy of Natural Sciences of St. Louis*... 629 Sternberg,G. M. Altiology and Distribution of Infectious Diseases. . 289 Subconscious Impressions. (Table)................sceeeeeeeeeeccees 556 Submarine Land Slides and Telegraphic Cables. (Frag.)............ 570 Ch PG, WE Rcccccncccsnccseccesessonscesses 241 Taxation, Principles of. D. A. Wells............. 1, 195, 354, 503, 688, 798 Teaching of Applied Science, The. C. Lauth..................20000 247 Thermometers, The First. M. P. Duhem.........................5. 688 Thumb and Toes in Men and Apes. (Frag.)............-..0eeeeeeees 141 Tidal Variations, Unexplained. (Frag.)..............seeeeeeeeeseees 429 Tilting of Lake Regions, The. (Frag.)........-..-.22eeeeeeeeeeeeees 141 i, Ce Ric cckcdcnceesedsveecesessersestecescssnse 430 eS ee tL eehebecdeeebeesieeeeennas 283 Total Eclipse of the Sun, The Recent. (Frag.)...........--+seeeeeees 856 ee, CD ccc ccaseceesveecseccseesasecoeseces 284 EE, CE De ccc cccncesescceseseceseesccscesesss 280 i Ch, CE vnnccccsestenccccosesseccscascces 572 Trade Unions, The Effect of, on Individual Advance. (Frag.)....... 713 SE, SN UU MOOR, CUE occ ccnsccccccccccscccccscceees 717 Trotter,S. Burs and Beggar's Ticks*®................cscccccccccscces 68 Unexplored Regions in Asia. (Frag.)....-.....-.22eeeeeeeeeeee ne. aan es cect cnc pase beedkesseeneeeseccereseresie 278 Value of Disinterested Science. (Frag.)............00.seeeeeeeeeees 571 Vogt, Carl. Sketch. (With Portrait) .......... ee dintnaennions 547 Walcott, eee 547 - The United States Forest Reserves...............++: 456 Water Weed, A Troublesome. (Brag.).........ccccccccccccsccccces 429 Wells, D. A. Principles of Taxation.......... ..++ 1, 195, 354, 503, 648, 798 West Indies, Aborigines of the. Lady Edith Blake..... ............ 373 is Sh | RRO GE MED. cccccccccccscccccccscccesesess

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INDEX. 873 PAGE Wheat, The Question of. I. W.C. Ford 760 Winkler, Clemens. Discovery of New Chemical Elements 825 World Half as Large,Ina. M. J. Delbceuf 678 I GE, GID vies cdencnwsierwrscecsdevecensds 857 Yeast, Some New Facts regarding. (Frag.)...............cceceeceues Zahm, Rev. J. A. Evolution and Teleology Zimmern, Helen. Criminal Anthropology in Italy * Zodiacal Light, Early Observationson. (Frag.).................e005 CG, GU Docc cesccccccccccccecsccccccceczcecss

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ESTABLISHED BY EDWARD L. YOUMANS. APPLETONS’ POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. APRIL, 1898. EDITED BY WILLIAM JAY YOUMANS. OONTENTS. rags I An Industrial Object Lesson. By 8. N. D. Norrs.............- 721 II. The Electric Transmission of Water Power. By Wiiu1am Bax- wun, Jr. (Tlustrated.). .....cccceccvcccccccescccvecscoeese 730 III. Criminal Anthropology in Italy. By Heren Zummern. (Illus.)... 743 IV. The Question of Wheat. I. By Worrarneton C. Forp........ 760 _ V. A Spring Visit to Nassau. By Emma G. Cunmamnes. (Illus.)..... 772 VL. Migration. By Prof. W. K. Brooxs, LL. D.............ceeeeees 784 VIL Principles of Taxation. XVII. The Case of Kirtland vs. Hotch- kiss. By Hon. Davip A. WELIS..........eseeeeeeececeees 798 VIII. Evolution and Teleology. By the Rev. Dr. J. A. Zanm, C.8.C... 815 IX. Discovery of New Chemical Elements. By Cremens WINKLER... 825 X. The Significance of Language. By Micnet Brfau............-. 832 ; XI. Sketch of Carl Semper. (With Portrait.).......++.seeeeesesees 837 XII. Editor’s Table : Evolution and Design......++++eee+eeedeeeseeeenes 843 KINI, Scientific Literature. .......csccccccccccsccccscccccsvcvevcenes 846 AIV. Fragments of Science... .......ccccscecsccccccccccvcccscesecens 855 XV. Index to Volume LID... . 2... ccceseccccccsccscoccccccceseseses 865 NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 FIFTH AVENUE. Smeets Newosn, 50 Cenrs. Yearty Scsscarrrion, $5.00. Corrricnt, 1898, sy D. APRLETON AND COMPANY. Entered at the Post Office at New York, and admitted for transmission through the mails at second-class rates.

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Seribner’s Newest Books. AUDUBON AND HIS JOURNALS. By Maria R. Audubon. With many illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo, $7.50. ‘*A work which no student of American birds, mammals, or history can afford to do without.” C. Hart MERRIAM, in Science. “* A work fascinating to all ornithologists and bird-lovers, and one which must also appeal strongly to the sym of the general reader. The story of his romantic life, told briefly in the first volume, is of interest.”"—Dr. J. A. ALLEN, in 7he Auk. ** Miss Audubon has done her work well. She has produced a book which is a credit to herself, her sex, and the honored name she bears. She has made an important contribution to the historical’ and zoblogical literature of America, and has erected to the memory of Audubon a useful and enduring mon: t.”"— The Nation. HOW TO NAME THE BIRDS. By H. E. Parkhurst, Author of “The Birds’ Calendar” and “Song-Birds and Waterfowl.” l6mo. Jn Press. The non-scientific bird-lover is often discouraged by the =F of identifying his feathered friends without the research which so few have time to give. Mr. Parxhurst has here provided a handy manual which, by an ingenious system based on color and season, makes the process of naming the common birds a most simple matter. MUSIC: How it Came to be What it Is. By Hannah Smith. With many illustrations. 12mo, $1.25 xe?. Miss Smith addresses the untechnical music-lover, and her history of the growth of modern music is as concise as is compatible with thoroughness and clearness. After an introductory chapter on musical acoustics, she outlines the condition of music in ancient and medizval times, and devotes a chapter each to the Belgian and Italian schools. This is followed by historical sketches of the opera, the oratorio, and instrumental music ; after which the development of the principal instruments is considered. WHAT IS GOOD MUSIC? By W. J. Henderson. Suggestions to Persons desiring to Cultivate a Taste in Musical Art. 12mo, $1.00 net. “Tt is not written for the musical elect, although the brightness of its style, the breadth of its and the author's evident desire to refrain from any display of unnecessary erudition, make it * to any one. It is intended as a guide to the unwary travellers who without assistance are wont to lose their way and get hopelessly entangled. . . . After reading it the amateur music-lover can talk to the professional music-lover with at least some idea of the subject.”—-Washington 7imes. HOW TO LISTEN TO MUSIC. By H. E. Krehbiel. Seventh Edition. Ilustrated. 12mo, $1.25 net. THE WORKERS: The East. By Walter A. Wyckoff. IMustrated. 12mo, $1.25. “We nave had many sociological novels, but none, we will dare to say, containing so unvarnished a Cn saben reality—a picture at cnce of the most profound scientific and romantic interest.”— Zhe “To a good many men and women Professor Wyckoff 's story will be as full of interest as the most novel of incident that has been brought out in recent years.”"—Boston Advertiser. THIS COUNTRY OF OURS. By Benjamin Harrison, Ex-President of the United States. 12mo, $1.50. “‘Mr. Harrison has written an informing and entertaining book. Without attem to provide either a school manual on American ment or an elementary treatise on constitutional law, he dis- courses pleasantly and oo merge t the various departments of national administration. kos eg ra the daily life of President than any recent book which has come under our . CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS, '°3157,Fitth Ave»

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THE MACMILLAN . ug hes COMPANY'S New Scientific Books, LESSONS WITH PLANTS. SUGGESTIONS FOR SEEING AND INTERPRETING SOME OF THE COMMON FORMS OF VEGETATION, By L. H. BAILEY, Cornell University. With Delineations by W. S. Hotpsworty Assistant Professor of Drawing in the Agricultural College of Michigan. Cloth. i2mo. Price, $1.10, met. The aim of the book is to suggest methods, not to present facts. It is valuable to teachers and parents alike. Send for specimen pages. ‘‘T unhesitatingly recommend the book to all.”—F rom a review in the New York Herald. First Lessons with Plants. Garden Making. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture, Cornell University. Cloth. ramo. 40 cents, net. Cloth. s6mo. $1.00. A selection from the Lessons with Plants named | A new volume in the Garden Craft Series, to be above. No lesson is abbreviated ; there are, however, read by every man who expects to make his garden not so many of them, yet enough to give an interested this spring, whether professional or a beginner, with teacher valuable suggestions as to new methods. advantage and pleasure. A TEXT-BOOK OF ZOOLOGY. By T. JEFFERY PARKER, D.Sc., F.R.S., and WiILtiaM A. HAswELL, D.Sc., F.R.S. In two volumes, fully illustrated. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $10.50, met. The present work is strictly adapted to the needs of the beginner. The mode of treatment of the subject is such that no previous knowledge of zodlogy is assumed, and students of the first and second years should have no more difficulty in following the accounts of the various groups than is incidental to the first study of any complex and unfamiliar subject. NATURE STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. By Mrs. LUCY L. W. WILSON, Ph. D., Training School for Girls, Philadelphia. I, Manual for Teachers. go cents. (Aeady.) II, Reader. (/n press.) NEW BOOKS ON MENTAL SCIENCE, EDUCATION, ete. The Study of Children and A Primer of Their School Training. Psychology. By EDWARD BRADFORD TITCHENER, Sage Pro. By Dr. FRANCIS WARNER, author of “ The fessor of Psychology, Cornell University, Growth and Means of Training the Mental Cloth. Crown 8vo. $1.00, met. Faculty,” ‘‘ The Anatomy of Movement,” etc. This volume is intended as a first book in psychol- Cloth. 16mo. $1.00, met. ogy. It aims, therefore, to outline with as little of detail as is compatible with accuracy the methods and P P P mest important results of modern psychology, and te Social and Ethical Interpretations | furnish the reader with references for further study, of Mental Development. The Science of Law Cloth. 8vo. $2.60, met. and Law-Making. meme nee —. bra eepeed ee ae An Introduction to Law and General View of its its subject, and lead gradually up to the most profound a ne pion Ques — of psychology, so far as these problems “ : ave been yet grasped by the inductive psychological Lawyers. By R. FLoyp CLARKE, of the New method.”—oston Evening Transcript. York Bar. Cloth. Crown 8vo. Just ready. Whittaker’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket-Book. By PHILIP R. BJORLING. Full limp morocco, round corners, flexible and pocket size. 16mo. $1.75, met. For further particulars please address THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York.

