Appleton's Popular Science Monthly 1896-10: Vol 49

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APPLETON 8’ POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. OCTOBER, 1896. THE METRIC SYSTEM. By Pror. T. C. MENDENHALL, PRESIDENT WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. | i the June number of this Journal there appeared a paper on the Metric System, by Herbert Spencer. It was originally published as a series of anonymous letters in the London Times, in the course of a discussion growing out of proposed legislation by the English Parliament. They aroused little interest among metrologists, except as examples of “curious and interesting reading,” until their authorship was acknowledged by Spencer. No little astonishment was created by this announcement, and as a matter of fact, owing to the extraordinary character of the letters and the great fame and reputation of Mr. Spencer, the statement was not at first credited by many. Indeed, messages were sent to London, inquiring, “ Who is this Herbert Spencer who is writing about the metric system?” These things are worth mentioning, to show the surprise everywhere manifested, not on account of the fact that Mr. Spencer was opposed to the adoption of the suggested reform in weights and measures, but rather at the singular arguments which he advanced in defense of his position. Without a single exception they had all been traversed more than a quarter of a century ago; their inherent weakness and entire lack of philosophic consistency had long ago been pointed out; and it is perfectly safe to say that, with possibly one exception, they are such as no one familiar with the progress of metrology during the past quarter of a century would think of offering at the present time, however strongly opposed to the metre and its derivatives he might be. The great influence which everywhere and always goes with the name of the distinguished VOL, XLIx.—56

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722 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. author of these letters, and this alone, compels those who are advocates of metrological reform to offer some reply to the propo- sitions which he has advanced, and a brief analysis of them will now be undertaken, with the hope of showing that they are either fallacious or utterly inapplicable to the question under consid- eration. As Mr. Spencer begins by declaring that the “ advocates of the metric system allege that all opposition to it results from igno- rant prejudice,” which he very properly declares is far from true, it may be well to say that, in the opinion of the writer, there is relatively little of that sort of thing to contend with in the United States. What is far more dangerous as an obstacle to human progress, and often far more common, is what may be called “ in- telligent prejudice,” meaning thereby an obstinate conservatism which makes people cling to what is or has been, merely because it is or has been, not being willing to take the trouble to do better, because already doing well, all the while knowing that do- ing better is not only the easier, but is more in harmony with ex- isting conditions. Such conservatism is highly developed among English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, and is likely to turn up in‘the most unexpected places. It is oftena phase of ancestral or national pride, and finds its expression in the feeling that whatever pertains to one’s own race or country is,on the whole, better than anything else of its kind. Those who are under its influence are adepts in finding ingenious reasons and excuses in defense of an attitude toward reform which they must know to be founded on neither logic nor fact. These people are numerous among opponents of reform in coinage, weights, and measures, and, as already noted, it is with this class that the most serious difficulty is encountered. “ Ignorant preju- dice” generally disappears when ignorance disappears, and fortu- nately in the present instance the system which it is proposed to substitute for that already in use is so extremely simple that it can be learned and understood in a few minutes, while certainly no one man has ever, in an entire lifetime, completely mastered the “customary weights and measures” in use in England and America. It will be convenient to consider the objections offered by Mr. Spencer in the order in which he has presented them in the four separate letters. which go to make up his article. In the first he has reproduced in quotation a considerable part of the well-known argument of Sir John Herschel, written and widely published over thirty years ago. The inconsistency and utter worthlessness of this have been so long recognized that one has a curious feeling of fighting a straw man in attacking it at this time,

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 723 Sir John Herschel claimed, first, that the metre was not ex- actly the ten-millionth of the terrestrial meridian passing through France, which was entirely correct, and that, therefore, it was not a good unit for international use, which does not at all follow. He further attempted to show that the polar radius of the earth, which could never be known except indirectly, was a better unit than the quadrant, a large part of which could be measured directly, and that this radius differed by only eighty-two yards from 500,500,000 English inches. He then proposed to increase the English standard by its one-thousandth part, so as to furnish what he declared would then be “a system of linear measurement the purest and most ideally perfect imaginable.” It has always been a surprise that so able a mathematician and astronomer could have overlooked the inherent weakness in such an argu- ment. To those who have followed the history of this subject it is unnecessary to say that for many years no metrologist has thought for a moment of relating the standard of length accu- rately to any terrestrial dimension. The precision of our knowl- edge of the figure and dimensions of the earth, now and for many years to come, is such as to forbid this, even if there were no other arguments against it. In the light of current geodesy Sir John’s calculations themselves furnish a curiously interesting proof of this. The argument with which he opposed the metre may to-day be turned with equal force against his proposed “ideally perfect” inch. According to the latest determination of the polar radius of the earth, his eighty-four yards become more than one thousand yards, and if his scheme had been adopted when proposed it would have been as badly “out of joint ” with Nature as is the metre. The simple facts are that while in the beginning the metre was made to be as nearly as possible one ten-millionth of the meridian, no one imagined that it could be exactly so, or rather that we could ever know that it was exactly so. It is sufficiently near that value to be very convenient in calculations relating to terrestrial dis- tances and areas, but it must always be considered as defined by a material standard, and no metrologist ever thinks of it in any other sense. Within a few-years Michelson has devised a method of measuring light waves with an accuracy hitherto unthought of, and has measured the length of several such waves in terms of the international prototype metre at Paris, so that we have the metre related to what we may assume to be an invariable dimension in Nature, with a degree of accuracy extremely satis- factory at the present time. But this does not alter the fact that it is and must be regarded as an arbitrary unit represented by a material prototype. Keeping this fact in mind, it will not be necessary to point out the total irrelevancy of Herschel’s argument.

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I21/f 724 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Something must be said, however, of the sentence which Mr. ’ Spencer has quoted in which, referring to his proposed plan for relating units of length to units of weight and capacity, Herschel says, “ And thus the change which would place our system of linear measure on a perfectly faultless basis would at the same time rescue our weights and measures of capacity from their present utter confusion.” It is usually considered to be hardly fair to pick a single sen- tence out of a group and quote it as representing the views of another; and cutling a sentence in two in the middle, when the last half is against you, is a practice so generally condemned that we are compelled to believe that Mr. Spencer must have accidentally fallen into it in this instance. Indeed, if full quotation had been made of what preceded this sentence and upon which it is founded, the one, rather meaningless, argument against us would have been changed to two very good points in our favor. Sir John suggested that the inch be increased by its one-thousandth part, so that it might be one five-hundred-millionth of the polar radius of the earth. He then undertook to show that by increasing the grain (by legislative enactment) by its one-eighteenth part, a cubic foot of water would weigh one thousand ounces, thus furnishing a deci- mal connection between the unit of weight and that of volume. This interesting scheme affords another illustration of the danger of patching up old and unsatisfactory systems, for « recent deter- mination of the weight of a cubic inch of water by Mr. Chaney, in charge of the imperial standards in London, reveals the fact that the quantities on which Herschel based his calculations and suggestions were in error many times greater than was the metre, against which his arguments were directed. The complete sen- tence, of which Mr. Spencer quoted one half, as above, is as fol- lows: “And thus the change which would place our system of linear measure on a perfectly faultless basis would at the same time rescue our weights and measures of capacity from their present utter confusion, and secure that other advantage, second only in importance to the former, of connecting them decimally with that system on a regular, intelligible, and easily remembered prin- ciple; and that by an alteration practically imperceptible in both cases, and interfering with no one of our usages or denomina- tions.” The words following “confusion” were omitted by Mr. Spencer, and they have been italicized to invite attention to their great significance as showing that the decimalization of the new system of weights and measures was earnestly sought for by Herschel. That Mr. Spencer is violently opposed to this can only with great reluctance be accepted as a reason for the abrupt ter- mination of his quotation. Before beginning the exposition of his own views he ventures

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 725 to quote another objector to the metric system in the person of Prof. H. A. Hazen, of the United States Weather Bureau, who some time ago argued that its adoption would necessarily include that of the centigrade thermometer scale, and that as, in his opinion, this was very bad, the metric system must be very bad. Among meteorologists and physicists this reference will be thought to be singularly unfortunate, and it furnishes a striking illustration, among the many to be found in the article under review, of Mr. Spencer’s inability to recognize or properly esti- mate “ values” in regions of thought to which, it must be admit- ted, he is comparatively a stranger. However much one might doubt the conclusions reached by Sir John Herschel, his splendid career as an astronomer and exponent of exact science commands the respect of all lovers of real learning. When we consider that, first, the centigrade thermometer scale has no more to do with the metric of weights and measures than with the coinage of the United States, and, second, its advantages over the unscientific and awkward scale of Fahrenheit are so many and so great that it is already well-nigh universally used, and almost absolutely so among scientific men of all races and nations, it is apparent that no time need be wasted in commenting upon a statement which, by its juxtaposition with that of Herschel, has already achieved a notoriety to which it has no claim either by reason of character or ancestry. In his second letter Mr. Spencer’s own arguments begin to be developed. He first objects to the metric system because, although it is a century old, it has not yet, even in France, entirely driven out some of the old denominations and units. In reply to this it may be said that little research is required to reveal innumerable examples of persistence in the use of words and things for more than a hundred years after their betters were available. On this point I will imitate Mr. Spencer by quoting from a letter re- - cently received from a well-known man of science and admirer of our distinguished opponent. He writes: “This is amazing when coming from Spencer. He says on page 189, ‘But one might have thought that after three generations daily use of the new system would have entailed entire disappearance of the old, had it been in all respects better.’ Now Spencer knows better than any one else the persistency of habit in all people. A volume a foot thick might be written on the persistence of habit.” The next objection is worthy of more serious consideration, and it has been given (for it has long been discussed) a good deal of weight by many thoughtful people. It refers to the alleged universal tendency to continual bisection, thus leading to the use of halves, quarters, eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, sixty-

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726 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. fourths, and, sometimes in subdividing the inch, one-hundred-and- twenty-eighths. To begin with, the existence of any such inherent tendency is quite open to discussion, but, without going into that, it is at least plain that it has never shown itself in the evolution of systems of weight and measure. In evidence of this the fol- lowing tables of English measures of length and weight may be cited, and, that there may be no mistake, they are drawn from a text-book on arithmetic written by one of the most distinguished of England’s nineteenth-century mathematicians: Length. Weight 3 barleycorns are............ 1 inch. 2744 grains are........ 1 dram. eer eee 1 foot. 16 drams are ......... 1 ounce. DES OND. cc ccccccscccccces 1 yard. 16 ounces are......... 1 pound. Br OR ikcindccnsdcssene 1 pole. 28 pounds are......... 1 quarter. 40 poles, or 220 yards, are.... 1 furlong. 4 quarters are......... 1 hundredweight. 8 furlongs, or 1,760 yards, are. 1 mile. 20 hundredweights are. 1 ton. These are far from being complete, for two or three additional tables are necessary to fully exhibit the units and ratios for both length and weight, and they are even more irregular in construc- tion than those shown above. In all, as well as in the English money units and denominations, there is no indication whatever of this “natural tendency” toward continual halving. It 7s a common practice, possibly growing out of a tendency in some degree natural, to continually bisect a single wnit, and this is likely to be the case under any system of weights and measures, and to it there can be no sort of objection. It is important, how- ever, to note that this is in no way related to the question of desir- able or convenient ratios of units, and that it has practically no weight whatever as a criticism of the metric system. But even if this were not true, it would weigh vastly more against the systems in customary use in England and America than against the metric system. What possible objection can there be to speaking of a half or a quarter or an eighth of a mile or rod or yard or inch, if one wishes to do so? And no more can there be to a half, quarter, eighth, or sixteenth of a kilometre, kilogramme, metre, gramme, centimetre, millimetre, etc., nor, again, to the use of such fractional parts as thirds, fifths, or sev- enths, if they seem to be desirable. But to compare the two sys- tems in this respect one should undertake such a problem as finding the value of a third, quarter, fifth, or eighth of a mile or a ton in rods, yards, feet, and inches, or hundredweight, pounds, ounces, drams, and grains, and then do the same thing in the metric sys- tem. The enormous superiority of the latter will at once be re- vealed. On the other hand, it can not be denied that there is, and has been for many years, a strong tendency toward the decimal sub-