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- a ee “2a RG ‘| SPRING ANNOUNCEMENTS [fF Se, }

D.APPLETON & COMPANY'S R MONTHLY BULLETIN

aek > De, ee »s, & SS, 7 D. APPLETON & CO. WV IN 72 Fifth Avenue, New York 4

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LATEST PUBLICATIONS OF D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK, APRIL, 1898. The Disaster. A Romance of the Franco-Prussian War. By PAUL and VICTOR MARGUERITTE. 12mo. Cloth $1.50. Like Zola’s La Débdcle, with which it naturally challenges comparison, Le Désastre has for its theme the: Franco-Prussian War. The authors are well equipped for their task. Their father was the cavalry general Auguste Margueritte, who fell at the battle of Sedan; and the younger son, Victor, was himself an officer in the French army, but recently abandoned the military career in order to associate himself with his brother in literary work. ‘‘ This powerful picture of the fate of the Army of the Rhine, by the sons of one of the generals who did their duty, is among the finest descriptions of war that have been penned.”—London Athenaeum. ‘** A strong, a remarkable book. ‘The Disaster’ is even more overwhelming than Zola’s Le Débdcle. Zola’s soldiers possessed, after all, the untold advantage of their ignorance ; but the officers in ‘ The Disaster’ saw everything, understood from the very beginning the immensity of the blunder. Like the spectators of some grim tragedy, they waited and watched for the curtain to fall.” —Zondon Speaker. Studies of Good and Evil. By Prof. Jostan Royce, of Harvard University. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. The unity of this interesting and important book is derived from the author’s application of his theories of philosophic idealism to relatively practical problems. He shows how his philosophical theory may be applied to the study of various issues relating to good and evil. The ‘‘ problem of evil” as illustrated in Job, together with the case of John Bunyan, ‘‘ Tennyson and Pessimism,” various brilliant and illuminating studies of self-con- sciousness, and some discussions of special issues, among which is the ‘‘ Squatter Riot of 1850 in Sacramento,” are among the themes which are treated in a way that illustrates the intimate relation of every fragment with the whole in the universe as idealism conceives it. The original thought and acute observation of the author find most striking phases of expression. The Psychologic Foundations of Education. An Attempt to show the Genesis of the Higher Faculties of the Mind. By Wi.uiam T. Harris, A. M., LL. D., United States Commissioner of Education. Vol. XXXVII, Inter- national Education Series. 1t2mo. Cloth, $1.50. A book by the distinguished editor of the International Education Series on so important a subject as the title of this volume indicates has, since its announcement a year ago, been awaited with great interest by edu- cators everywhere, and its appearance is a notable event in the history of pedagogical literature. The work is not simply an inventory of the mental faculties as many psychologies are, but is an attempt to show the psycho- logical foundations of the more important educational factors in civilization and its schools, and it is treated in the masterly style of which the philosophical mind of its author is capable. Dr. Harris has shown, what no other writer has in so clear and practical a manner, the true relations of psychology to the education of youth. He presents a psychology that shows how all the activities of life, social or otherwise, react on the child and the man to develop them. He shows the educative influences not only of schoo! work, but of the family, industriai occupations, of play and work, of state, church, and of all national life. His book is a masterpiece of psycho- logic and pedagogical literature. Italian Literature. By RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. A new volume in the Literatures of the World Series, edited by EpMUND Gosse. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. Dr. Garnett’s abundant scholarship and power of discrimination have furnished an admirable equipment for the preparation of this needed work. In traversing the broad field of Italian literature he has not confined him- self simply to a few masterpieces, but, without burdening his story with details, he indicates characteristic phases and significant movements, which are happily illustrated. His work is clear, interesting, and informing. Modern English Literature. By Epmunp Gossg, Hon. M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. Literatures of the World Series. Uniform with “ Ancient Greek Literature,” by GiLBERT MuRRAY, and “‘ French Litera- ture,” by EDWARD DOWDEN. 1I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. ‘Mr. Gosse’s most ambitious book and probably his best. It bears on every page the traces of a genuine love for his subject, and of a lively critical intelligence. . . . Really a remarkable performance.”—London Times. 4

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— fippletons’ Monthly Bulletin. ESSRS. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY'S preliminary spring announcements include the following books : STANDARD AND MISCELLANEOUS, Studies of Good and Evil, by Prof. Josiah Royce, of Harvard University. Outlines of the Earth's History, illustrated, by Prof. N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University. The Play of Animals, by Prof. Karl Groos, with an introduction by Prof. J. Mark Baldwin, of Princeton Univer- | sity. Italian Literature, by Richard Gar- nett, C. B., LL. D., a new volume in the Literatures of the World Series. Psychologic Foundations of Educa- tion, by Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, a new volume in the International Educa- tion Series. The Art of Taxidermy, by John Rowley, Chief of the Department of Taxidermy in the American Museum of Natural History. Illustrated. Political Crime, by Louis Proal, a new volume in the Criminology Series. A French Volunteer in the War of Independence (The Chevalier de Pontgi- baud), translated by Robert B. Douglas. Familiar Life in Field and Forest, by F. Schuyler Mathews. _ Illustrated. The Animal World, by Frank Vin- cent; News from the Birds, by L. S. Keyser; On the Farm, by Nellie L. Helm and F. W. Parker; Harold's Rambles, by J. W. Troeger: new illus- trated volumes in ‘“ Appletons’ Home- Reading Series.” Appletons’ Annual Cyclopedia. FICTION, Evelyn Innes, by George Moore. The Terror, by Félix Gras, trans- lated by Mrs. Catharine A. Janvier. Her Memory, by Maarten Maartens. The Standard Bearer, by S. RB. Crockett. The House of the Hidden Treasure, by Maxwell Gray. A Woman of Kronstadt, by Max Pemberton. The Disaster, by Paul and Victor Margueritte. Arachne, by Georg Ebers. This Little World, by D. Christie Murray. John of Strathbourne, by R. T. Chetwode. A Trooper of the Empress, by Clin- ton Ross. A Forgotten Sin, by D. Gerard. An Incidental Bishop, by Grant Allen. Mater Familias, by Ada Cam- bridge. The Millionaires, by F. Frankfort Moore. The Gospel Writ in Steel, by Arthur Paterson. Torn Sails, by Allen Raine. NEW EDITIONS. Mr. Gilbert Parker’s novels: Zhe Translation of a Savage, revised and enlarged; Zhe Trail of the Sword ; The Trespasser; Mrs. Falchion, Li- brary Edition, uniform with “ The Seats of the Mighty.” A History of the United States Navy, by Edgar S. Maclay. Revised and enlarged. Greater New York edition of Apple- tons’ Dictionary of New York, revised and enlarged, with new maps. Appletons’ Guide to Alaska, by Miss E. R. Scidmore, with an account of the Klondike region, and new maps. Appletons’ General Guide to the United States and Canada. Appletons’ Canadian Guide-Book. Evolution and Effort, by Edmond Kelly, with a discussion of recent polit- ical events in New York. «* Studies of Good and Evil, by Prof. Josiah Royce, of Harvard University, is a work of peculiar value. The unity of this interesting and important book 5

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. is derived from the author’s application of his theories of philosophic idealism to relatively practical problems. He shows how his philosophical theory may be applied to the study of various issues relating to good and evil. The “problem of evil” as illustrated in Job, the case of John Bunyan, “ Tennyson and Pessimism,” Meister Eckhart, the German Mystic, together with various suggestive and illuminating studies of self-consciousness, and some discussions of special issues, among which is the “ Squatter Riot of 1850 in Sacramento,” are among the themes which are treated in a way that illustrates the intimate relation of every fragment with the whole in the universe as idealism con- ceives it. The original thought and acute observation of the author find most striking phases of expression. # * Professor Shaler’s Oxtlines of the Earth’s History is one of the most im- portant and attractive of the author’s valuable contributions to the populari- zation of science. His book is properly a popular handbook of physiography, treating as it does of the exterior phys- ical features of the earth, and the action thereon of fire, water, and ice, and vari- ous phases of the atmosphere. The book is a simple, interesting account of the natural features and conditions of our environment, and it is therefore cf immediate concern to the intelligent reader. The larger features of the earth’s history are sketched in an inform- ing, suggestive manner, and the salient points in a wide survey are noted. Pro- fessor Shaler’s comprehensive knowl- edge and graphic style have imparted to his book a peculiar distinction. In its wide range of information and the lucid- ity with which the various themes are treated, the book possesses a value which will be appreciated by many readers and by students. “The object of this book is to pro- vide the beginner in the study of the 6 earth’s history with a general account of those actions which can be readily understood and which will afford him clear understandings as to the nature of the processes which have made this and other celestial spheres. It has been the writer’s purpose to select those series of facts which serve to show the contin- uous operations of energy, so that the reader might be helped to a truer con- ception of the nature of this sphere than he can obtain from ordinary text-books, “In the usual method of presenting the elements of the earth’s history the facts are set forth in a manner which leads the student to conceive that his- tory as in a way completed. The nat- ural prepossession to the effect that the visible universe represents something done, rather than something endlessly doing, is thus re-enforced, with the re- sult that he may fail to gain the largest and most educative impression which physical science can afford him in the sense of the swift and unending pro- cession of events. “ It is well known to all who are ac- quainted with the history of geology that the static conception of the earth —the idea that its existing condition is the finished product of forces no longer in action—led to prejudices which have long retarded, and indeed still retard, the progress of that science. The fact | ind*cates that at the outset of a stu- | dent’s work in this field he should be | guarded against such misconceptions. The only way to attain the end is by | bringing to the understanding of the beginner a clear idea of successions of events which are caused by the forces operating in and on this sphere. Of all | the chapters of this great story, that which relates to the history of the work done by the heat of the sun is the most interesting and awakening. Therefore an effort has been made to present the great successive steps by which the solar energy acts in the processes of the air and the waters. “The interest of the beginner in geol-