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 727 division of single units, even among users of our own clumsy sys- | tem of weights and measures, / In weight, for instance, we in the United States have long ago decided that a hundredweight shall be a hundred pounds, as its name implies, and not a hundred and twelve as in England, and our ton is almost universally two thousand pounds, although we still retain the traditional ton of twenty-two hundred and forty pounds in certain transactions; and as if to emphasize the Govd hunt utter absurdity of the thing, in some parts of New England a ~ | “long” or “gross” ton of coal weighs twenty-two hundred pounds. In many extensive calculations the avoirdupois pound | is adopted as the only unit of weight, and fractional parts are | expressed in tenths, hundredths, etc.; and this is found to reduce . the labor of such calculations enormously. In length measure the tendency toward decimalization is still more marked. In land surveying and in engineering operations it is now the all but uni- versal practice to use the foot as the unit and multiply and divide | decimally. Even in the traditional “surveyor’s chain,” with its | one hundred links, each being 7°92 inches in length, there was a | serious attempt to secure some of the advantages of decimaliza- tion, but it is quite superseded now by the one-hundred-foot tape, with its divisions of ten feet each, and each foot divided into tenths, etc. In reference to the chain, a quotation from the book from which the tables given above are extracted, will not be with- out interest. ) After explaining that by a rather laborious process : the following measures of surface may be derived: f 144 square inches are... ....0...0006. pscescerocecovecee 1 square foot, 9 © FO hvascadeeeancesnninssnctbusevaaese ;'*-se BR SF BR cccccdcccecsecscnccescescccsuccess : pele, ) DD .% CR cnsdccdemssnsmaensaaiinn 1 rood, | the author remarks: “Thus the acre contains forty-eight hun- | dred and forty square yards, which is ten times a square of twenty- two yards in length and breadth. This twenty-two yards is the length which land-surveyors’ chains are made to have, and the | chain is divided into one hundred links, each 0°22 of a yard or 7°92 inches. An acre is, then, ten square chains. It may also be no- ticed that a square whose side is sixty-nine yards and four sev- 4 | enths is nearly an acre, not exceeding it by a fifth of a square | foot.” This is a fair example of the beautiful simplicity of a | system which all English-speaking people are assumed to under- . stand and which many of them are reluctant to give up. . Again, in accurate machine-shop practice the use of decimal ” . divisions is becoming almost universal. The unit is generally the | inch, and it is subdivided into tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. “True to one hundredth, or one thousandth, or one ten-thou-

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"ibe, be 728 POPULAR SCIENCE -MONTHLY. sandth of an inch ” is heard a hundred times oftener in every shop than “correct within a sixty-fourth or a hundred and twenty- eighth, etc.,” and it means not only greater convenience of expres- sion and measurement, but an actually higher standard in pre- cision of workmanship. To the objection, then, that the tendency of mankind is toward a binary rather than a decimal division of units, which is almost the only one offered by Mr. Spencer worthy of serious consideration, we may briefly reply by saying that even granting it to be a fact, it has no bearing whatever on the ques- tions of ratios and relations of units, which is what distinguishes one system from another; that such a tendency may find ex- pression in one system as well as another, and certainly with in- finitely greater facility in the metric system than that now in use among English-speaking people; and, furthermore, that the esti- mation of fractional parts by tenths or hundredths is believed by many who habitually work that way to be both easier and more accurate than by halves, quarters, eighths, etc., and as a mat- ter of fact the prevailing tendency is away from the latter and toward the former. Mr. Spencer seems to have a painful satisfaction in the fact that in California the “bit” is still used, or was about twenty years ago—painful, because he feels obliged to characterize it as a “retrogression.” As already said, it ought not to be necessary to remind him of the slow changes in human customs. Even in the time of John Quincy Adams the word “dime” (which began life as disme) was almost unknown and the coin itself very nearly so, for the shilling in all its multiplicity of forms and values still held place. Even now the shilling, bit, sixpence, “levy,” etc., are not unknown in parts of the United States, but their presence serves only to emphasize the enormous superiority of our decimal system of coinage over that which, happily, our forefathers had the courage to throw off. He also expresses surprise that we have a quarter of a dollar, and that he does not see things advertised to sell for one dollar and three dimes or four dimes, etc. He has here unconsciously called attention to one of the most | “important features of a decimal system—that, in fact, upon which its great superiority depends—namely, the ease with which changes from one denomination to another are made, and the con- sequent almost universal reference to a single unit. Some com- ment on the English money system in respect to this feature will be made later, but in illustration of this remark it may be said that nobody who understands the money system of the United States ever thinks of expressing any given amount in eagles, dol- lars, dimes, cents, and mills, but in dollars only. Everybody, however, can instantly,convert any expressed amount into any one or all of these, Compare, for instance, $432°873 and £85 7s. 83d.,

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 729 and consider the memory and labor demanded to convert the former to eagles, cents, or mills, or the latter to pounds, shillings, pence, or farthings. Our eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles, half dollars, quarters, dimes, five-cent, three-cent, two-cent, and one- cent pieces come and go as public convenience demands, and they do not give us the slightest inconvenience in calculation or ac- count; for their units are decimally related to each other and they are invariably mentally referred to the one money unit, the dollar. Among the several irrelevant and long-exploded arguments urged by Mr. Spencer, none is “more so” than his Socratic at- tempt to “array Nature” against the metric system, and it might well be passed over on account of its suicidal character. It may be worth while to remark, however, that the usé of the decimal system in dividing the arc of a circle is not in the slightest degree “against Nature,” that it is even now being strongly advocated by many eminent European geodesists and astronomers, and that it would be a very decided advance, if brought about, as, in the opinion of many, it some time will be. But it has nothing what- ever to do with the metric system of weights and measures. Also, that whenever the English Parliament or the American Congress shall have under consideration an act providing that the year shall consist of ten months, the week of ten days, etc., it is likely that Mr. Spencer will have little difficulty in finding people ready to discuss the merits of such a measure. But these things have no place in the metrological reform under consideration, and their being brought into the discussion occasions no little surprise among those who are accustomed to expect from so eminent a scientific man as Mr. Spencer something like a fair and logical presentation of at least one side of a question. There appears, however, one inference in reference to the division of a compass dial that is worthy of attention; it is that so inherent is the habit of halving and rehalving that the thirty-two-point division is fixed beyond all hope of change. On the contrary, the practice of ignoring this division is constantly growing, and to such an extent that now a large number of sail- ing charts and many compasses show circles divided into degrees instead, and many a man at the wheel has told me that he prefers to have the course laid in that way. But the most astonishing part of Mr. Spencer’s argument is yet tocome. As he proceeds with his entertaining but somewhat one-sided dialogue, hints of something mysterious begin to appear. The objections to universal decimalization (which nobody has proposed) are put in evidence one by one until the man on the wrong side is led to exclaim in dismay : “ You astonish me! What else is possible?” In answer he is asked to join in the contem- VOL, XLIX.—57

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730 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. plation of the fact that decimal notation grew out of the posses- sion of a bundle of ten fingers, and the distinguished author might have declared, in harmony with what he has said before concerning time and circular measure, that it was in a very large degree “dictated by Nature.” But while affirming that time and the compass have been so riveted upon us as to defy any attempt to change, he leads gradually up to the conclusion that counting by tens is not the only way of counting, and that Nature’s group of ten units doesn’t mean anything in particular after all. Attention is then called to the greater divisibility of the number twelve, furnishing aliquot parts “ which in sundry cases Nature insists upon”; to the fact that we have twelve ounces in a pound (we have also sixteen), twelve lines to the inch, twelve sacks to the last (whatever that may be, De Morgan fails me here), twelve things in a dozen, and that our multiplication table goes up to twelve times twelve! While admitting that “these par- ticular twelve divisions are undesirable, as being most of them arbitrary and unrelated to one another,” he maintains that they “make it clear that a general system of twelfths is called for by trading needs and industrial needs.” No time for breath-draw- ing is allowed after this astounding bit of logic before one is confronted with the following: “It needs only a small alteration in our method of numbering to make calculation by groups of twelve exactly similar to calculation by groups of ten; yielding just the same facilities as those now supposed to belong only to decimals. This seems a surprising statement, but I leave you to think about it, and if you can not make out how it will be I will explain presently.” In the original chronology of these letters as they were pub- lished in the Times it appears that Mr. Spencer’s readers were allowed two days in which to think over this “surprising state- ment,” and to recover from any condition into which they might have been thrown by its announcement. I can not refrain from saying just at this point that thousands of American schoolboys would have needed only two minutes in which to explain how it might be done, for it has been common knowledge among arithmeticians from the earliest days of the study of the prop- erties of numbers. In the third letter, however, the thing is gone into at great length, and Mr. Spencer generously shares with the reader the knowledge that it is only needed to invent two char- acters to stand for ten and eleven, and then we should have a system suited to a twelve-fingered race and greatly superior to the decimal system now in use. It is useless to repeat that all this is old, very old, and it is but justice to Mr. Spencer to repeat that he prepared it from memoranda of his own made more than fifty years ago. No one denies that much advantage might come

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 731 from a change in the radix of our numerical system, and some advantages of the present might be lost. An increase in the radix has been recommended for the greater power in computa- tion it would afford, and its decrease has been advocated, even to the extent of suggesting the use of the binary system in which there is but one significant figure, on account of the consequent great simplicity of all calculations. It seems almost certain, however, that, “dictated by Nature,” as it is, it will never be changed, as the advantages on either side are small when com- pared with the magnitude of the problem of a new radix. There are some people who would defer any improvement in our system of weights and measures until the decimal system of notation can be wiped out and one with sixteen as radix substituted, so that if Mr. Spencer was able to bring about such a change as he suggests he would find that his favorite number, twelve, was not alone in the field of candidates for adoption as the foundation of the new notation. Indeed, it is a well-known fact that in the evolution of number systems those not decimal have had their day, but none have survived competition with the many advantages pertaining to that growing out of the “ bundle of ten fingers.” In his fourth paper Mr. Spencer again resorts to quotation, and brief reference should be made to the arguments set up by some of his authorities. The letter of Sir Frederick Bramwell con- tains some remarkable statements. His assertion that the new system will require “ more figures to perform ordinary sums than on our present system, when rightly applied,” is so grossly incor- rect, as may be easily proved by a few examples, that no time need be spent in controverting it. The same might be said of his further assertion that it is more likely to lead to error, and, above all, to the common error in placing the decimal point. This last statement is frequently made, and it is worth while, therefore, to call attention to the fact that in all ordinary business transac- tions in which the decimal system is used, and in all calculations, for that matter, the error of a misplaced decimal point is one of the rarest of all errors. This is because of the generally quick and certain detection of such a mistake. To misplace the deci- mal point by the smallest possible amount is to change the result tenfold, and usually so great an error is instantly detected by means of approximate knowledge or other checks. Take our own money system, for example: it is perfectly safe to say that other mistakes are a million times more frequent than a persist- ent, undetected misplacing of the decimal point. Yet, curiously enough, considerable weight has been given to this objection to the metric system of weights and measures, which is, on the con- trary, vastly less liable to errors of computation than that now in use.