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. ogy is sure to be aroused when it comes to see how very far the history of the earth has influenced the fate of men. Therefore the aim has been, where possible, to show the ways in which geological processes and results are related to ourselves; how, in a word, this earth has been the well-appointed nursery of our kind. « All those who are engaged in teach- ing elementary science learn the need of limiting the story they have to tell to those truths which can be easily under- stood by beginners. It is sometimes best, as in stating such difficult matters as those concerning the tides, to give explanations which are far from com- plete, and which, as to their mode of presentation, would be open to criticism were it not for the fact that any more elaborate statements would most likely be incomprehensible to the novice, thus defeating the teacher’s aim. “It will be observed that no account is here given of the geological ages or of the successions of organic life. Chapters on these subjects were pre- pared, but were omitted for the reason that they made the story too long, and also because they carried the reader into a field of much greater difficulty than that which is found in the physical history of the earth.”—From Preface. * * * GEORGE MOORE'S NEW NOVEL. Mr. Moore’s comparative silence for the last few years has been due to his preoccupation with his most serious and important work which is now given to the pubiic. This novel is a masterly analysis of a conflict between art and the world on one side and religion upon the other. The theme is developed with a penetrating insight into motives, a grasp of character, and a mastery of literary technique which make £velyn Innes a notable book, and a genuine addition to modern English literature. The action of the novel passes in large part in London and Paris. It is a story of the present day characterized by a vivid perception of the doubts and com- plex conditions of modern life. The musical motif which has so large a part in the development of the story is in- terwoven with others which in their unfolding show a rare subtlety and power of expression. That Mr. Moore is an artist has long been known to cul- tivated readers, but his admirers will find that in Evelyn Innes he shows himself a force to be reckoned with anew by students of the best in modern letters. * * * In the preface to his Azstory of Italian Literature Dr. Garnett says: “The literature of Italy requires to be constantly considered in connection with other literatures, both those from which it is itself derived and those which it has deeply influenced. It is more inti- mately affiliated to antiquity than any other European literature, and may in- deed be regarded as a continuation or revival of the Latin. Its advent was long and unaccountably delayed—it is the youngest of all the chief European literatures; but when at length it did appear, its form, already classical, dis- pensed it from an infancy of rudeness and barbarism. Entering at once upon a heritage of classical tradition, Italians began to teach foreign nations long be- fore they found anything to learn from them; and this influence is so large a part of the glory of Italy that her litera- ture can not be fully unlocked to the foreigner unless he is shown, not only what she has herself effected in letters, but how greatly she has modified the intellectual development of other coun- tries. She owes nothing to Chaucer, Spenser, or Milton; but Chaucer, Spen- ser, and Milton are infinitely indebted to her. The position she so long retained as the instructor and exemplar of civil- ized nations invests her literature with an importance more considerable than that attaching to the merits of her indi- vidual authors, illustrious as these are. 7

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. Yet it is impossible to elucidate this momentous department of the subject in a manual of four hundred pages. All that can be done is to indicate by continual reference and allusion that the need exists, and must be satisfied else- where. The influence upon Italy her- self of foreign writers, and of movements common to Europe in general, has re- quired and received fuller treatment.” * * * The Psychologic Foundations of Education, by Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Edu- | cation, is one of the most important of recent educational publications. A book | by the distinguished editor of the Inter- | national Education Series on so weighty a subject as the title of this volume in- dicates has, since its anncuncement a year ago, been awaited with great in- terest by educators everywhere, and its appearance is a notable event in the history of pedagogical literature. The work is not simply an inventory of the mental faculties as many psychologies are, but is an attempt to show the psy- chological foundations of the more im- portant educational factors in civiliza- tion and its schools, and it is treated in the masterly style of which the philo- sophical mind of its author is capable. Dr. Harris has shown, what no other writer has in so clear and practical a manner, the true relations of psychology to the education of youth. He presents a psychology that shows how all the activities of life, social or otherwise, react on the child and the man to de- velop them. He shows the educative influences, not only of school work but of the family, industrial occupations, of play and work, of state, church, and of all national life. His book is a mas- terpiece of psychologic and pedagogical literature. * * * Mr. Rowley, author of Zhe Art of Taxidermy, is the author of the mag- nificent groups of mounted animals in the hall devoted to North American 8 mammals at the American Museum of Natural History. He has introduced new features into the art which have not been described in print before, and his book will represent the latest ad- vances in taxidermy as an art and as a science. He takes a hunting party to the Canadian woods in his opening chap- ter, and gives a series of vivid pictures of actual field work. This is followed by a series of careful explanations of the proper treatment of animals, large and small, of birds, and heads. The many lovers of outdoor sport who are interested as amateurs in the various phases of taxidermy will find their re- quirements fully met, while to profes- sional taxidermists this important and comprehensive work will be indispen- sable. It will be elaborately illustrated. * * * In Arachne, Dr. Ebers returns to the Egyptian field in which he has gained such wide popularity. The story opens in 274 B.C. The opening scenes are laid in a little town near the Nile Delta, and later the movement of the romance transfers the reader to Alexandria. The outline of the story is as follows: Two young sculptors, de- voted friends, receive a commission for two statues. Hermon, the hero, is to execute Demeter and Arachne. A handsome Greek, he compliments fair women, seeking among them models. One, a Biamite girl, seems to him best suited for his Arachne, and he wins her love ; but on the evening he has promised to meet her on an island he attends a banquet where, captivated by the charms of another woman who for the entertain- ment of the guests personates several characters (among them Arachne), he lingers, breaking his appointed tryst. Ledscha, infuriated, promises a sea-rover her hand if he will capture the sculptor alive and destroy his statues. In the fray another, by mistake, is carried on board the pirate ship, but Hermon is blinded by having a torch thrust in his face. In his darkness he realizes his

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- Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. love for Daphne, whom he has known from childhood, and later his sight is re- stored and the pirates are captured and executed. This is but a barest skeleton of a book which will have many readers. There is a great deal of incident, and the description of the girl personating the various characters, especially where she assumes that of Arachne, is a vivid and noteworthy feature. * Mr. H. N. Brailsford, author of Zhe Broom of the War God, a story of the late war between the Greeks and Turks, which Messrs. D. Appleton and Com- pany recently published, fought in the war as a volunteer in the Foreign Le- gion. Mr. Brailsford is a Scotchman, educated in Dundee, and a Fellow of Glasgow University. This remarkable picture of the actual conditions in the Greek army during the recent war is drawn by a new author of exceptional promise. There are glimpses of Lamia, Pharsala, Larissa, Volo, Velestino, and Domoko. The author was one of the disorganized and leaderless assemblage which constituted the Greek army, and his wonderfully graphic sketches of the conditions in the ranks, the incompe- tence of officers, and the attitude of the King and Crown Prince toward the war, shed a new light upon the disasters of the campaign. The hero, an English- man, embodies the characters and the feelings of his strangely assorted cos- mopolitan comrades, and illustrates the psychology of war as displayed in a hopeless campaign. * * * A Voyage of Consolation is the title of the new book by Mrs. E. C. Cotes (Sara Jeannette Duncan) which has been published recently by D, Appleton and Company. In this book Mrs. Cotes returns to the field which she developed with such success in “ A Social Depar- ture” and “An American Girl in Lon- don.” Some characters which delighted thousands of readers reappear in this new book, and their entertaining expe- riences on the Continent are set forth with unfailing good spirits and an apt appreciation of the picturesque and hu- morous features of European travel. The text is admirably supplemented by vivacious illustrations. * * * An early second edition of Mr. E. Hough’s graphic Story of the Cowboy indicates the continued success of the novel plan adopted for the presentation of Western history in the popular Story of the West Series, published by D. Appleton and Company. * * * In a recent newspaper interview Mr. Anthony Hope expressed his preference for Zhe God in the Car among all his books. A new edition of this novel has just been issued by Messrs. D. Appleton and Company, uniform with Mr. Hope’s Chronicles of Count An- tonio. * * The increasing interest in American historical themes is well illustrated by the success of Henry Johnson’s instruct- ive and fascinating Explozts of Myles Standish, recently published by D. Ap- pleton and Company. While his story is full of romantic interest, it conveys truthful pictures of the life of the Plymouth colony which attract older as well as younger readers. * * * The father of Paul and Victor Mar- gueritte, the authors of Zhe Disaster served with distinction in Algeria, where his sons were born, and was made a general at the age of forty-seven. At that time he was the youngest officer of that rank in the French army. He died in September, 1870, of a wound received while leading his men in a charge upon a Prussian corps at Sedan. In addition to his remarkable qualities as a soldier, General Margueritte possessed the gift of literary expression in a marked de- gree. By inheritance, therefore, the au- 9