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732 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Sir Frederick also furnishes an extensive extract, giving the views of the first Napoleon on the subject of reform in weights and measures. Many of the stock arguments are repeated, and if they had not been thrashed over long ago it would be perfectly easy to take them up one by one and show their absurdity. An entire lack of any really accurate knowledge of the subject and an absence of any sort of conception of the simplest metrological principles are shown in a single quotation: “A toise, a foot, an inch, a line, a point, are fixed portions of extension, which the imagination conceives independent of their relations to one an- other; if, then, we ask for the third of an inch, the mind goes into instant operation. The length called an inch is divided into three parts. By the new system, on the contrary, the mind has not to divide an inch into thirds, but a metre into a hundred and eleven parts.” It is difficult to properly characterize such utter non- sense; but, fortunately, the French people, who are to-day the leaders in the world’s metrology, were not obliged to take their science, as they were most other things, from the first consul. A group of the most distinguished Frenchmen of any period had perfected this system, even in the very midst of the bloody revo- lution which closed the last century, and when their final report was made in an address to the legislative chambers by the cele- brated La Place, the event was described by Adams as a “ specta- cle at once so rare and so sublime... that not to pause for a moment, were it even from occupations not essentially connected with it; to enjoy the contemplation of a scene so honorable to the character and capacities of our species, would argue a want of sensibility to appreciate its worth. This scene formed an epoch in the history of man. It was an example and an admonition to the legislators of every nation and of all after times.” Mr. Spencer also quotes from an auditor who had to go over £20,000 of accounts, and who was “ very thankful that it was not in francs.” At first blush it seems entirely natural and credit- able to him as an Englishman to rejoice that his twenty thousand is in pounds sterling rather than francs; but, after all, his remark is only a reflection of that not uncommon English sentiment that the imperial monetary system is more perfect than any other in all the wide world. This sentiment is doubtless the outgrowth of national pride and intellectual inactivity ; it is not entertained by the majority of the more thoughtful and scholarly Englishmen, and, furthermore, it is in every respect false. It is unnecessary to consume time in quoting the opinion of England’s most distin- guished scholars, to show that this is not simply an example of American boasting, but I will venture to illustrate by one or two additional extracts from De Morgan. In his arithmetical appen- dix on Decimal Money he says: “Of all the simplifications of

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THE METRIC SYSTEM. 733 commercial arithmetic none is comparable to that of expressing shillings, pence, and farthings as decimals of a pound. The rules are thereby put almost upon as good a footing as if the country possessed the advantage of a real decimal coinage.” He then proceeds to develop rules by means of which any sum of English money may be expressed in pounds and decimals exactly as our money is always expressed in dollars and decimals, so that any re- quired operation may be easily performed by the common rules of arithmetic. After this the decimals of a pound must be reduced back again to shillings, pence, and farthings. To show how the Eng- lish system lends itself to easy calculation, I quote his rule, which is only approximately correct, for making the latter reduction: “A pair of shillings for every unit, in the first place ; an odd shilling for fifty (if there be fifty), in the second and third places ; and a farthing for every thousandth left, after abating one if the number of thousandths left exceed twenty-four.” Can any- thing be more charmingly simple and easily carried in one’s head than this ? I must be content to stop without reference to a few other points raised by Mr. Spencer, for they are essentially all of a kind. There is a sentiment underlying much of his argument, to which I must briefly refer, however, because it has shown itself in other recent discussions of this subject. I refer to an anxiety lest the “poor man” be in some way injured by the proposed reform. It has come to be the fashion in all political or eco- nomical controversies to exhibit a consuming interest in the poor man’s welfare; indeed, one marvels that there should con- tinue to be any poor, so universal and so intense appears to be this anxiety to shield them from all harm. Fortunately, the so-called “poor man” is not so blind to his own interests as some would have it appear, and he is quite alive to the fact that the proposed metrological reform is fully as important to him as to anybody. Finally, it ought to be understood that the advocates of the metric system do not assume that it can come into use immedi- ately or without considerable hardship. It took nearly a century to fairly establish our decimal money system, which no one would now think of giving up. During all this time old units and denominations continued to be used in a lessening degree, al- though not authorized by law. Something of the kind must occur in the transfer from our illogical, brain-destroying, time- consuming system of weights and measures for the more perfect system for which it is sure to make way. Furthermore, they heartily welcome and desire the presentation of all arguments against or objections to the metric system, believing that the more widely it is known and discussed the more supporters it

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734 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY, will have. They expect to meet occasionally such “intelligent prejudice ” as is exhibited by Mr. Herbert Spencer, whose contri- bution to the discussion of the subject is sure to be considered in the years to come as altogether the most remarkable to be found in any time or tongue. NEVADA SILVER. By CHARLES HOWARD SHINN. THIRD of a century ago the surface bonanzas of the Com- stock began to yield their treasures. Californians long skilled in gold mining were rushing by thousands into the newly discovered silver districts, and prospecting the mountains and deserts east of the Sierras. In fact, the whole Pacific coast was ringing with shouts of “On to Washoe!” In a few years this obscure, long-neglected corner of western Utah became the State of Nevada. It developed a multitude of mining camps besides the Comstock ; it created new forms of mining skill, maintained vast dependent industries, contributed revenues to distant cities, sent forth new groups of millionaires, gave to the world new types of frontier character, and added a dramatic chapter to the story of American commonwealths. The land itself is worth a moment’s attention. It is a high plateau, gridironed by short, parallel mountain chains, the most noted of which is the Washoe Range, separated from the Sierras by a line of small Alpine valleys, and rising, in Mount Davidson, to a height of 7,827 feet. East, south, north, extend weary miles of desert, relieved by a few oases. The scanty rivers of Nevada soon lose themselves in alkaline basins. According to an old frontiersman, reported by Dan De Quille, “the Almighty once started out leadin’ a number of small rivers along, meanin’ to unite them into one large one, and take it to the Pacific. But before he had more than started it grew late Saturday night, so he tucked the ends down into the sand, where they have remained ever since.” Stephen T. Gage, of the Southern Pacific Railroad, tells an interesting story of Horace Greeley’s journey across the conti- nent. The distinguished editor had reached Placerville, Califor- nia, and had been met by a few ardent followers on horseback. The boisterous mountain town was politically opposed to Greeley, but when the group of young men, of whom Gage was one, brought him out on the plaza for a speech, a great crowd as- sem bled. “TI believe,” said Greeley, “that God never made anything without a purpose. But the wilderness that I have crossed is

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NEVADA SILVER. 735 certainly worthless for agriculture. Unless there shall prove to be great mineral wealth there, it has been created in vain. But if, in the workings of Divine Providence, vast treasure houses are revealed, as I believe there will be, then, my friends, it will take the labor of a hundred thousand California miners a hundred thousand years even to prospect it!” Even while Greeley spoke a small group of ignorant pros- pectors, climbing the cafions that slope south from Mount David- Carson River Caton. son, were approaching the Comstock ledge. They were, in fact, already filling their rude sluice-boxes with decomposed rock from the giant lode, and were washing out a little gold, while they threw many a lump of nearly pure silver down the gulches with loud imprecations because the “ blue stuff” clogged the machines. These miners were the remnants of several larger camps that had grown, flourished, and fallen into ruins in western Utah during eight or ten years, but they were not the first settlers of the Nevada region. The Oregon trail had three thousand emigrants

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736 POPULAR SCIENCE. MONTHLY. on the road in 1846, and as soon as the shout,“ California gold!” was heard, the deep-trampled highways across the desert began to be strewed with wrecks of wagons and bodies of horses and oxen. Thousands of men made camp after camp in western Utah without washing out a panful of dust or breaking off a specimen of quartz. Meanwhile Mormon traders, anxious to sell supplies to wagon trains, established small stations along the trail. These traders were often colonists sent out from Salt Lake, under strict orders not to cross the mountains and not to mine for gold. <Ac- cording to a letter in the Sacramento Transcript of October 14, 1850, the hungry emigrants were often forced to sell “a horse, an ox, or a mule for twelve, ten, or even two pounds of flour,” and in 1849 matters must have been even worse. Placer gold was found in the winter of 1849 in a small gulch near Carson Valley, and one or two men worked the deposit, with poor results. The wandering Mormons abandoned their trading posts, but in 1851 Colonel Reese, from Salt Lake, made a perma- nent settlement. With him came, as teamster, bibulous, feather- brained James Fennimore, afterward known on the Comstock as “Old Virginia,” who soon began placer mining in “ Gold Cajion.” By November the Carson region contained about twenty settlers ; miners, herdsmen, and nomads of every description increased the whole population of western Utah to nearly one hundred. Squat- ter government began, and Congress, with unconscious humor, was petitioned to create a separate Territory for this handful of settlers. The Utah Legislature, with equally unconscious humor, endeavored to hold the region by dividing it into seven huge parallelograms of counties, only one of which appears to have contained any people. The judge sent to Carson County was referred by the Gold Cafion miners to their local “rules, usages, and customs,” adopted in the main from California camps. Local traditions contain much that is worth passing notice. Israel Mott, for instance, “built his house out of the beds of abandoned emigrant wagons.” “ Ragtown,” on the Carson, re- ceived its name because of vast heaps of rubbish that marked the camp where the incoming host “ ran into the water waist deep to drink like animals,” and threw their desert-worn garments in heaps on the cacti and sagebrush. The last night of 1853 there was a dance “in the log house over Spafford Hall’s store” at the mouth of Gold Cafion. Eight women were present, and this number constituted “two thirds of all the white women in west- ern Utah.” Of white men there were about a hundred—from Lucky Bill’s, Fort Churchill, Twenty-six-Mile Desert, Eagle Ranch, and other settlements, as well as from the placer mines. In 1857 the Mormon settlers were called back to Salt Lake by a messenger from the Prophet. Some fifty families left claims,

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NEVADA SILVER. 737 cabins, water ditches, and other property, loaded one hundred and fifty-three wagons, and were on the road in three weeks. A few years later one of them, the noted Orson Hyde, wrote to the pos- sessors of a sawmill he had built, demanding its return, and add- ing: “ This demand of ours remaining uncanceled shall be to the people of Carson and Wassau as was the ark of God among the Philistines. You shall be visited of the Lord of hosts with thun- der and with earthquakes .and with floods, with pestilence and with famine, until your names are not known among men.” The letter was printed, and the camps of 1860 rang with loud laughter. But in 1857 no one could see anything amusing in the departure of the Mormons. Emigrant travel had ceased, traders had gone, villages were deserted, plows left in the furrows, cabin doors flung open. Even Gold Cafion placers were nearly exhausted. Everything seemed “ played out.” The early miners of Nevada knew nothing of prospecting as a business, They were so thoughtless and ignorant that it never occurred to them to look for the source of the metal they were obtaining in Gold Cafion and other ravines that headed in Mount Davidson. The little gold they found became more and more alloyed with silver, so that its value decreased from nineteen dollars an ounce to twelve dollars. The camp of Johnstown in Gold Cafion, where they wintered, dwindled in size, and discour- aged miners went to other districts. Meanwhile two prospectors of education and ability, the Grosh brothers, were secretly ex- ploring the Washoe Mountains for silver. Their letters home prove that they found “a monster vein” and other good pros- pects, and they began to organize companies in the Atlantic States and in California to work these claims. But one brother died from an accident early in 1857; the other lost his life in the Sierra the following winter. The first knowledge of the Com- stock perished with these two brave, thoughtful, reticent young prospectors. All the men who aided in the discovery of the famous mines wintered in Johnstown in December, 1858. Among them was one Henry Thomas Paige Comstock, a curiously ignorant, credulous, and speculative miner, familiarly known as “Old Pancake.” “My first recollection,” he wrote, “is packing beaver traps; trapped all over Canada, Michigan, Indiana, and the Rocky Mountains.” Comstock, “Old Virginia,” Peter O’Riley, Pat McLaughlin, “Kentuck” Osborne, “Long John” Bishop, Manny Penrod, Sandy Bowers, and a few others had been more or less together. Sometimes they were in Gold Cafion, sometimes in Six Mile Cafion, sometimes crossing from the head of one to the head of the other, along the side of Mount Davidson, over the top of the Comstock ledge. In January, 1859, a streak of warm weather tempting