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. thors ct 7he Disaster were well equip- ped. Paul, born in 1860, has devoted himself to literature from his youth, Victor, born in 1866, had nine years of military service. Their collaboration dates back nearly three years when they began work upon Zhe Disaster. Upon the publication of such a work as 7he Disaster, it is not unnatural that some comparison should be made with M. Emile Zola’s work, “La Débfcle,” though in many ways the two works differ to a considerable extent. It may be as well to point out in what respect. M. Zola has depicted the disorganization of the Chalons army and the Sedan catastrophe. The Marguerittes narrate the heroic struggle of the army of the Rhine at Borny, Rezonville, Saint-Privat, and Noisseville; the long agony of the finest troops in the French army, day after day duped until the fatal hour of the capitulation of Metz by Bazaine. | In “La Débacle” we have a vivid pic- ture of war from the common soldier’s point of view; In Zhe Disaster we have a description of war as seen by the officers. the story, is an officer of the general staff, and an orderly officer of the Minister of War. He is, consequently, at the very center of the military move- ment. nearly everybody else, illusions which by degrees are destroyed as the war con- | tinues and the country is invaded. The Marguerittes have described the strug- gle between the conscience and the | sense of duty of this officer, between discipline and revolt; the brilliant soirée at the palace of Saint-Cloud, the de- parture of the imperial train for Metz, | Paris at the opening of the war, the dis- organization of the army during the first few days of the campaign, the battle- fields, the ambulances, the feverish ex- citement at Metz, the stagnation of the army in the rain and the mud, the horses disappearing by hundreds to provide food for the soldiers, the inhab- 10 Pierre du Breuil, the hero of | At the time of the declaration | of war against Germany, he has, like | | itants of the Lorraine town encircled by Prussian troops, and, in conclusion, the heartrending scenes of the capitulation, It will be found that considerable space is devoted to the suspicious con- duct of that remarkable man, Marshal | Bazaine. Zhe Disaster is, indeed, in many respects a character study of the man whose ambition led to his trial for treason, his sentence to death, and, after his escape from Fort Sainte-Marguerite, on August 10, 1874, his death in Spain in obscurity. Unlike M. Zola’s novel, 7he Disaster contains its lesson; it is calculated, de- spite its sadness, to sustain, not to cast down. The author of ‘“‘ La Débicle” gives a picture of war upon a majestic scale after the fashion of a Tolstoi; Paul and Victor Margueritte belong to a younger school of writers, their de- scriptions of battle scenes being more episodic than the novelists already men- | tioned, so that at times the reader is | almost reminded of the work of Stephen | Crane in “ The Red Badge of Courage.” But the Marguerittes have not given us a book wholly devoted to military | matters. The affection of Du Breuil’s | friend Lacoste for his dog Titan and his | horses Musette and Conquérant; the 'hero’s love for Anine, besides many other incidents and characters too nu- merous to mention, serve to add bright- | ness to a picture which might otherwise have been gloomy and monotonous. Sometimes we come across a description almost Stevensonian in its charm, as, for instance, that which puts before the reader the little cavalry soldier Jubault playing on his flute in a stable at dead | of night the air of “ Marlbrough s’en | va t’en guerre,” the melody striking | upon Du Breuil’s ears above the silence | of the Ban Saint-Martin “like an iron- ical and sad streamlet of water.” * * * The Chevalier de Pontgibaud, the hero of A French Volunteer in the War of Independence, “ was one of the gallant little band of Frenchmen who,

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. sick for breathing and exploit, crossed the Atlantic to aid the American colonists to gain their independence. Like most of his companions, he was a mere lad, courageous, adventurous, high-spirited, light-hearted, and cool- headed, but he united to these ordinary attributes of the French gentleman one which his comrades did not possess, or had no opportunity of developing. He seems to have been a shrewd ob- server of men and events, and he had a keen sense of humor. Concerning the author’s life, little need be added to what he tells us, but I am indebted to his great-great- nephew, the Comte de Pontgibaud, for some details which are not to be found in the book. The Chevalier de Pontgibaud married (July 31, 1789) a daughter of Maréchal de Vaux, and the widow of Comte de Fougiéres, maréchal de camp. He was deeply attached to her, and only survived her a few months. She died in 1836, and hein 1837. From the time of his return to France (1814) till his wife’s death he resided at 6 Place Royale, Paris, but afterward removed to the residence of his nephew, Comte de Pontgibaud, 32 Rue des Tournelles, where/he died. He was a genial, kind-hearted man, and. it is related of him that in his later days he never left home without a pocketful of five-franc pieces, one of | which coins he would bestow on each poor person he met. “As I want for nothing myself,” he said, “let me do all I can for poor people who do want.” Indeed, had it not been for his chari- table disposition, he would never in all likelihood have written his book. His cousin, Mme. de Lavau, who was in- terested in many charitable works, said to him one day: “ My dear cousin, you have had such an adventurous career that an account of the principal events of your life would make a most inter- esting book. I would give away the copies as prizes in a lottery, and I warrant we should get a large sum for one of my charities.” The proposal was perhaps hardly flattering to the author, but he was too kind-hearted to refuse, and the book was duly written. The Mémoires du Comte de M (the writer was then known as the Comte de Moré) has become a rare book, and appears to have been unknown to many of the historians and biogra- phers whose writings relate to the War of Independence and the actors con- cerned in it. That the book is rare and rather valuable is due to the “ book- maniacs,” who have snapped up every available copy, not on account of any interest in the book or its author, but because of—the printer! A certain young man had persuaded his relatives to set him up in business as a printer, but in a little over a year he contrived to lose more than 150,000 francs. He threw up the business in disgust, and resolved to make his living by the pen. To prove that he was better fitted to compose with the pen than with the “stick,” it needs but to cite his name— Honoré de Balzac! Evena book which had the honor of proceeding from the novelist’s unprofitable press has ac- quired a fictitious value. Both as the Chevalier de Pontgibaud and the Marquis de Moré, the author had the good sense to keep out of poli- tics, and his name occurs but rarely in memoirs and histories of the day. In Vatel’s Vie de Madame du Barry he is mentioned as being present at a dinner party to which she was invited. ‘The incident is related in the MS. Memoirs of Comte Dufort de Cheverny. “Seeing that the chevalier wore the Order of Cincinnatus, she told us the following story: ‘When I was at Versailles I had the six tallest and _ best-looking footmen that could be found, but the noisiest, laziest rascals that ever lived. The ringleader of them gave me so much trouble that I was obliged to send him away. The war in America was then beginning, and he asked for letters of recommendation.’ ” ll

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Appletons’ Montbly Bulletin. l One of the most interesting literary | events of recent years was the intro- duction of M. Félix Gras to the Eng- lish-speaking world by Messrs. D. Appleton and Company. Zhe Reds of the Mid? was the first book ever trans- lated from the Provencal and pub- lished in English before it appeared in France. Mrs. Janvier’s admirable and sympathetic translation and Mr. Jan- vier’s appreciative introduction con- tributed much to the enjoyment of the many readers who welcomed this new and striking figure in modern literature. Although M. Gras had earned a high reputation in the Midi, where his verses are held in honor, and he himself is the President of the Felibrige, he was wholly unknown to English readers up to the time that Messrs. D, Appleton and Company published Mrs. Janvier's translation of Zhe Reds of the Midz, It is possible now to gratify the many inquirers for another romance by M. Gras with the announcement of the early publication of his new novel called in French La Terreur. Although the story stands by itself, and may be read independently with no loss, certain char- acters of “The Reds” reappear in .1e new book, La Jerreur, of which the French version as well as the English has been copyrighted in the United States by the Messrs. Appleton. Zhe Reds of the Midz, as explained, is com- plete as it is. La Zerreur describes “The Red Terror” in France. The new romance relates the history of the year for which Pascalet was absent, and of some years more. It describes the sufferings and persecution of the hero- ine Adeline as an “aristocrat,” thus furnishing a point of view of the Revo- lution which is the opposite of that presented in The Reds of the Midi. The central motif of the romance, developed with singular sympathy by the author, is the picture of a young girl’s feelings when thrown into the vortex of the French Revolution. The action 12 passes for a time in Paris, and then in Avignon. * * * The great popularity of Mr. F, Schuyler Mathews’s charmingly illus- trated books upon flowers, trees, and roadside life insures a cordial reception for his forthcoming book, Familiar Life of Field and Forest, which de- scribes the animals, reptiles, insects, and birds commonly met with in the country. His book will be found a most convenient and interesting guide to an acquaintance with common wild creatures. * *x * The success of Mr. Edgar S. Ma- clay’s History of the United States Navy has been assured from the first. The book has been conceded to meet the demand for an authoritative history, and no other writer is likely to devote the time and research to the subject which Mr. Maclay gave to his book. Altogether more than twelve years passed between the beginning and com- pletion of a work which involved a vast amount of research in London and Paris as well as in Washington and other American cities. While this standard work has passed safely through the tests of criticism, it has become de- sirable to add various features of our naval history which have presented themselves since publication. Further- more, the large number of letters brought out by the book have con- tained suggestions of value, and it has been possible to note some slight errata. The author therefore has been engaged for some time in the preparation of a revision which will bring his book up to date. In the present period of interest in naval matters this new edition will be peculiarly welcome, since the history occupies a place by itself in our naval literature. The new edition will con- tain the latest presentation of the stand- ing and resources of our navy.