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POPULAR SCIENCE.MONTHLY., 738 some of them out, Comstock, “Old Virginia,” and several others found “surface diggings” near “Slippery Gulch.” They named the place “Gold Hill,” and, staking out claims, proceeded to work the decomposed outcroppings over Crown Point, Yellow Jacket, Belcher, Kentuck, and other great mines as yet undiscovered. From the time they started the rockers, using water from a spring close by, Gold Hill averaged twenty dollars a day to the man. June lst, O’Riley and McLaughlin, whose claim in Six Mile Cafion paid only two or three dollars a day, suddenly cut into the rock on the surface of Ophir, at the north end of the Comstock, and began to take out gold at the rate of a thousand dollars a day. They had only been working a few hours when Comstock hap- pened along, saw the value of the discovery, laid a general float- ing claim to a mythical stock ranch in the region, and fairly bluffed the good-natured discoverers into taking himself and Manny Penrod as equal partners. “Kentuck” Osborne after- ward came in, and the five took up the original Ophir claim. The miners in the region soon staked out claims around Gold Hill and Ophir. “ Dutch Nick” started a saloon and restaurant inatent. “Old Virginia” went on a spree one night and chris- tened the north-end camp “ Virginia City.” Comstock bubbled with happiness, and flung his money broadcast. But a rancher from Truckee Meadows, visiting the camp, picked up some of the despised “blue stuff” from the waste heap of Ophir, and after- ward gave it to Judge Walsh, of Grass Valley, California, with the remark that “over in Washoe the miners were throwing it away.” An assayer reported it to be nearly pure silver. This happened about midnight, and before dawn Judge Walsh was miles on the road to Virginia City, while hundreds of other men were making ready to follow. The Truckee Meadows rancher paid no attention to the excitement he had caused, but went quietly back to his farm. When Judge Walsh reached the camp Comstock sold for $11,000, only $10 of which was paid down. McLaughlin soon sold for $3,500, Osborne for $7,000, Penrod for $3,000. Careless, ignorant, the first Comstockers were blown aside like leaves in a whirlwind. They spent their money and drifted off here and there, pursued by ill-fortune. McLaughlin was soon cooking for a gang of men at $40 a month; “Old Vir- ginia,” while on a spree in 1861, was thrown from a horse and killed ; Comstock, who had parted with his interests exactly two months after the ledge was struck, branched out into financial and matrimonial ventures, spent every dollar, wandered over Idaho and Montana vainly looking for another fortune, and in 1870 committed suicide. Sandy Bowers, who was considered a millionaire, went to Europe with his wife “to see the queen,” and “had money to throw at the birds.” He built a costly stone man-

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“Tiy] AION OL “ona ‘ACIAI(] AHL GUVMOL ONTHOOT ‘vVaKAGN ‘ALIQ) VINIODIA

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740 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. sion in Washoe Valley before birds of prey obtained all his money. His widow, the “ Washoe Seeress,” made a living for years by curiously futile predictions regarding the stock market, and still reads the future for those who care to listen. One after another all the placer-mining Comstockers went down before the rush of silver seekers. That rush was in many respects the most remarkable one that California ever had known. Decidedly the best account was written by J. Ross Browne, who made his Peep at Washoe a classic of early Nevada. Stirred, he says, by the shout of “ Sil- ver! silver! Acres of it! Miles of it!” he left San Francisco in March, 1860, and made his way to Placerville. Beyond this point there were no stages. The town was full of men anxious to cross the mountains, and “practicing for Washoe” in the saloons. Every sign bore Washoe in large letters. Pack trains were start- ing daily for the mines. No animal could be had for love or money. “Lodging accommodations” consisted of enough floor space on which to lie in one’s blanket. The next morning Browne started on foot. The muddy trail was literally lined with broken-down vehicles and goods of every description. He stopped at nightfall in “ Dirty Mike’s” shanty, in which the bar and the public bedroom were the chief features. The second day hundreds of persons were in sight along the trail— men with wheelbarrows, handcarts, donkeys, mules; gamblers on fancy mustangs, whisky peddlers, organ grinders, drovers, Mexi- cans. Rain, snow, and slush prevailed for miles before he reached the log cabins of Strawberry. There he slept on the floor with about forty other pilgrims, and had his stockings stolen, which “were above gold or silver in this foot-weary land.” Three feet of snow in the morning, four hundred men in the camp, and pro- visions low; eight hard miles to the summit, nine more to Wood- ford’s. Browne and several others tried the trail, but were forced to return to Strawberry. The next day he tried it alone. The trail was over old snow, honeycombed with holes hidden by the new snowfall; pack trains were floundering through and occa- sionally falling into the cafions. Wind and sleet all day; mud knee deep in Hope Valley; all in all a terrible day’s experience. The fifth day Browne’s course was along the Carson. He was so worn out that he could only cover about eighteen miles between sunrise and nine o’clock at night. The sixth day he arrived at Carson City, and took the stage for the mines. Virginia City, as Ross Browne saw it in the spring of 1860, lay outspread on a slope of mountains, speckled with snow and sagebrush and mounds of upturned earth. The dwellings were rude board shanties; tents of blankets, sacks, old shirts, and can- vas; huts of mud and rock, caves in the hillside, and hollow heaps

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NEVADA SILVER. 741 of brush. Piles of goods were scattered about in the rain and snow. A scathing wind, the “ Washoe zephyr,” tore the huts apart and filled the air with gravel. Crowds were gathered in open places, trading claims or fighting over them. Other crowds were drinking and gambling in the numerous saloons. Rough, unkempt, unwashed miners, speculators, bummers, thieves, cut- throats filled the raw, unsightly mining camp with horrible con- fusion. “ In truth,” says our artless adventurer, “ there was much to confirm the foreboding with which I had entered the Devil’s Gate.” In a short time the demands of the Washoe country developed a complete system of transportation over three great toll roads, the finest on the Pacific coast. Massive freight wagons, marking in every detail the utmost skill of California workers in wood and iron, carried all the supplies for Nevada. Bearded and weather-beaten freighters, who were also owners of their outfits, walked beside the great mule teams. Each freighter carried his rod of empire, a short hickory handle to which was attached a long, close-plaited whiplash as big as one’s wrist at the swelling part. At first receiving twenty-five cents a pound for whatever was carried between Sacramento and Virginia City, and hauling a thousand pounds to the animal, the freighter in a year or so was able to move twenty-four tons besides the wagons, with a sixteen-mule team, at a cost of four cents a pound for the entire distance. It is said that there is not on record in courts or news- papers a single instance of the loss of goods in transit either by fraud, force, or carelessness during all the years of the Nevada freighter’s glory. One stage line carried twelve thousand passengers to Nevada in 1863. Schedule time in 1861 had been three days for the one hun- dred and sixty-two miles, but it was soon reduced to eighteen hours. Three wealthy mining operators were once taken from Virginia City to the steamboat wharf in Sacramento in twelve hours and twenty-three minutes. Old travelers still recall with pleasure the ride across the mountains on the Placerville route. Its most striking moment was when one first saw from the summit of the pass the hyacinthine waters of sealike Tahoe and the level desert. “The eastward-gazing grizzly bear,” to quote from one of the stories written by an old Elko silver miner, the late Dr. Gally, “lifts his flexible nostril to sniff the odor of the arid waste, then slowly turns and prowls westward. There is a visible line eastward where two worlds appear to meet. Beyond is the great ‘empire of Artemisia,’ where gold and silver were married in the volcanic chambers of the awful past. One sees the land of Washoe outstretched from the mountain tops, with its browns and grays, its arid junipers and dull nut pines, its crags of lime-

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742 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. stone, basalt, porphyry, granite, in naked barrenness. There, underfoot,” writes Dr. Gally, “the world is dry, gray, silent. Overhead, during the long cloudless day, it is pale blue, dry, silent. All abroad it is gray or dark with mountain distance, and it is silent. Silence is everywhere. No roar of far-off torrents tumbling down the hills to jar the night air underneath the stars —the stars still are, but all the torrents have departed. At some lost period backward of all dates, the Great High Sheriff of the universe in open court has cried Silence and has been obeyed.” Into such a land the silver seekers came, and it claimed them for its own. Soil, climate, topography, environment, began to create the Nevada type, with its large freedom, its quick com- prehension, its broadly humorous buoyancy, and similar charac- teristics that one finds abundantly illustrated in such books as Mark Twain’s Roughing It and in the writings of a great group of younger newspaper men. “ Desperate climatic humor” is what Dr. Gally calls it. Occasionally an old copy of an early Nevada newspaper turns up, fairly scintillating with wit and sarcasm, but for the most part the files have been destroyed in the great fires. Said brave old De Quille, companion reporter with Mark Twain on the Territorial Enterprise : “T used to make the newspaper my notebook for years, and I thought what a book I could write some day out of that note- book; but now I don’t know of a single file in existence.” Still there are gleams of the past in stray copies that have escaped the fires. Senator Stewart was the most prominent man on the Comstock in the days before Sharon, and the Gold Hill News, amazed at his audacity, once likened him to the Colossus of Rhodes—he was as large and contained as much brass. Mark Twain, in his forgotten Proceedings of the Third House, once burlesqued nearly every member of the Constitutional Conven- tion of 1863. Larrowe, of Landor, for instance, was made to glorify the “nine sceptered and anointed quartz mills” of his dis- trict until the president ordered him to “hold his clatter” and drop Reese River quartz-mill statistics. Mr. Stewart, after a long speech on miners’ taxes, was told: “Take your seat, Bill Stewart. I have been reporting and reporting that same infernal speech of yours for thirty days. ... You and your bed-rock tunnels and your blighted miners’ blasted hopes have gotten to be a sort of nightmare to me and I won’t put up with it any longer.” The wealth of material in this field would fill volumes instead of paragraphs. Hardly had the first rich ore been taken from the Comstock when an age of litigation commenced. Theearly claims overlapped and were badly defined, some being taken up under placer rules, others as quartz claims, and all without accurate surveys. Mat-

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NEVADA SILVER. 743 ters went from bad to worse, as every one had access to the record book in the pioneer camp, and most of the prospectors changed their stakes and boundaries as often as seemed best. The most casual study of the Comstock region in 1860 reveals the wildest Walpurgis-night revels of conflicting claims of every size, shape, and age tumbling over each other three and four deep. Besides, the Virginia lode was parallel to the Comstock, and many lesser veins crossed it or ran near, thus giving rise to the great legal problem of the day, Was the Comstock one ledge or two ledges ? Then followed the famous mining cases that fill volume after volume of the Nevada reports—Savage against the Bowers Com- pany, Chollar against Potosi (pronounced Potoseé by all old “ Comstéckers”), Burning Moscow against Ophir, and others of FLASH-LIGHT OF Dritts in Nevapa Mine. equal interest. The total number of lawsuits for twelve mines during this period is 245, and 168 of these were “ actions brought” to dispossess the claimants of ground that, under the single- ledge theory, belonged to the first locators. The direct cost of this litigation was $10,000,000, or one fifth of the entire product of. the lode during the fighting period. Pitched battles occurred underground; mines were flooded with water or filled with smoke. Forts were built, armed men employed, and battles fought on dis- puted claims. Some of the best mining lawyers of America were trained in this age of litigation. Stewart, known as “Old Invin- cible,” tireless in devotion to his clients, received $100,000 from Belcher and $30,000 as a single fee from Yellow Jacket. The reputation of the Territorial courts suffered, and some of the judges resigned under stress of public wrath. Lord, in his His- tory of the Comstock, sums up the period from 1860 to 1865 with

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744 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the terse remark that “ the Washoe bar at that time was hardly a nursery for tender consciences.” The first problem that troubled the miners in the midst of their lawsuits was how to handle the immense bodies of ore. To develop the various claims by means of the usual shafts, tunnels, drifts, cross-cuts, and other underground workings was unusually difficult. The vein matter of the great fissure varies from 100 feet to 1,500 feet in width. The whole body was once a seething mass of fire and steam. It still remains in many places so hot that the appliances of modern science hardly enable the miners to accomplish any work. The ledge first sloped west, became ver- tical at about 200 feet down, and then bent toward the east, thus necessitating a second and finally a third line of shafts. Machin- ery for pumping, for hoisting, for ventilating and lighting the depths of the mines, had to be constructed upon a larger scale than ever before attempted. As the ore bodies were opened they were found to be so wide that the timbering system failed entire- ly. A new method, known as the “ Deidesheimer square sets,” was invented, which is still in use in all large mines. It consists of short timbers mortised together in frames that can be built up to any height or width, like the adding of cells to a honeycomb. A few years later the mines siphoned water from the Sierras under a pressure of 1,720 feet. Incidentally the miners invented the V flume to carry lumber down the Sierra slopes. The annual supply of timber for the mines amounted by 1866 to 25,000,000 feet of lumber and 170,000 cords of fuel. The consumption of both increased steadily until in bonanza days 80,000,000 feet of lumber annually disappeared into the drifts and chambers and 250,000 cords of wood went up in smoke and flame. Metallurgists, too, found endless study in the methods of re- ducing Comstock ore. Beginning with slow Mexican arastras and patio yards, adopting in 1860 California stamp mills, and modifying the amalgamating apparatus to save the silver, the modern “ Washoe process” was finally adopted, though only after years of costly experiments. For a time every one went rainbow- chasing for something to perform impossible chemical feats. One pioneer mill man used to put strong decoctions of cedar and juni- per bark into his amalgamation pans; others actually used sage- brush tea, it being argued that Nature had created the otherwise worthless shrub for the express purpose of getting the metal out of Nevada’s mountains! Persons with secret processes overran the mining districts, each one with the whole trick contained in a little bottle in his vest pocket, ready for a consideration to pour a few drops into the amalgamating pan. San Francisco was ran- sacked for drugs to put into the batteries with the pulverized ore. Alum, saltpeter, borax, potash, all the acids obtainable, tobacco

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NEVADA SILVER. 745 enough for a “sheep-dip,” a multitude of articles never before used by miners, such were some of the contents of the Nevada mill men’s witch caldrons in the early sixties. “The object ap- peared to be,” says an amused observer, “to physic the silver out of the rock.” Slowly, after immeasurable waste, crude methods gave way to better ones. Mills were built in Washoe Valley, in the cafions, and on the Comstock, but the greater number were along the Carson River, so as to be run by water power. No less than 76 mills, costing over $6,000,000 and carrying 1,200 stamps, were in operation before the end of 1861. Some of the mills of the period are still remembered for their ex- travagant construction. Gould and Curry built one on a ter- raced hill where the mine owners spent about $1,000,000 in pic- turesque and useless magnifi- cence. After a few years, when their bonanza began to fail, it was found that the reduction of their ore was costing fifty dol- lars a ton. The machinery was thrown aside, and it required $600,000 to put the mill in work- ing order again. Everywhere, through years of readjustment, mills were torn to pieces, rebuilt, enlarged, made to do better and better work, until the results produced when the great bonan- za mines were running at full speed attracted the attention of mill men all over the world. What is known on the Comstock as the old group of bonanzas began comparatively near the surface. The yield of the diggings of 1859 had been about $100,000 for the entire lode. In 1860 it yielded in round numbers $2,000,000. After that the mines were developed so fast that by 1865 the output of Storey County, most of it from the Comstock, was $9,500,000. During twelve years after 1859 the product of all the Comstock mines was $145,000,000. VOL, XLIX.,—58 Runs oF O_p MILL NEAR THE COMSTOCK.

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746 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Work went on with increasing zeal. Mines that were in “bor- rasca,” or barren rock, were kept going by immense assessments. If the present business methods that prevail in mining had been adopted on the Comstock, half of this enormous yield of $145,000,- 000 would have been clear profit, but the greater part of every bonanza went into running and extraordinary expenses. Reck- less waste and superb enterprise seemed to go handin hand. The numbers of relatives and friends that the owners of the mines managed to support by making positions for them can hardly be reckoned. Everybody, from servant girls to bankers, speculated in Comstocks and other mining shares. In 1860 more than five thousand claims within thirty miles of Virginia City were “on the market.” Frenzied prospectors were marking out thousands more, until the most remote corners of the desert were “pegged down with claim stakes” set on indi- cations which were seldom attractive to a mineralogist. Iron pyrites and all sorts of worthless combinations seemed as good as gold or silver to the enterprising adventurers. Before long men were claiming to have found huge ledges of iridium, platinum, and plumbago. One Washoe speculator being told by a gentle- man that an ambergris mine would be valuable, replied that he had just staked out one! A company tunneled for weeks into the granite of Mount Davidson in order to tap an alleged lake of coal oil. No one can reckon up the number of prospect holes that dot Nevada. Millions of them, mere ragged cuts or pits in the tawny hillsides, make wind-blown heaps on every hand between the clumps of dark sagebrush and the dull yellow of an occasional sunflower. Only one prospect hole in a hundred ever material- ized into a recorded claim; only one claim in a thousand ever became a mine. Up to 1880 Virginia City and Gold Hill alone had 16,000 registered claims, and less than a dozen really great mines. To sum it up, the amount of dead work and wasted capi- tal in every mining region almost surpasses belief. Ruins of mills and dwellings, nameless graves in the canofis, fragments of old trails washed by the storms of thirty winters, are all that mark the sites of many once-aspiring districts. In Esmeralda and White Pine, which the late Dr. DeGroot used to call “those Golgothas of Nevada speculators,’ what millions were fruitlessly scattered ! The entire history of the Comstock lode is revealed by the as- sessments, dividends, and fluctuations of the stocks of separate mines. Before the close of 1861 eighty-six companies were work- ing on or near the great lode. Gould and Curry, a marvelously rich mine, declared $2,908,800 in dividends in 1863 and 1864. This was upon an actual investment of less than $200,000. But the ex-

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NEVADA SILVER. 747 penses of the mine, which worked 110,000 tons of ore during those two years, were nearly $6,000,000. It is believed that twice as much could easily have been paid in dividends, but, as the presi- dent of the company said, “every shareholder was crazy and wanted it snaked out at once at any cost.” Gould and Curry, July 1, 1863, was selling at $6,300 per foot (the old way of meas- uring values); in July, 1864, it was worth only $900. Belcher was one of the dividend mines of the Comstock, having paid $16,000,000 up to 1880. It had 104,000 shares after 1869. In that year prices ranged from $12 to $35; in 1870, sank from $36 to $1; in January, 1871, rose to $6, and in December to $450; in Janu- Atta Miyg, Mitt, anp Dump, Gotp Hitt, ary, 1872, sank to $6, and in April rose to $1,525, fluctuating all that summer down to $1.50, up to $95, and back and forth after this fashion for years. Once it rose in a month from 25 cents to $113 a share. Out of 103 Washoe mines listed, only six ever paid more money in dividends than they levied in assessments. These six were Consolidated Virginia, California, Belcher, Crown Point, Gould and Curry, and Kentuck. Some of the assessments levied upon mines that never paid a cent to the stockholders remain un- paralleled in mining history. Ten mines sank nearly $17,000,000 before 1880. Assessments on Bullion were $3,352,000; on Over- man, $3,162,800. Alta, Baltimore, Caledonia, Mexico, Imperial— these and other non-producers are still remembered with sorrow by thousands of investors.

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748 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Nevertheless, viewed as a whole, the Comstock was immense- ly profitable. In twenty-one years from the summer of 1859, according to Government reports, the mines levied in assess- ments $62,000,000. The dividends paid during the same period aggregated $118,000,000. Striking a cash balance, the Comstock ledger shows an actual profit of $56,000,000. The total bullion yield for the same period was $306,000,000. Subtracting divi- dends and adding assessments, we find that the cost of purchasing, maintaining, defending, and developing the great lode for twenty- one years was $250,000,000. Three fourths of this sum came from the mines themselves, the other fourth was gathered from direct assessments. The prospectors and original locators had received less than $100,000. The various owners paid less than a million dollars out of their own pockets, as working capital, before as- sessments and the stock-gambling period began. Since 1880 the yield of the Comstock has been decreasing, and many of the mines have been shut down. The ledger account of the Com- stock with the public remains practically unchanged. The most dramatic events in the story of the Comstock clus- ter about a series of struggles for its control during the ebb and flow of alternate borrasca and bonanza. Nothing was lacking to make the period impressive. The financial leaders of the Pacific coast were conquering Nevada, while another group of men were winning victories that shortly led to the culminating treasure of the lode, and while the indomitable Sutro was toiling in his great tunnel.’ So vast and ruthless was the battle that its far-reaching results still influence politics and social life of California and Nevada; men still divide upon issues which began in the depths of the Comstock a quarter of a century ago. In 1864 the ore deposits were worked out, and rayless gloom settled over the Comstock. The Bank of California, through its resident agent, William Sharon, had been making advances on mills and allowing the mine owners to overdraw their accounts. The security in both cases was only undiscovered ore, and if the lode were really exhausted the whole camp was ruined. Ralston, the head of the bank, visited Virginia City in 1865, and agreed with Sharon that the time had arrived to gain control of the dis- trict. Loans, instead of being lessened, were increased, to what extent is not known, but it was afterward said by Sharon that at one time before 1870 $3,000,000 of the $5,000,000 capital of the bank was on the Comstock. In June, 1867, the famous mill and mining company was formed by W. C. Ralston, William Sharon, Alvinza Hayward, D. O. Mills, Thomas Bell, Charles Bonner, William E. Barron, and Thomas Sunderland. It was the strongest possible combination of capitalists and mining men; its business was to manage the mills and mines that had now fallen into the

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NEVADA SILVER. 749 hands of the Bank of California through foreclosure and through manipulations of stock. It also aimed at securing control of others, and ultimately at directing the output of the entire lode. There are, let me explain, two systems of handling ores. A mine can own its mills, or it can send to a custom mill, On the Comstock the mine-owners’ experiments in building mills had proved disastrous. The independent millman was a more efficient ore-worker than a salaried superintendent. But the Comstock system did not secure the permanent welfare of the outsiders. What Prof. Raymond calls “the piratical policy of gutting the mines” was carried on in bonanza times at such a shocking rate of speed that it unduly stimulated the building of more mills, and then left the mines totally unable to sustain any of them. It is not surprising that the Union Mill and Mining syndicate were soon able to gather in seventeen of the leading mills and to keep them running on ore, while outside mills could not make a living. It became evident that the substitution of Sharon for Stewart as the leading personal force on the Comstock was in reality the most complete revolution the sagebrush land had yet known. Nevada had long “talked railroad.” Legislatures, Territorial and State, had granted many charters, but after a few abortive efforts the last of these haphazard schemes was dead. Sharon, the man of affairs, sent for James, of the Sierra Nevada Mine. The following conversation is said to have occurred : “Can you run a railroad from Virginia City to the Carson River ?” att a “ Do it at once.” Within thirty days the winding course, twenty-one miles long, was surveyed; graders were at work; rails were on the way; men were hewing ties in the Sierras; an obedient Legislature had passed a new charter and had authorized $500,000 in bonds as a bonus to the road ; lastly, the mines had subscribed $700,000. It was a busy month, even on the Comstock. Extended to a junc- tion of the Southern Pacific at Reno, the Virginia and Truckee Railroad cost about $3,500,000. The maximum grade is 116 feet to the mile; the curves of the track in the thirteen miles and a half of mountain distance make seventeen full circles, and the rise is 1,600 feet. Sharon had put Chinese graders at work, but the miners’ unions of Gold Hill and Virginia City marched out a thousand strong. The sheriff halted them, and they sat down on the rocks to hear him read the riot act. That ended, they rose with shouts of Homeric laughter, gave three cheers for the sheriff, and moved resistlessly on the graders’ camps. The Chinese “ran like rab- bits” up the gulches. The miners told the boss to quit work, and,