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D. Appleton and Company’s Publications. — A French Volunteer in the War of Independence. By the Chevalier DE PoNTGIBAUD. Translated and edited by Robert B. Douglas. With Introduction and Frontispiece. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. This entertaining book is a distinct addition to the personal side of Revolutionary literature, and it is ——* valuable because of its presentation of American life and of the fathers of the Republic as seen by’a rench visitor. The hero’s stormy youth and his adventurous and varied career give his reminiscences an intimate interest rarely to be foun in historical fiction, while their historical value is obvious. His recoliections include his association with Washington, Hamilton, Burr, and other conspicuous figures. The Story of Life in the Seas. By SYDNEY j. HICKSON. Illustrated. 16mo. Cloth, 40 cents. This is a clear and simple exposition of the salient features of marine life, aided by useful illustrations, The Broom of the War God. A Story of the Recent War between the Greeks and Turks. By HENRY NOEL BRAILSFORD. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25. ‘A book of decidedly unusual quality. It is vivid, strong, realistic, and never sensational. As a picture of real war and as a pitiless portrayal of Greek incompetence it has the fidelity and sharpness of a photograph. Its realism is so genuine that we feel the full pathos of the tragedy."—Brooklyn Eagle. “A story told deliberately and well. . . . The picture presented is vivid and real.”—Philadelphia Inquirer. Eastern Journeys. Some Notes of Travel in Russia, in the Caucasus, and to Jerusalem. By CHARLES A. DANA. 16mo. Cloth, $1.00. No one could have been better equipped for such a journey than the observant, cultured, and much-traveled author, who improved his opportunities to the full. The result is a delightful book of travels, which pictures many unfamiliar phases of life and describes unhackneyed journeys. Bimetallism. A Summary and Examination of the Arguments for and against a Bimetallic System of Cur- rency. By Major LEONARD DARWIN. I2mo. Cloth, $2.50. This is an instructive and candid discussion of bimetallism from the scientific point of view. It is written without passion or prejudice, and is an informing and healthful contribution to the literature of the subject. The author analyzes the results which would follow the free coinage of silver in the United States, and also dis- cusses the consequences of a union upon bimetallism by the United States and the principal countries of Europe. The broad and intelligent presentation of financial questions made in this book invests it with a special! impor- tance and value. Astronomy. By AGNEs M. CLERKE, A. FOWLER, A. R.C.S., and J. ELLARD Gore, M.R.I.A. A new vol- ume in the Concise Knowledge Library Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $2.00. “It has fallen to the editor of the Concise Knowledge Library to plan a book that shall be adequate and also concise, and he has succeeded. The new volume of the Library is an admirable review and history of the sub- ject. Miss Agnes M. Clerke has treated of: it historically ; Mr. A. Fowler describes the practical side of astro- nomical research ; Miss Clerke again deals with the solar system, and Mr. J. Ellard Gore with the sidereal heavens. The book is well written and illustrated, well printed and strongly bound, and is altogether a model of a popular work of reference and instruction.”—/al/ Mall Gazette. The Psychology of Suggestion. A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society. By Boris Sipis, M.A., Ph. D., Associate in Psychology at the Pathological Institute of the New York State Hospitals. With an Introduction by Prof. WILLIAM JAMES, of Harvard University. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75. The book is an original investigation into the nature of suggestion and into the subconscious mechanism of the human mind. The subconscious nature of man’s psychic life is closely examined, and a theory of the con- stitution and activity of the mind is worked out. The theory of the subconscious is used to elucidate many im- portant pathological phenomena of individual and social life. Mental epidemics are traced to their source, and their causes and nature of operation are examined and explained. ‘** A work which handles the subject of hypnotism, double personality, and subconscious seif in an exhaustive and scientific but none the less popular style.”—New York Herald. Natural History. By R. LypeKker, F.R.S., and Others. The first volume in the Concise Knowledge Library. With 500 Illustrations. 8vo. Half binding, $2.00. **Compact and comprehensive."—Zondon Jilustrated News. “Can be heartily commended.”—Brooklyn Eagle.

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D. Appleton and Company’s Publications. th | A Voyage of Consolation. By Mrs. E. C. Cotes (Sara Jeannette Duncan), author of “ A Social Departure,” “ An American Girl in London,” “ His Honour, and a Lady,” etc. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50, ‘« Any one who has met the touring American will appreciate his picture as painted by Mrs. Cotes, He is amusing, seldom uninteresting.” —Chicago /ribune. ‘‘ Humorous incidents and conversations abound, rendering the perusal of the book a pleasant pastime,” New York Times. ~ Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology. By E. P. Evans, author of “Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture,” etc. r2amo’ Cloth, $1.75. } * ‘* The title does scarcely more than hint at the extremely attractive character of the contents. These are the farthest remove possible from dry, and are often amusing.” —ew York Sun. The Story of Electricity. By JoHN Muwro, author of “ Electricity and its Uses,” “ Pioneers of Electricity,” etc. New edition, with a chapter on “ Wireless Telegraphy.” Library of Useful Stories. 16mo, Cloth, 40 cents. 4 ‘‘ The book is an excellent one, crammed full of facts, and deserves a place not alone on the desk of the student but on the workbench of the practical electrician.”"—New York Times. Points in Minor Tactics. | Compiled and arranged in an elementary manner for the Infantry of the National Guard of the United States. By Captain CHARLes A. SMYLIE, Twelfth Infantry N.G.N.Y. With Illustra. tions. Cloth, $1.00. ‘The volume is the first of its kind to cover the entire field, and should take its place as a standard text- book.” —New York Sun. ‘* A work that every member of the National Guard should possess.”—Army and Navy Fournal, NEW EDITIONS. The Translation of a Savage. By GILBERT PARKER, author of “ The Seats of the Mighty,” “ The Trail of the Sword,” “ The Trespassers,” etc. New uniform edition, enlarged. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25. ‘« Interest, pith, force, and charm. Mr. Parker’s story possesses all these qualities. . . . Almost bare of synthetical decoration, his paragraphs are stirring because they are real. We read at times—as we have read the great masters of romance—breathlessly.”— 7he Critic. Evolution and Effort, And their Relation to Religion and Science. By EpMoNnD KELLY, M.A., F.G.S. With new Preface, treating of recent political events in New York. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25. ** A book which deals in a large and independent way with religion and politics, and which, if it is as care- fully read as it should be, is calculated to give both religious and political students abundant food for thought.” —New York Mail and Express. The God in the Car. « By ANTHONY Hope. New edition, uniform with “ The Chronicles of Count Antonio.” 12mo. Cloth, $1.25. 4 ms recent interview Mr. Hope expressed his personal preference for ‘‘ The God in the Car” among all his *** The God in the Car’ is just as clever, just as distinguished in style, just as full of wit, and of what 4 nowadays some persons like better than wit—allusiveness—as any of his stories. It is saturated with the modern + atmosphere ; it is not only a very clever but a very strong story—in some respects, we think, the strongest Mr. Hope has written.”—Zondon Speaker. . a REVISED TO DATE—THE GREAT WORK ON CHEMISTRY. Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s Chemistry. (The Inorganic Division.) Every teacher of chemistry knows the great work of Roscoe and Schorlemmer as the leading treatise on this science in the English language. But important advances in this science have been made since the first edition was issued, and the surviving author, Sir H. E. Roscoe, has re- cently been able to bring the inorganic division of the work, Volumes I and II, up to date. Volume I, Non-METALLIC ELEMENTS, has been increased by 120 pages. $5.00. Volume IT, METALS, formerly in two parts, now appears fully revised to date. $5.00. 14

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Portrait Copyrighted by Rockwood, 1897. THE GREAT WARNER LIBRARY COMPLETED. The Special Introductory Club Price to be Advanced. “THE completion of the remarkable Library of the World’s Best Literature is accomplished. It is indeed the literary event of the present gen- eration. All that remains now, in order that com- plete sets can be delivered to the thousands of people who have taken advantage of the introduc- tory price as offered by Harper’s Weekly Club, is the printing of the last volume. When this volume comes from the press, as it undoubtedly will some time during the present month, the special price and easy payments that are just now offered by Harper's Weekly Club will be withdrawn, and the regular subscription canvas at full prices will be inaugurated. We have no hesitation in advising our readers to take advantage of the present opportunity, as we believe the Warner Library is a work of such extraordinary character that sooner or later it will find its way into every home of culture and refinement. That such a marvelous survey of the literature of the world, with exposition and criticism of the foremost living men of letters, can be had for a sum less than the cost of the simplest collection of single volumes, makes this a Library which, from the standpoint of economy alone, no lover of books can afford to be without. A postal card sent to Harper’s Weekly Club, gt Fifth Avenue, New York, will secure full particu- lars regarding the favorable terms upon which it is being offered (during publication) to Club mem- bers, and which will positively be withdrawn as soon as the last volume comes from the press. In calling the attention of our readers to this passing opportunity we believe we are doing them a special favor. 15

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1898. FIFTY-FOURTH. YEAR. Eclectic Magazine Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. “THE LITERATURE OF THE WORLD.” HE ECLECTIC MAGAZINE reproduces from all the leading FoREIGN PERIODICALS those articles of interest or value to AMERICAN READERS. It will endeavor to consult the taste of all thoughtful and intelligent people, and to present impartially the most valuable articles by the ablest writers on both sides of the great questions of the day which are occupying the attention of the literary and scientific world. ‘The yearly numbers of the ECLECTIC comprise 1728 pages—a carefully selected Library in itself—containing : SCIENCE, REVIEWS, HISTORY, ESSAYS, POETRY, CRITICISMS, PHILOSOPHY, TRAVELS, BIOGRAPHY, SHORT STORIES. The following list gives the principal periodicals selected from, and the names of some of the well-known authors whose articles have recently appeared in the ECLECTIC: PERIODICALS. Westminster Review, tere org! Réview, Fortnightly Review, The Nineteenth Century, Popular Science Review, Blackwood’s Magazine, Cornhill Magazine, Macmillan’s Magazine, New Review, National Review, Chambers's Journal, Temple Bar, The Athenzum, Public Opinion, Saturday Review. The Spectator, etc., etc. The aim of the EcLectic is to AUTHORS. Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone, Andrew Lang, Prof. Max Muller, J. Norman Lockyer, F. R.S., ames Bryce, M. P., illiam Black, W. H. Mallock, Herbert Spencer, T. P. Mahaffy, | Sir Robert Ball, Prince Kropotkin, Archdeacon Farrar, St. George Mivart, Rev. H. R. Haweis, Frederic Harrison, Karl Blind, etc., etc. be instructive and not sensational, and it commends itself particularly to Teachers, Scholars, Lawyers, Clergymen, and all intelligent readers who desire to keep informed of the intellectual progress of the age. With the EcLectic and one good American Monthly, the reader will be fully abreast of the times. TERMS: Single copies, 45 cents; one copy one year, $5.00. Trial subscription for three months, $1.00. The EcLectic and any $4.00 Magazine to one address, $8.00. Special rates made to clubs of two or more periodicals which include the ECLECTIC. E. R. PELTON, Publisher, 129 Fifth Ave., New York. 16