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750 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. marching back, sent word to Sharon that no Chinamen would be allowed in the district under penalty of a strike that would shut down every mine on the lode. In twenty-four hours the Chinese were dismissed and white graders took their places. Defeated here, Sharon silently made ready for the real labor conflict that he foresaw. It began when the first trains entered Virginia City. The fine old silver freighter, in Nevada slang the “mule skinner”; the bull-puncher walking sedately beside his oxen; even that aristocrat of the fraternity, the lordly “ silk-popper,” flicking his playful whiplash at the leaders as he drove his stage- coach down Geiger’s grade—these, all these, after fierce, useless struggles, disappeared into the unrailroaded distance. “ Sharon’s iron mules,” as they said, “ had crowded them off.” Meanwhile the total bullion yield of the lode, which was $16,- 000,000 in 1865, continued to decrease till in 1869 it was only $7,500,000. None knew better than Sharon and his associates that although borrasca had put them into possession, a few more years of borrasca would utterly smash their fortunes. There had been in all eleven bonanzas up to 1869, but now all were “worked out,” and the ordinary ore in the mines not only grew poorer and scantier on the lower levels, but was harder to work. Everything was in eclipse. The miners were following a mere stringer of ore on the nine-hundred foot level of Yellow Jacket that gave Sharon a little hope, but troubles with the miners and disastrous fires intensified the situation. By 1870 some of the members of the syndicate began to weaken; it was openly said that the Comstock had paid its last dividend; the cities of the lode were trembling on the verge of panic. The famous John P. Jones, since United States Senator, was superintendent at Crown Point, and, like all the rest, was vainly looking for ore. The stock fell to two dollars a share, making the total value of the mine, with its costly plant, only $24,000, and assessments went unpaid. Late in 1870 Jones found an ore body, and, joining forces with a discontented member of the bank syn- dicate, wrested control of the mine from Sharon before he knew of the bonanza, which in eighteen months more raised the stock- market value of Crown Point to $22,000,000. They also organized the Nevada Mill and Mining Company in direct opposition to their old associates. Nevertheless, Sharon’s lesser defeat only emphasized a greater victory. His interests in other mines doubled and quadrupled in value, empty treasuries were filled by outside investors, and search for new ore bodies was prose- cuted with renewed energy. The story of the rise of Mackay and Fair reads like a leaf from the Arabian Nights. Like Jones, they had been poor and un- known, working for daily wages. Associated with Flood and

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NEVADA SILVER. 751 O’Brien, they discovered the Big Bonanza, the richest treasure of the Comstock. Mackay outranks the rest of the group, because his rise was more remarkable and his grasp of circumstances more firm. From toiling in the lower levels he rose to be super- intendent of one of the smaller Gold Hill mines. Like Fair, he saved every dollar and put it into stocks under his own control. Before long he was interested in “ Kentuck,” a rich little mine, and it began to pay dividends again. His own statement is that for years he had labored with all the powers of mind and body to make himself “ master and manager of the greatest mines in the world.” Kentuck gave him the start. Mackay and Fair, now associated in every enterprise, ventured to make a fight for the control of Hale and Norcross, which they acquired in March, 1869, its stock, like everything else on the lode, being greatly de- pressed. Fair, leaving Ophir, of which he had long been super- intendent, soon put Hale and Norcross on the dividend list. Old Comstockers still praise “ Uncle Jimmy’s fine nose for ore.” The mining skill of Fair, as well as of Mackay, rose at times into the domains of genius. Before the close of 1869 they controlled Sav- age and Bullion. This proved a bad affair, and nearly ruined them. The Bank of California millionaires began to feel relieved in mind. In a year or two, they said, Mackay will be back in the face of a drift, at four dollars a day, and Fair can be made useful somewhere on a superintendent’s salary. But the Mackay firm, still convinced of the reasonableness of their system of explora- tion, concentrated their last resources upon a long-neglected por- tion of the lode. The Comstock mines begin at the north with Sierra Nevada, 3,300 feet on the lode; coming south, Union Consolidated follows, 600 feet ; then Mexican, the same size; then Ophir, 675 feet. All these were being worked on a large scale. Next came a group of small neglected claims whose titles were in dispute, 1,310 feet in all, followed by Best and Belcher, Gould and Curry, Savage, and Hale and Norcross, which completed the famous north-end, or Virginia City, group of mines. The neglected section, 600 feet of which was afterward known as California, and 710 feet as Con- solidated Virginia, was worth only $40,000 on the stock market. As Mackay and his associates bought, the stock rose; the three- fourths interest they desired cost $100,000. They took control in January, 1871, and began mining operations, sinking a new and large shaft and pushing a drift north from Gould and Curry, nearly 1,200 feet below the surface, by a special contract with the owners of the mines crossed. ; One day Fair discovered a slight change in the barren rock and determined to follow a narrow seam. hardly thicker than a knife blade. Sometimes it was only a film of clay, but occasion-

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752 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ally a pin point of ore was seen. For hundreds of feet the miners drifted beside this slender clew. Fair became ill, and the work- men lost it, but on his return he picked up the ore thread. They were now a hundred feet in Consolidated Virginia ground, and the price of the stock began to break, when suddenly the stringer widened to a vein of sixty-dollar ore. In October, on the 1,167- foot level, the top of the “Big Bonanza” was uncovered; the drift went 148 feet through solid ore 54 feet wide. The great kidney-shaped mass extended downward below the 1,500-foot level, and widened to 150 feet and even to 300 feet. The ore grew Gocv_Lp anp Curry MINERS READY FOR WorRK. richer and richer as the men advanced. Nothing like it had ever been known in the history of mining. Here, in the heart of the Comstock, hundreds of naked miners were soon hewing down the ore. On all sides of a pyramidal mass of timber which grew larger every minute were twinkling stars of lamps. Everything in the bonanza was sent to the mill as fast as it was quarried out, and some of it was so rich that waste rock was added to aid amalgamation. An average block of ore three feet square contained from two hundred to five hun- dred dollars in silver and gold. The richest spot was near the California line, where clusters of malleable silver in coiled wires occurred beside shining stephanite, pale-green and steel-gray chlorides, and lustrous black silver glance, besides masses of the most exquisite crystals of every color known to the mineralogist. In six years Consolidated Virginia milled 682,355 tons of ore, producing $60,732,882 ; California, in four years, milled 486,043 tons, producing $43,727,837. The total yield of the Big Bonanza had been nearly $105,000,000, and more than $73,000,000 had been

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NEVADA SILVER. 753 paid in dividends. Extreme haste was necessary in extracting the ore, so great was the danger of a disaster. Mackay and Fair hardly rested day or night till the bonanza was exhausted. Out- side, all the exchanges of the world were fighting over Com- stocks. The two mines, rated in 1871 at $40,000, were rated in 1875 at $160,000,000. Thirty mines on the lode were now valued at about $400,000,000. So much money was withdrawn from legitimate business and flung into the stock market that when the inevitable crash came and the Bank of California failed, every industry of the Pacific coast was checked for years. In the midst of the bonanza excitement Virginia City was swept by a great fire, the culmination of a long series of mining disasters, and in a few hours a territory half a mile square was a mass of ruins. The mining companies lost acres of supplies and lumber; Ophir, Consolidated Virginia, and California had all their buildings burned; two thousand stores, hotels, lodging houses, and dwellings were destroyed. The very next day men were at work in the ruins, on the rugged hillsides, in the ravines, by the monstrous waste dumps, clearing away, rebuilding on a still more massive scale the giant machine shops, hoisting works, and mills. The two bonanza mines lost $1,500,000, and yet they managed to keep up regular dividends at the rate of $1,080,000 a month! All these years one in- domitable mill owner and engineer, Adolph Sutro, had been fighting single-handed the men who controlled the Comstock. Away back in 1860 he had advised a deep adit, and in 1865 he obtained a franchise for the Sutro Tunnel Company, with Sen- ator Stewart as president. The mining companies bound themselves to pay perpetual royalties after the completion of the tunnel. Congress, assuming the reg- ulation of the immense mining interests involved, passed an act which, still further protecting the enterprise, made the very titles of the mining companies dependent upon the ful- fillment of their obligations. Large subscriptions were made, and Apotpu Svctro.

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754 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. it was expected that the bonds would sell readily. But early in 1867 the Bank of California syndicate began to perceive that the Sutro Tunnel, delivering ore at the Carson River mills and mining supplies nearly two thousand feet below the surface, might very easily destroy their control of the Comstock and its dependent industries. Therefore they declared war, and opened hostilities. Stewart resigned ; subscriptions were all withdrawn; shrewd law- yers and politicians were employed to obtain the repeal of the franchise and of the act of Congress; financiers in New York and Europe were warned not to touch Sutro bonds. Years after Sutro said in conversation: “ Ah, it was a hard thing to have so many old friends in San Francisco and Virginia City actually afraid to be seen talking to me after the fiat had gone forth that I must be crushed at any cost. But I kept on fighting. There was one time, I remember, when I had to go to Washington to save my interests from destruction. I had no money. All the profits of my mill had been swallowed up. But I had a lot in a little California town, and I sold it for two hundred dollars, and with that 1 managed to get to Washington. I stayed there somehow that winter, poor as I was, and fought my enemies, and came out ahead. But their newspapers said I had bribed Congress—out of my two hundred dollars! ” After making the most strenuous efforts Sutro failed to place his bonds, In 1869, turning for help to the working miners, he delivered a remarkable address in Virginia City. Large cartoons illustrated his bitter eloquence. One showed Bill Sharon’s Big Woodpile, another Bill Sharon’s Crooked Railroad, a third the then recent fire in Yellow Jacket, where forty-two lives had been lost that might have been saved had the Sutro Tunnel existed. He appealed to the miners’ unions for stock subscriptions with which to begin work. “ Will the people of Nevada see me crushed out now?... Come in together. Let two thousand laboring men pay in ten dollars apiece a month, and insure the construction of the tunnel, carrying with it the control of the mines. ... From dependents you will be masters.” With such sentences he ad- dressed the working miners of the Comstock, who actually raised fifty thousand dollars in a few weeks, and on October 19th reso- lute Sutro broke ground in his great undertaking. Nevertheless the tunnel was steadily opposed by the California and Nevada Senators and by nearly all the mining men on the Comstock. The history of the long struggle is embalmed in the pages of the Congressional Record and innumerable public documents. Sutro bonds were finally sold, but the difficulties of the undertaking proved greater than had been expected, and the period of the bonanzas passed before the lode was reached.

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NEVADA SILVER. 755 The progress of the work was dramatic. The face of the rock “showed a temperature of 114°.” Two or three hours was all that the strongest men could work. Endurance was strained to its utmost capacity. Man after man dropped down on the rocky floor and was carried to the surface babbling and incoherent. This strenuous toil continued till July 8, 1878, when Sutro him- self, half naked like one of his miners, labored at the front, and finally crawled through a jagged hole into the Savage drift, “overcome with excitement,” as one of the newspaper accounts . a ee - ¥ Sctrro Tunnex, Surro, Nevapa. said. What had been contemptuously called “Sutro’s coyote hole ” thus became an accomplished fact. Through such passionate conflicts as those described the heroes of the Comstock continued making workshops, mills, machinery; building two marvelously picturesque towns along the lode, and hiding underneath the greater creation—the real City of the Comstock. Here, in deeps below deeps, are three- mile streets, mysterious labyrinths, water torrents, burning heats, perils numberless, legends that might serve to fill a vol- ume. Time was when twelve thousand miners toiled in these vast galleries, swinging picks, hammering drills, raising timbers to place, climbing to the stopes, breaking down the ore, pushing lines of loaded cars to stations on the hoisting shafts. They were superb athletes, with muscles evenly developed by their labor. A few of them remain, scraping out the ore left in older work- ings and maintaining to the fullest degree the fine old-time pride of their craft. For sixteen years, however, the mines have been

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756 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. in borrasca, and they may never again pay a profit to their owners. Still, with faith and endurance that are sublime, the heroes of the Comstock cling to its fallen fortunes, and continue the search for new bonanzas. [Eptrortat Notr.—The full story of the mines, as illustrated by the great Comstock lode, prepared by Mr. Shinn, will constitute the next volume of the Story of the West Series, edited by Mr. Ripley Hitchcock, to be published by D. Appleton & Co. in October. Our readers need hardly be told that Mr Shinn has special qualifications in his familiar acquaint- ance with the subject and his rare literary skill, which will impart special interest and value to this work ] A MEASURE OF MENTAL CAPACITY. By Dr. EMIL KRAEPELIN, PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRY AT HEIDELBERG. (From an Address delivered in behalf of the Heideiberger Frauenverein.) V E are able to calculate almost precisely the amount of work any given machine—as a steam engine or an electric-light- ing plant—is capable of performing, and the amount of fuel that will be required to develop the calculated power. When we come to man we are much less certain, although a skillful army surgeon can tell almost at a glance whether the recruit standing before him is strong enough to meet the requirements of the service, and there are machines in the market that will inform us in what time we can pull a given weight to a given height. But we have no measure that we can apply to the capacity for mental work, and no units of mental valuation. The most we can do is to compare the intellectual capacity of one man with that of another by the mental results they have severally achieved in practice. When we wish to test the fitness of a candidate for a position of trust or responsibility, we subject him to an exami- nation, which relates, however, mostly to what he has learned, and from which we guess in a rather indirect way what he may be capable of doing in the future, and with relation to other matters than those on which we examine him; and the test is very often deceptive: for those who have made the most brilliant displays in the examination frequently fail in capacity to make practical application of what they have learned only theoretic- ally ; or they fail by irregularity, frequent and marked changes in their disposition to work, want of endurance, or too great de- pendence on external conditions, of which the examination gives no prediction. Such efforts as have been made to obviate this difficulty have hitherto failed to meet their object. It has, however, recently become possible to reach fairly ap- proximate conclusions concerning mental capacity, such as other-

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A MEASURE OF MENTAL CAPACITY. 757 wise even a long personal acquaintance with the candidate could not afford, and to determine with considerable exactness the working power of individuals in simple mental tasks. The meas- ure is afforded by determining the number of small, similar prob- lems resolved by the subject in a given time—such, for example, as numbering letters, reading, the learning by heart of series of numbers or syllables, and the continuous addition of columns of numbers. In the last-mentioned method the person under trial is set to adding figures ranged one under another in a book printed expressly for that purpose, for a considerable time, with- out stopping—under some circumstances, for several hours. When the sum reaches a hundred, the hundred is simply car- ried on and added to the excess in units. A bell sounds every five minutes, when the candidate draws a line after the last-added number. At the end of the trial it is easy to determine how many numbers the person can add every five minutes. The candidates—all of nearly equal degrees of advancement, and of about the same age—varied greatly in the speed of their execution, the more rapid ones adding two and a half times as many numbers in five minutes as the slower ones. This proves that facility in reckoning is largely peculiar to the individual. Accuracy, however, was not considered. If that had been brought in, some of the results might have been materially dif- ferent. It further appeared that the speed of the additions increased regularly with each effort, but not equally with the different subjects, so that it was possible sometimes for a slower calculator eventually to pass ahead of the next quicker one. This improve- ment in facility was, however, subject to limitation, and is less in each repetition—as, for example, twenty-five per cent from the first trial to the second; fifteen per cent from the second to the third; and about six per cent from the third to the fourth—till a point is finally reached when there is no further increase. This capacity for improvement through practice appears also to be an individual quality. The permanence of the acquisitions obtained through it has not been sufficiently investigated ; but they seem in the end gradually to wear out, and the rapidity of the wearing- out process to vary with the persons. Of an opposite character to this is the far more rapidly in- creasing effect of fatigue, which always causes a diminution of efficiency, however much it may at first be temporarily balanced by the improvement through exercise. When it has once gained the upper hand, a speedy and unintermitted decline of efficiency ensues. The time when this shall take place depends on the degree of capacity already reached, the personal peculiarity, and casual influences,

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758 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. The differences in the susceptibility of different persons to fatigue are very interesting. Every person, as a rule, possesses a course of efficiency peculiar to him, which works itself out in the same manner during any particular period of labor. Some dis- play in single efforts first an increase and then after some time a decrease of efficiency; they are least readily fatigued. Others, registering a depression of efficiency after the first quarter of an hour, betray a very great susceptibility to fatigue. All the tran- sitions are observable between these two forms, but each individ- ual generally follows the same course according to his personal peculiarity. The susceptibility to fatigue is observed in all possible exami- nation tasks, and may therefore be considered to represent a bot- tom principle of the individual personality, which, while it may be influenced within certain limits, as a general rule measurably determines the capacity of men for work. Other means of measuring the capacity of a subject are af- forded by the ease with which he is diverted from his task, or his susceptibility to disturbing influences from without and from within; his elasticity, or the readiness with which he recovers from the effects of fatigue or diversion ; and the way he is affected by taking food, physical exercise, and the time he has for sleep. In each and all of these fields of inquiry the result obtained has to be complemented finally by the estimation of the quali- tative value of the work accomplished. We may infer from this passing review that it is actually pos- sible to express important properties of mental personality in measurable, generally comparable, determinations. But we are still far from being able to apply such measurements to the pur- poses of daily life. Yet, while we fail if we attempt to draw cer- tain lessons from the matured, complicated organization of the grown-up man, the simpler, still growing mental equipment of the child affords a more fruitful field for study and is more subject to our influence. The question then presents itself for investigation of the men- tal endurance of our school children. The school requires its pupils to perform daily a specified amount of mental work, while it is really not clearly known whether the childish brain is actu- ally able to fulfill the demand without suffering lasting damage. The young men I experimented upon, whose facility in addition fell off at the beginning of the second hour, had already had their working powers exercised and tested by responding to the demand of the school and of the university. Against them was a child two years old, who gave plain evidences of weariness after only a few minutes of fixed attention. Valuable researches on this sub- ject have been made by Prof. Burgerstein, of Vienna, who com-

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A MEASURE OF MENTAL CAPACITY. 759 posed four series of problems in addition and multiplication, the written solution of each of which would require at least ten min- utes. He gave them, mostly during the earlier school hours, to pupils of different classes, between eleven and thirteen years of age, so that the pupils would have to make four calculations ten minutes long. Five minutes’ pause was given between each prob- lem and the next. The whole experiment thus lasted fifty-five minutes, or about the usual length of a school hour. One hun- dred and sixty-two pupils took part in the exercises, and the re- sults were so nearly uniform that their trustworthiness can not be doubted. The first result was a notable increase of facility in the several sections of the experiment. The number of numbers counted up was about forty per cent larger in the last section than in the first. It was found, however, that not all the pupils shared equally in this advance, but that about forty-three per cent of them showed an evident sinking of efficiency at the end of the hour. The differences in personal susceptibility to fatigue previously observed among adults was also expressed here. This, however, is only a small part of the real results of the experiment. Prof. Burgerstein took pains to determine the number of mistakes committed by the pupils and the corrections they made, in order to estimate the value of the work accomplished in the several sec- tions. Both appeared to increase from the very first, and much more rapidly than the speed of the work. It follows hence in- contestably that the evidences of fatigue in the children under examination make themselves evident with increasing force from the second section of the experiment, and that in the majority of the children it is only outwardly concealed by the likewise in- creasing skill. The quantity of work rose, but its value under- went a constant depreciation. Similar results were obtained by the Russian Sikorski from dictation exercises, and by Hépfner in Berlin from dictations to boys nine years old. The general result of these still too limited investigations of the susceptibility of school children to fatigue is the incontestable fact that the demands which the schools make upon the mental capacity of their pupils are far in excess of what they should be. Yet this work is never continuous, but is interrupted by numer- ous pauses for rest, which doubtless have considerable influence on the progress of fatigue. The results of Burgerstein and Hépf- ner’s experiments would have been much more unsatisfactory if brief pauses had not been interpolated between the different work- ing spells. The remarkable fact was brought out in my experi- ments with adults in addition, in which pauses of ten minutes were interposed between the half-hour tasks, that the efficiency immediately after each pause was much higher than at any time before. This result is explained simply by the different velocities 1 i ! i

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760 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. with which the influence of practice and that of fatigue are lost. Fatigue passes away, comparatively very quickly, while the gain from practice, as already mentioned, is plainly demonstrable after weeks and even months. Thus it happens that with intervals of days or weeks each succeeding series of experiments begins with a quickness in calculation which is much greater than the highest achievement of the former experiment. The same takes place likewise after the short breathing pauses, as long as these pauses are sufficient to overcome in a measure the fatigue that has begun. Since through the interpolation of pauses from work the other- wise inevitably sinking efficiency is kept at a nearly even height, the length of the periods of rest ought to be so adjusted that the injurious effects of fatigue should never acquire a predominance over the facility acquired by practice. If the experiment, how- ever, is carried too far, the short pauses will no longer counter- balance the effect of fatigue, and the capacity to work will become null, For this reason the resting spells, if they are really to ac- complish their purpose, should not only be much larger than they are now in our schools, but should succeed one another at shorter intervals and should be increased as the teaching is protracted. The picture which we have to compose on the basis of the ex- periments under consideration is a gloomy one. While a quarter of an hour of simple work is enough to develop the first signs of fatigue in a twelve-year-old pupil, lessons of several hours’ dura- tion, interrupted only by a few short pauses, should soon lead to complete mental exhaustion. The demand on attention is much too long, the breathing spells are much too short, for healthy effi- ciency to be maintained only remotely. The picture is, however, too darkly drawn. What I have sketched could take place only if the schools attained what they are striving for with all their means. Kind Nature has provided a safety valve for the salvation of our growing youth, the value of which can not be too highly estimated—inattention. Only by effort, and only for a short time, can we force a measurable con- centration of the full force of attention upon the solution of the problem; care is therefore always taken in the school that the time of the session shall not be regarded wholly as a time of work. Burgerstein, indeed, thought that through the pauses he introduced the relation between effort and relaxation might be imitated in a regulated school hour. But these experiments seem to me to show to a certainty that our children would necessarily fall into mental disorder if they were really forced to work with full attention for forty minutes in each school hour. That, in fact, only a few are seriously injured by overwork in school is due to those interruptions to study and those incidents in teach-

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A MEASURE OF MENTAL CAPACITY. 761 ing that give the pupils happy opportunities to loosen the reins of their tired attention and forget the hard present. “One can com- pel children to sit and be still,” says Burgerstein, “ but he must not mistake; they will still in many cases take mental rest, or make a change for themselves, and not follow the course of the teaching if they are tired.” Hence arises the unexpected conse- quence that, under the present extension of instruction, tedious teachers are a necessity. To a certain extent the dangers of mental overwork have been recognized for a long time. All those efforts to introduce phys- ical exercises into the school hours have in view, to a greater or less extent, the defense of the childish brain against the imminent dangers of a one-sided tension by alternating mental and muscu- lar exertion. Gymnastic and movement exercises, manual train- ing, and singing and drawing, to a certain extent, are intended to furnish rest-pauses for recovery from mental weariness and the gradual restoration of the previous efficiency. For this purpose such have been interposed at intervals to relieve the strictly men- tal work. The physical exercises are doubtless of considerable value toward the complete building up of the personality, but they must be regarded as relaxations only within certain limits. It is, at any rate, fundamentally false to regard physical effort as in any way a suitable preparation for mental labor. Protracted ex- periments, pursued under my direction, have given the result that a simple walk of from one to two hours diminishes the mental efficiency in adults at least as much as about an hour’s work in addition. The same is the case to a more limited extent with much less important bodily efforts. It is well known to pupils and teachers that the greater the interval of active play, the longer time is required for collecting the faculties before return- ing to mental work. From these experiments has arisen the de- mand that physical exercises should not be regarded in the plan of teaching as relaxations; and the demand for hard mental work should not be imposed on the pupil till after a rest from them. By far the most important compensation for all effects of fatigue is sleep. Everybody, even the man mentally most inert, develops when awake a mass of mental effort which he can not afford continuously without suffering. We need, therefore, regu- larly recurring periods in which the consumption of mental force shall be slower than the continuous replacement. The lower the degree to which the activity of the brain sinks, then, the more rapid and more complete the recovery. The mental vigor of most men is usually maintained at a cer- tain height for the longest time in the forenoon. The evidences of fatigue come on later at this time of day than in the evening, VOL, XLIX.—59 ‘