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TEACHERS WANTED! UNION TEACHERS’ AGENCIES OF AMERICA. Rev. L. D. BASS, D.D., Manager. Pittsburg, Pa., Toronto, Can., New Orleans, La., New York, N. Y., Washington, D. C., San Francisco, Cal., Chicago, Ill., St. Louis, Mo., and Denver, Colorado. There are thousands of positions to be filled during the school term, caused by resignation, death, etc. We had over 8,oco vacancies during the past season. Unqualified facilities for placing teachers in every part of the U.S. and Canada, as over 95 per cent of those who registered before August secured positions. One fee registers in 9 offices. Address all Applications to Pittsburg, Pa. Thomas P. Simpson, Washington, D. C. PATENTS No attorney's fee until patent obtained. emmmmmmmmme WRITE FOR INVENTORS’ GUIDE. Bicycle, and Photo. Novelties, ELECTRIC AL low prices, 100 page cat FREE M. BE. 8. CO., 82 Cortlandt 8t.,5.¥ PIONEERS OF EVOLUTION, FROM THALES TO HUXLEY. By EDWARD CLODD, President of the Folklore Society, author of ‘‘ The Story of ‘ Primitive’ Man,” ete. 1z2mo. Cloth, $1.50. HIS book attempts to tell the story of the origin of the Evolution idea in the works of the ancient philoso- 7 phers and its elaboration by Lucretius; its eclipse during the middle ages under the supremacy of ecclesi- astical dogmas ; and its renascence about A. D. 1600, under the influence of discovery and Lord Bacon's philosophy. It then shows how new conceptions of the earth’s history were suggested by the study of Geology, and of the history of life by Biology. It narrates the building up of the doctrine of Evolution by Spencer—who formulated the theory as a whole the year preceding the publication of the Origin of Species—Darwin and Hux- ley. Reviewing the present condition of the question as to man and, mind, it finally points out how the ‘ Pio- neers of Evolution” have led us ‘‘ by ways undreamed of at the start to a goal undreamed of by the earliest of them.” Pioneers of Science in America. Sketches.of their Lives and Scientific Work. M.D. With Portraits. 8vo. Cloth, $4.00. Edited and revised by WILLIAM JAY YOuMANS, y ; Impelled solely by an enthusiastic love of Nature, and neither asking nor receiving outside aid, these early workers opened the way and initiated the movement through which American science has reached its present commanding position. This book gives some account of these men, their early struggles, their scientific labors, and, whenever possible, something of their personal characteristics. This information, often very difficult to obtain, has been collected from a great variety of sources, with the utmost care to secure accuracy. It is pre- sented in a series of sketches, some fifty in all, each, with a single exception, accompanied with a well-authenti- cated portrait. ‘* Fills a place that needed filling, and is likely to be widely read.”—New York Sun. “It is certainly a useful and convenient volume. . . . In general, it seems to us specially to be com- mended for setting in just historical perspective many of the earlier scientists who are neither very generally nor very well known.”—New York Evening Post. ‘* A wonderfully interesting volume. Many a young man will find it fascinating. The compilation of the book is a work well done, well worth the doing.”— Philadelphia Press. ‘*One of the most valuable books which we have : received.” —Boston Advertiser. ** A valuable handbook for those whose work runs on these same lines, and is likely to prove of lasting in- terest to those for whom ‘/es documents humain* are second only to history in importance—nay, are a vital part of history.”—Boston Transcrift. ‘*One of the most valuable contributions to Ameri- can literature recently made. . . . The pleasing style in which these sketches are written, the plans taken to secure accuracy, and the information conveyed, com- bine to give them great value and interest. No better or more inspiring reading could be placed in the hands of an intelligent and aspiring young man.”—New York Christian Work. ‘It is difficult to imagine a reader of ordinary in- telligence who would not be entertained by the book. . . . Conciseness, exactness, urbanity of tone, and interestingness are the four qualities which chiefly im- press the reader of these sketches.”—Auffalo Express. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

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Aca ' S \ WE ANG ” ~ \ aed > Nj ‘ v VY / CRESS A well-known notary public of Philadelphia says of Ripans Tabules: ‘‘I have been using them for about two months at a rate of two per day and find them so very effective that I should not dream of being without them even for a day. Had been troubled with indigestion for over four years to such an extent that I was compelled to eat very sparingly at all times. I now partake of all kinds of food indiscriminately and immediately thereafter swallow a Tabule. Have given a number of Tabules to friends troubled as I was and have heard nothing but praise for them in consequence. Will say, finally, that I have an aunt who has been a dyspeptic for fifteen years. Of late she had been unable to eat even the smallest kind of a meal with any degree of comfort. She had tried numberless remedies (some of which I had procured for her) without obtaining relief. Sleepless nights and miserable days were all she had to look forward to. Ripans Tabules made a new woman of her (not a bloomer girl or woman’s rights advocate, but in a physical sense), She never tires of thanking Dr. Sam (as she now dubs me) for her present relief from distress and her ability to sleep.” Anew style packet con TEN RIPANS TABULES in a paper carton (without glass) is now for sale at some stores—Fo ‘priced sort is intended for the poor and the economical, One dozer R FIVE CENTS. ri of the five-cent cartons (120 tabules) canbe had by mail by sending forty-eight cents to the Riranws CHEMIOAL CompParr, No. 10 Spruce Street, New York—or g alngle carton (TEN TABULES) Will be sent for five cents.

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REVISED TO DATE. THE GREAT WORK ON CHEMISTRY. ROSCOE AND SCHORLEMMER’S CHEMISTRY. (The Inorganic Division.) Thg~etd teacher of chemistry knows the great work of Roscoe and SCHORLEMMER as the leading general treatise on this science in the English language. The student can choose no better founda- tion for his library than a set of ‘‘Roscoe.” Immediately on the appearance of the first volume it took this position, and after the lapse of nineteen years still holds it. But important advances in this science have been made since the first edition was issued, and the surviving author, Sir H. E. Roscoe, has recently been able to bring the Inorganic division of the work, Volumes | and II, up to date. Volume I—Non-MeTALLIC ELEMENTS—has been increased by 120 pages. Among the more important changes in this volume are the transfer to it from Volume II of the sections on the liquefaction of gases, in which the latest results obtained by the methods of MM. Cailletet and Pictet are given. A new discussion on the heat of com- bination, in accord with the current views of thermo-chemistry, has replaced the pages on heat of combustion. Other additions deal with the methods of determining molecular weights, with Moissan’s isola- tion of fluorine and his work on its compounds, with the discoveries of Curtius concerning ammonium, etc. C@ompounds unknown when the first edition was published are described under every element. Volume II—Metats—formerly in two parts, now appears fully revised to date. During the nineteen years which have elapsed since the publica- tion of the first edition of this volume of the treatise much important work on the Chemistry and the Metals and their Compounds has been done—so much, indeed, that a completely new edition has been prepared, in which the Metallic Elements and their Compounds have been rearranged and all new matter of importance added. Every reference library should have the new edition. Inorganic ‘Division (revised). | Organic Division (1882-1892). Vol. 1, Non-Metallic Elements - $5 oo | Vol. Ill, Part Il- - - - $5 00 ** Il, Metals (1897) -- ~ - 500 ‘* 1, Part li - “ - - ££ | ** TI, Part IV - - - - 300 Organic Division (1882-1892). | * IIL, Part V - 7 ‘i - 300 Vol. Ill, Part! - - - - 500 ‘* Ill, Part VI - - - - 300 8vo. Cloth, fully illustrated. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, New York, Boston, Chicago. 20

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AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS. WiItH APPENDICES ON ABSOLUTE ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT, ETC. By Dr. F. KoHLRAUSCH. Third edition. Translated from the seventh German edition by Tuomas HutcHinson WALLER, B. A., B. Sc., and Henry RICHARD- sON Procter, F. I. C., F. C. S. Contains xix + 476 pages, 8vo, Sixty-one Tables, and Ninety-one Diagrams. Price, Cloth, $4.00. Changes in the enlarged edition. Dine present edition is translated from the seventh German edition, published in 1892, in the preface to which Dr. Kohlrausch explains that the scope of the work has been somewhat enlarged, so as to include not only the necessary practice for students, but also to some extent explanations and directions referring more definitely to investi- gations and research. This widening of aim has naturally produced a considerable increase of matter, and the present edition contains nearly four times the number of pages that the first (German) one did in 1869. From the same cause the bibliography has heen considerably ex- tended, regard being always had, as the author is careful to state, to the accessibility and serviceable character of the reference, without any expression of judgment as to priority. Dr. Kohlrausch has also obtained for special sections of the work the collaboration of distin- guished specialists, among whom we may mention Pfaundler, Dorn, Hallwachs, Neumayer, and W. Kohlrausch. A good deal of new matter has been embodied in the tables, which have also been cor- / rected to the present state of knowledge. For the sake of facilitating the use of this edition where the former ones have been employed, the arrangement and numbering of the sec- tions have been as nearly as possible retained. Some notes, appen- dices, and tables, signed ‘‘Tr.,” have been added. by the translators, for which they alone are responsible. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, New York, Boston, Chicago. 21

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ne eS THE SANITARIAN A MONTHLY MAGAZINE, Established in 1873. “THE SANITARIAN for June, 1892, contains a life-sketch of its venerable and distinguished editor, Dr. A. N. Bell, and several contributions upon ‘The triumphs of preventive medicine,’ in the interest of which Dr. Bell has labored so long and so successfully. * * * No one has been so long, so patient and so persistent in awakening public attention to an interest in this cause. No one has filled so many positions demanding skill in practical work. No one has been more successful in practical work under great difficulties. The writer of the article is Dr. Stephen Smith, the eminent surgeon and author.”— Tennessee State Board of Health Bulletin. Based at the outset upon medical knowledge and sanitary service, over an extensive field of observation in various climates in different quarters of the world, large experience in dealing with epidemic diseases, and practical sanita- tion for the maintenance of health under the most trying circumstances: **The Sanitarian is ’’— AS OTHERS SEE IT— **The American authority for everything appertaining to the healthful con- dition of the people at large. The contributions are from medical men whose writings are accepted as authority,” (Virginia Chronicle); ‘The best sanitary publication in America,” (Mississippi Valley Medical Monthly); ‘‘ Easily main- tains its superiority over all similar publications,” (Medical World); “Has accomplished more good than all of the other sanitary papers put together,” (Hydraulic and Sanitary Plumber); ‘‘The value of a good sanitary publication can hardly be estimated. The superior of THE SANITARIAN we have never seen,” (The Free Methodist); ‘‘ The editor, Dr. A. N. Bell, is well known to the mercantile community for his co-operation with the merchants in quarantine reform, and to his profession as a leader in sanitary science,” (N. Y. Journal of Commerce). “*Tue SANITARIAN has been the exponent of the most progressive science of hygiene for more than twenty years,” (The Living Church). Two volumes yearly. The volumes begin January and July; subscription at any time. ; TERMS: $4.00 a year, in advance; 35 cents a number. Sampie Copres, 20 cents—ten two-cent Postage Stamps. #@- All correspondence and exchanges with THE SaNiTARIAN, and all publi- cations for review, should be addressed to the Editor, Dr. A. N. BELL, 337 Clinton St., Brooklyn, N. Y.

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n ie } [Literatures of the World. EpitEp By EDMUND GOSSE, Hon. M. A. of Trinity College. Uniform edition, Each, 12mo, cloth, $1.50. NOW READY: Modern English Literature. By the Ep1TorR. « Probably no living man is more competent than Mr. Gosse to Ao qupulat and yet scholarly history of English litera- ture. The greater part of his life has been given up to the study and criticism of English literature of the past, and he has a learned and balanced enthusiasm for every writer who has written excellently in English.”"—London Saturday Keview. French Literature. By Epwarp Downey, D. Litt., LL. D., D.C. L., Professor of English Literature m the Uni- versity of Dublin. *‘ Certainly the best history of French literature in the Eng- lish language.” —London Athenaeum. “This is a history of literature as histories of literature should be written. . . . This book can be read with pleasure even by those for whom a history has in itself little attrac- tion.”"—London Saturday Review. Ancient Greek Literature. By GiLpert Murray, M. A., Professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow. **A book which fairly represents the best conclusions of modern scholarship with regard to the Greeks.” —London Times. **Mr. Murray's style is lucid and spirited, and, besides the fund of information, he imparts to the subject such fresh and vivid interest that students will find in these pages a new impulse for more profound and exhaustive study of this greatest and most immortal of all the world’s literatures.” —/Ailadelphia Public Ledger. IN PREPARATION: AMERICAN. By Prof. Moses Coir TYLER, Cornell University. ITALIAN. By RicHarpD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D., Keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. GERMAN. By Dr. C. H. HERFoRD, Professor of English Literature in the University of Wales. HUNGARIAN. By Dr. ZoLTAN Bedruy, Pro- fessor of Hungarian Literature at the University of Budapest. LATIN. By Dr. ARTHUR WOOLGAR VERRALL, Fellow and Senior Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. JAPANESE. By W.G. Aston, C. M.G., M.A., late Acting Secretary at the British Legation at Tokio. MODERN SCANDINAVIAN. By Dr. GEorG BRANDES, of Copenhagen. SPANISH. By J. Fitz Maurice-KeLiy, Mem- ber of the Spanish Academy. SANSCRIT. By A. A. MACDONELL, M. A., Deputy Boden Professor of Sanscrit at the Uni- versity of Oxford. For sale by all booksellers ; or will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers, D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York. alnut Lodge HOSPITAL, HARTFORD, CONN. Organized in 1880 Alcohol for the and special Medical Opium Treatment of P Inebriates. LEGANTLY situated in the suburbs of the city, with 4 every eqpeintnent and appliance for the treatment of this class of cases, including Turkish, Russian, Roman, Saline, and Medicated Baths. Each case comes under the direct personal care of the physician. Experience shows that a large proportion of these cases are curable, and all are benefited from the application of exact hygienic and scientific measures. This institution is founded on the well-recognized fact that Jnebriety is a disease and curable, and all these cases require rest, change of thought and living, etc. At Murray Hill Hotel, New York city, the second Tues- day of each month, from 12 to 4 Pp. m. Applications and all inquiries should be addressed T. D., CROTHERS, M.D., Sup’t Walnut Lodge, Hartford, Conn. Tae Y Ale Review A QUARTERLY JOURNAL For the Scientific Discussion of Economic, Political, and Social Questions. Boston Herald. ‘* A periodical full of vigorous and strong articles.” Episcopal Recorder. ‘* This substantial Review is conducted with great ability, and meets a special need in the literary world.” EvVITORIAL BOARD: HenrY W. FARNAM, ARTHUR T. HADLEY, W. F. BLAckmAN, E. G. Bourne, JOHN C. SCHWAB, ano IRVING FISHER, Professors in Yale University. Yearly subscription - - - - $3.00 Single number- - - - - - - -75 ISSUED on THE FirreentH Days oF Fesruary, May, Auaust, Novemeen. Five volumes of THE YALE REVIEW are now com- pleted. They will be sent to new subscribers at the reduced price of $1.00 per volume, unbound. A speci- men copy will be sent free. TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, Publishers, NEW HAVEN, CONN. 23

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BOOKS PUBLISHED DURING 1897 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, STANDARD AND MISCELLANEOUS. Our Juvenile Offenders,.......ccccccccscccrcecccsecccecccseces The Beginnings Of Art. ........cceceeeececeereeeenenerereeeeees Some Masters of Lithography..............sseeeeeeeeee:: -| kn nn bude enessdeeeeneeeesenstenten Bird-Life. (Colored edition), .........ceeccceceeeeeceeeeeeseees In Joyful Russia..........ccecccecccecsrces pausdavsewteentevens Appletone’ Annual Cyclopedia, 1896. (Vol. XXI).........+-+-- | Dynamic Sociology. (2 vols.) (New edition)............+++0++ Beauty and Art .......cccecccccerss-cecerscscccccccocscesertes The Outgoing Tark.......cccccccccesccscccccccccccscvcccccesecs Women and the Republic...........cccccccce-ssseecccnsevecees aie dn ccingasssSuenr Subse ensdedecestoterereccoseees Drill Regulations for Cavalry. (New edition)...........-...+6+ Some Unrecognized Laws of Nature ..........cc0.seseeeeeeeees Familiar Features of the Roadside. .............00s-seeeeeeeecs Bes GE Papeeeee UMN, TW. B.D... ccccicccccccssccccsccocces I 5 ci deencbeccdbccsnsdweseanecoedes French Stumbling-Blocks and English Stepping Stones ........ ET ng cungcgededosceseesesnssiestseniccesces TN bitin sts cet neieaabnneheneeessenessedseeeedes Teachers’ Handbook of Psychology. (New edition)............ EE: Se Ee City Government in the United States. (New edition) ......... Marriage Customs in Many Lands...............00..eeeeeeeeees Punctuation PSEC PCT OCEOCOOC OOOO O OES eT eee eee eee INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. School Management and School Methods ...................05: Froebel’s Educational Laws for all Teachers... ................- Oe SEE cecccccdsbosonbocestcceesees: cosccce LIBRARY OF USEFUL STORIES. Story of Extinct Civilizations in the East...................06. ee ee I SID, oc ccccccncececescedcscceseooce Story of Germ Life Pore r er eee eC ECCT Ce See CSCC CCT eee eee) APPLETONS’ HOME-READING BOOKS. es on J cca saathabenseneseneessses The Story of Oliver Twist on sc catiincenpesseesescenereeoteness | Curious Homes and their Tenants The Hall of Shells Tee EEOC CC OCOCO COC OCOC COSCO CO OE. eee ee Pee ee CeCe eee ee Cee eee ee ee ee ee eee eee ee eee POC COPECO CCOOOCOCOOCCCCOCCOOC OCC Cee ee eee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee) eee ee eee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee ee ee eee ee (Second edition) | Sight. IL pulse The Scientific Aspects of Christian Evidences Memory and its Cultivation MEDICAL. | Diseases of Infancy and Childhood I. Li, sb bp egssbawadesésessocececoscoue a Reference Book of Therapentics. ie ean te een nd aadenedoeokonesecess NL «vice esaebesstacessechousatecee Diseases of the Skin. (Third edition)................0ceeeeeees } | | | | | | | | | | | AUTHOR. SIZE cade cindlatengetaianaaineaiansiaiaessin | | | | w. Douglas Morrison.,......| 1zmo | Se GI. «case seconcene 12mo Atherton Curtis ............. | 4to | Frank M. Chapman,........ 12mo | Frank M. Chapman,, ...... 8vo John A. Logan, dr.......... iSm. 8vo cee reeeererrecccesesesesesese SvO Pt, CED oskedsedsesue 12mo | Aldam Heaton,............. 12mo | H.C, Thomson,............. | 8vo | Helen Kendrick Johneon,...| 12mo | John H. Comstotk.......... 12mo PPTTTTTITITITITIT TTT TTT | 16mo Behrens and Singer... ...... | 12mo F. Schuyler Mathews........ 12mo Lieutenant Edward L. Butts.| 12mo ie BEE cocosccccccncccrscs 12mo ee 12mo R. Lydekker and Others.....) 12mo Fem BENG. ccc cccsccccecess | 12mo | GUD Bcc cccntcccsccess .| 12mo Be, Be SD cccscccessccs 12mo BT CT cccsctcsscsecs 12mo Rev. H. N. Hutchinson. .... .| 8vo F. Horace Teal] ............. 16mo Joseph Baldwin............. 12mo James L. Hughes,........... 12mo WEE ©. MOOR. occcccceccces 12mo Robert E. Anderson,....... .| 16mo Douglas Archibald......... .| 16mo Ses We We eceseusesenes +08 16mo Be SRR “16mo | Ella Boyce Kirk............. | 16mo Clare Tl. BATS. ccc ccecsces | 16mo | James Carter Beard ......... | 16mo BE Die Ge ME ccccccccsess 16mo Oscar P. Austin............ 16mo | N. L. Helm and F. W. Parker| 16mo ly Mite, SEs cccuesseneeues 16mo | | ere | 12mo EE 6 ctknccesesees 12mo Joseph Le Conte ........... 12m0 a cnnadnnesscsesans 8vo , 5S eee 12mo | | F. W. Edridge-Green........ 12mo L. Emmett Holt, M. D.. 8vo BG ie Peiinccescsecees* 8vo William Osler, M.D......... 12mo Edited by F. P. Foster, M.D.| 8vo Andrew F. Currier, M.D....| 12mo WW, ©. TOE, BE. Bcc cvcee &vo J. V. Shoemaker, M.D...... &vo Dr. H. Tillmanns. .........+- &vo EUGENE GE UNIT, =CVGE. TD. cccccesccccvcecsccscsesces 24 ———— BINDING, |PRICE Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Leather Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth loth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth Cloth $1 50 ees RSASRSSS

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ees RSUSKRSSR Books published during 1897 by D. Appleton and Company.—(Continued.) —_ Aurion. “etx. | Binptwa.| PRICE ——EE —_—_—_—_——_ | — a - HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. | Cc dence of Hans von Billow...........+-++++ | Edited by his Widow........| _8vo Cloth | $4 50 The Barly vite of Captain Sir Richard F. Burton ............... Georgiana M. Stisted........) 12mo a 2 4 Memoirs of Marshal Oudinot..........00+s+ceceecsrreeeseeeeees — i ehtssteceses ‘Sm. 8vo) eee ; ” History of Ancient Greek Literature ,,........++.sseeeeeeeeeeee G eee eovccccccccecs 12mo | weg He History of French Literature. .........sceeseeeeeeseeeesecseeees es . IWGET......scceeees 12mo Chath 1 Mistery Modern English Literature............++++eeeeeeeees | ae Rargonnsesseees Sus = ; = General Grant....... st eeeeeee sees: se tneeeeneesseeeesteeeeeeees na a P Be — oceed ~ cua : Cyprian : His Life, his Times, his Work..........+.++sseeeeees tev. Edward F. 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THE SHIELD OF A GREAT NAME PROTECTS THE RIDERS OF Remington Bicycles, eae Remington Special Light Roadster, $75.00 gMING7, With Frost Gear Case ...... 80.00 RY oer SPECIAL Remington Light Roadster .... 50.00 11 OSs Have you seen the Remzngton Special Chain ? It reduces friction 25 per cent and can not stretch. Write for Illustrated 1898 Catalogue. REMINGTON ARMS COMPANY, ILION, N. Y. TWO IMPORTANT NEW BOOKS. The Psychology of Evolutional Ethics and Suggestion. Animal Psychology. A Research into the Subconscious Nature of By E. P. Evans, author of “ Animal Symbol- Man and Society. By Boris Sipts, M. A., ism in Ecclesiastical Architecture,” etc. Ph. D., Associate in Psychology at the 12mo. Cloth, $1.75 Pathological Institute of the New York State Hospitals With an Introduction This book explains the evolution of ethics, or the growth of rules of conduct in primitive human so- by Prof. WILLIAM JAMEs, of Harvard Uni- cieties, particularly witn reference to man’s ideas versity. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75. regarding the lower animals and his treatment of them. The first part, on Evolutional Ethics, dis- The book is an original investigation into the cusses that conduct of tribal society, the influence nature of suggestion and into the subconscious of religious belief on it in the course of evolution, mechanism of the human mind. The subcon- and man’s ethical relations to the animals, closing scious nature of man’s psychic life is closely ex- with a chapter on the doctrine of Metempsychosis. amined, and a theory of the constitution and The second part, on Animal Psychology, treats of activity of the mind is worked out. The theory manifestations of mind in the brute as compared of the subconscious is used to elucidate many with those in man, the possibility of progress in the important pathological phenomena of individual lower animals, their powers of ideation, and speech and social life. Mental epidemics are traced to as a barrier between man and beast. On the sci- their source, and their causes and nature of opera- entific foundation which he thus aims to construct tion are examined and explained. the author bases a claim for the recognition of the rights of animals, which he regards as subordinate “A fascinating study. . . . It handles the subjects ot : - i hypnotism, double personality, and the a te self in only to the rights of our fellow-men. : — 1" an exhaustive and scientific but none the less popular spiced with interesting anecdote, and is exceedingly style.”"—New York Herald. readable. For sale by all booksellers ; or will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers, D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72/Fifth Avenue, New York.

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90 90 20 sl. SP SRP ae n, 1g of he ch -j- ct te ly D, APPLETON AND COMPANY’S NEW BOOKS. A Voyage of Consolation. By Mrs. E. T. COTES (Sara Jeannette Duncan), author of “A Social Departure,” “An American Girl in London,” “ His Honour, and a Lady,” etc. Illustrated. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. Mrs. Cotes returns to the field which she devel- oped with such success in ‘‘A Social Departure” and ‘‘An American Girl in London.” Some charac- ters which delighted thousands of readers reappear in this new book, and their entertaining experiences on the Continent are set forth with unfailing good spirits and an apt appreciation of the ——- and humorous features of European travel. he text is admirably supplemented by vivacious illus- trations. The Disaster. A Romance of the Franco-Prussian War. By Pau and VICTOR MARGUERITTE. I2mo. Cloth. Like Zola’s La Débdcle, with which it naturally challenges comparison, Le Désastre has for its theme the Franco-Prussian War. The authors have the advantage of being well equipped for writing of army scenes, being descendants of a line of soldiers; their father was the cavalry general, Auguste Margueritte, who fell at the battle of Sedan ; and the youngest son, Victor, was himself an officer in the French army, but recently aban- doned the military career in order to associate him- self with his brother in literary work. APPLETONS’ HOME-READING BOOKS. Two New Volumes. Uncle Robert’s Visit. The Third Volume in Uncle Robert's Geogra- phies. By FRANcis W. PARKER. _ Iilus- trated. 12mo. Cloth, 50 cents met. These books of Colonel Par‘er, if read by the school children, and especially by the older youth who have left school, will suggest a great variety of ways in which real mental! growth andi increase of practical power may be obtained. The reading, so far as possible, should be accompanied by per- sonal observation, investigation, and experiment. Harold’s First Discoveries. The first volume in Nature-Study Readers. By J. W. TRoEGER. Cloth, 30 cents me?, I2mo, The first of a progressive and graded series of books for the study of natural objects that present themselves to children in their ordinary surround- ings and occupations, and that are generally within their reach. For sale by all booksellers ; or will be sent by mail receipt of price by the publishers, . “4 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 72 FirTH AveNuE, NEw York. 34" Annual Statement OF THE TRAVELERS INSURANCE COMPANY. Chartered 1863. (Stock.) Life and Accident Insurance. JAMES G. BATTERSON, President. Hartford, Conn., January 1, 1898. Paid-up Capital, $1,000,000. ASSETS. Pre Se . $1,994,465 31 Cash on hand and in Bank. . . « 1,855,412 83 Loans on bond and mortgage, real estate 5,906,610 72 Interest accrued but not due - 227,730 38 Loans on collateral security . : 945,400 94 Loans on this Company’s Policies 1,106,580 51 Deferred Life Premiums . 5 « ot ee ae Premiums due and unreported on Life Policies . ‘ cen 228,448 75 United States Bonds 14,000 00 State, county, and municipal bonds . Railroad stocks and bonds . Damk eteemB . . «sc Other stocks and bonds . 8,612,646 78 4,664,205 75 1,064,047 00 - « 1,449,455 00 Total Assets . $22,868,994 16 LIABILITIES. Reserve, 4 per cent, Life Department . $16,650,062 00 | Reserve for Reinsurance, Accident De- partment. ‘ee ee eee | Present value Installment Life Policies | Reserve for Claims resisted for Em- ML 6:0. « 2 9 6° 8 # % Losses unadjusted. . . 1,865,817 22 426,288 00 299.066 30 269,794 94 Life Premiums paid in advance . ‘ 25,330 58 Special Reserve for unpaid taxes, rents, ete. . oS oe coe a @ Ree 110,000 00 Total Liabilities Excess Security to Policy-holders $3,722,635 12 1 | | Surplus to Stockholders . $2,722,635 12 STATISTICS TO DATE. Lire DEPARTMENT. Life Insurance in force . $91,882,210 00 New Life Insurance writtenin1897 14,507,249 00 Insurance issued under the An- nuity Plan is entered at the commuted value thereof as required by law. Returned to Policy-holders in St ie We ke 1,235,585 39 Returned to Policy-holders since 1864 — ‘ : 13,150,350 57 AccipENtT DEPARTMENT. Number Accident Claims paid in BO «..s.> 6, scee & ec 15,611 00 Wholenumber Accident Claims paid 307,990 00 Returned to Policy-holders in 1897 1,381,906 81 Returned to Policy-holders since 1864 . 21,210,095 96 Returned to Policy-holders in 1897 $2,617,492 20 Returned to Policy-holders since 1864... . «ss + 1 94,960,626 5S GEORGE ELLIS, Secretary. JOHN E. MORRIS, Ass’t Secretary. EDWARD VY. PRESTON, Sup't of Agencies. J. B. LEWIS, M.D., Surgeon and Adjuster, SYLVESTER C. DUNHAM, Counsel. 27

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