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762 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. when the store of force in our brain has been already considera- bly drawn upon by the whole day’s work. If no recovery by sleep is enjoyed, or it is imperfect, the consequences will invaria- bly make themselves evident the next day in a depression of men- tal vigor as well as in a rise in the personal susceptibility to fatigue. The rapidity with which one of the persons I experi- mented upon could perform his tasks in addition sank about a third after a night journey by railway with insufficient sleep. Another experimenter could detect the effects of keeping himself awake all night in a gradual decrease of vigor lasting through four days. This observation was all the more surprising, because the subject was not conscious of the long duration of the disturb- ance, and was first made aware of it incidentally by the results of continued measurements on the causes of the manifestations of fatigue. These experiments admonish us to give special attention to the question of sleep with men who work with their minds. This is of more especial importance for the growing generation, because the susceptibility to fatigue, and consequently the need of sleep, are much greater in the youthful brain than in that of adults. The average duration of sleep has been studied by Axel Key in Swedish pupils of different ages. He found that it ranges from nine hours in children ten years old down to seven hours in pupils of eighteen years. Children ten years old were found who slept only six, and some of seventeen or eighteen years who had to satisfy themselves with four hours!—a result which is really astonishing. Axel Key is certainly right when he assumes that the mass of Swedish school children of all ages are daily deprived of one or two hours of their needed sleep, to say nothing of those unfortunate ones who can sleep only half the time or less which is required for their healthy mental and bodily development. The amounts of sleep required by different men are very va- rious, for they are dependent on the deepness of the slumber. There are persons who sleep so soundly that a surprisingly short time spent in sleeping is enough for them. On the other hand, we know that for many idiosyncrasies a length of sleep which is quite enough for the average of men is much too short. Besides sleep, which limits the waste for a certain time and favors the restoration of what has been consumed, we need for the maintenance of our working strength the assimilation of food. By means of food the substances are introduced to the tissues which they require for their constant renewal. Sleep alone can indeed retard for a long time the continued destruction of the organs by the processes of life, as it does in the hibernation of animals ; but there comes a point at last when only the introduc- tion of fresh restorative matter can assure the continued main-

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SOME BEGINNINGS IN SCIENCE. 763 tenance of the body. This necessity comes more speedily upon workingmen than on men of leisure, earlier upon children than upon mature persons. An infant at the breast could be entirely deprived of food for only a short time without serious harm, while a sound man, with other conditions favorable, can bear a privation of several days. A time of several hours passes between the taking of food and its complete utilization in the body. During this time, especially after hearty meals, the mental vigor is diminished in a marked degree. Later it gradually rises, and the susceptibility to fatigue diminishes, When now we look back at the conditions we have discovered that control mental vigor, we conclude that our children are ex- posed by the extent and arrangement of study-work in the schools to great perils for their mental and physical development. The questions that press upon us on this matter are of such impor- tance that we all have reason to give them our full, undivided attention. We are only at the beginning of a real hygiene of mental labor, but the results we have obtained in this research, fully indicating the nature and operation of the dangers, point with equal clearness to the character of the preventive and reme- dial measures which should be sought and applied. SOME BEGINNINGS IN SCIENCE. By Pror. COLLIER COBB. | Pye before the sciences were pressing their claim to equal rank with ancient learning at Harvard, before Jefferson had seen the establishment of the University of Virginia working under the system of elective studies which he had planned, or before the magnificently endowed institutions of technology were giving what Herbert Spencer regards as knowledge of most worth, we find the beginnings of these things in the newly estab- lished university of a State that could boast of only two schools which taught more than the three R’s and the very rudiments of the English language. This modern plan of instruction offered by the University of North Carolina more than one hundred years ago was the work of a committee of six. Two of this committee were graduates of Princeton, one a graduate and ex-professor of the University of Pennsylvania, two had .been students of Harvard, but their edu- cation at Cambridge had been interrupted by the Revolutionary War, and the sixth was an eminent lawyer. The names of these men were Samuel McCorkle, David Stone, Alfred Moore, Samuel

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764 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Ashe, Hugh Williamson, and John Hay. The course planned by this committee in 1792 gave great prominence to the scientific studies, especially those which could be applied to the arts. The report further recommended the purchase of apparatus for experi- mental philosophy and astronomy, in which must be included a set of globes, barometer, thermometer, mi- croscope, telescope, quadrant, pris- matic glass, electrical machine, and an air-pump. The ancient classics were made elective, the degree of Bachelor of Arts being obtainable without the study of either Latin or Greek. In 1800, however, Latin was made a required study, and an elec- tion allowed between French and Greek; and in 1804 Greek was added to the required studies. It is re- markable that this scheme, adopted in 1792, is almost identical with that adopted by Congress for the col- leges to be formed under what is known as the Agricultural and Me-

JosePpH CALDWELL. . . O29 inn eadnenel tee. tine chanical College Land Act of 1862. P. Battle. But its interest for us to-day lies in the fact that it led to the establish- ment of the first astronomical observatory in the United States, to the first geological survey by public authority in America, and to the first equipment for the teaching of electricity. The men chosen by the trustees to begin this work were David Ker, a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin; Charles W. Harriss, a Princeton man of the class of 1789, Professor of Mathematics; and Samuel A. Holmes, also an alumnus of Princeton. Mr. Har- riss was succeeded in his professorship by Joseph Caldwell, Princeton, 1791, who was a tutor at Princeton at the time of his appointment to the professorship in North Carolina. To Dr. Caldwell we owe the realization of the hopes of the original committee, the ultimate establishment of the observatory, the geological survey, and the electrical laboratory. <A letter written by Prof. Harriss from Chapel Hill, April 10, 1795, shows something of the spirit which Dr. Caldwell was to find in the young university. In it this Princeton man says: “The constitu- tion of this college is on a more liberal plan than that of any other in America, and by the amendments which I think it will receive at the next meeting of the trustees its usefulness will

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SOME BEGINNINGS IN SCIENCE. 765 probably be much promoted. The notion that true learning con- sists rather in exercising the reasoning faculties and laying up a store of useful knowledge, than in overloading the memory with words of dead languages, is becoming daily more prevalent. It is hard to deny a young gentleman the honor of a college, after he has with much labor and painful attention acquired a competent knowledge of the sciences, of composing and speak- \ SS N \ USS \4 \ Tue Oxtp TELESCOPES AS THEY ARE To-DAY IN THE MITCHELL OBSERVATORY. Drawn by E. L. Harris. ing with propriety in his own language, and has conned the first principles of whatever might render him useful or creditable in the world, merely because he could not read a language two thousand years old.” This letter might well be dated from Boston a century later, for it was nearly a century before such ideas of the essentials of an education were gaining ground with our foremost educators. The literary societies established in 1795 took mottoes in keeping with the spirit of the day, that of the Dialectic Society being “Love of Virtue and Science,” and

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766 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, the motto of the Philanthropic Society, “ Virtue, Liberty, and Science.” The first gift to the university, other than lands and money, came from the ladies of Raleigh and Newbern, who contributed a pair of globes, a compass, and a quadrant. The first student, Hinton James,chose as the subjects of his senior forensics, “The Uses of the Sun,” “The Commerce of Britain,” and “ The Motions of the Earth.” The young Professor of Mathematics was made pres- ident of the university in 1804. His prosperity cul- minated in 1824, when the financial condition of the university was so good as to allow the trustees to send him to Europe for the pur- chase of scientific apparatus and books, appropriating six thousand dollars for the purpose. - Soon after his return Euisna MITCHELL. ‘. After portrait by Jocelyn. from Europe President Cald- well planned an observa- tory, which he built with his own money. The building was finished in 1827, and in the observatory he placed the instruments which he had brought from Europe. These were a meridian transit telescope, made by Simms, of London; an altitude and azimuth telescope, also made by Simms; a telescope for observa- tions on the earth and sky, made by Dolland, of London; and.an astronomical clock with a mercurial pendulum, made by Moli- neux, of London. To these stationary instruments were added a sextant, made by Wilkinson, of London; a portable reflecting circle, made by Harris, of London; and a Hadley’s quadrant. Before the completion of the observatory building, the clock and meridian transit were set up and used in the library of the university, which was also Prof. Caldwell’s lecture room. Here began, in 1825, the first systematic observations upon the heavens made in the United States. Dr. Caldwell was assisted by Profs. Mitchell and Phillips, and their first work was to find the approxi- mate values of the longitude and the latitude of the building in which they worked. Mitchell was a Yale man of the class of

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SOME BEGINNINGS IN SCIENCE. 767 1813, a native of Connecticut, and a descendant of John Eliot, the apostle to the Indians. Phillips was an Englishman, and a son of a clergyman of the Church of England. Upon its completion in 1827 the instruments were moved into the observatory, where observations were made by Dr. Caldwell and his colleagues. The materials used in the building were very poor; the bricks in the wall soon crumbled, and it became neces- sary,soon after the death of Dr. Caldwell, in January, 1835, to remove the instruments. The building then went rapidly to decay, and fell a victim to fire in 1838. Observations were, however, continued by Dr. Elisha Mitchell in the attic of the large wooden building which he used as a chemical and metallurgical laboratory. In each end of the attic were two large windows, and in the roof eight others, four on either side. These observations were continued until the summer of 1857, when Prof. Mitchell lost his life upon the highest peak east of the Mississippi River, the mountain which bears his name. By his observations in 1835, 1838, 1844, and 1856 he had estab- lished the fact that the peaks of the Black Moun- tains in North Carolina are the highest east of the Mississippi. Prof. Phillips has told us that in order “ tostudy the constellations and to show them to his pupils, Dr. Caldwell built on the top of his own residence a platform surrounded by a railing. Here he would sit night after night, pointing out to the seniors, taken in squads of three or four, the outlines of the con- stellations and _ their principal stars, and the highway of the planets andthe moon. Dr. Cald- poem saa “ap well also built in his gar- den, where they still stand, two pillars of brick, that their eastern and western faces, carefully ground into the same plane, might mark the true meridian. Near these pillars stood a stone pillar, some five feet high, bearing upon its top a sundial for marking the hours of the day.”

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768 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

Before the coming of Mitchell, Princeton thought and Prince- ton methods had prevailed in the University of North Carolina

Denison OLMSTED. After a daguerreotype by Moulthrop. to the exclusion of all oth- ers. But in 1817, Denison Olmsted, a classmate of Mit- chell’s at Yale, was elected Professor of Chemistry and Geology. Messrs. Mitchell and Olmsted were recom- mended to Judge William Gaston, then a member of Congress, by the Rev. Sereno Dwight, chaplain of the United States Senate, as young men who were likely to become prominent scien- tists; and the trustees, upon this recommendation, and upon that of Hon. George E. Badger, who had been their classmate at Yale, offered them chairs in the univer- sity. In 1821 Olmsted laid be- fore the Board of Internal Improvements of North Carolina a proposition to undertake a geological and mineralogical survey of the State. This letter is preserved in the executive office at Raleigh. The board approved, and pre- sented the matter to the Legislature. But the Leg- islature took no notice of the matter until two years later, when the proposi- tion was renewed. Thesur- vey was authorized by act of the General Assembly, ratified December 31, 1823. Prof. Olmsted was appoint- ed to begin the survey un- der direction of the State Board of Agriculture, pros- ecuting the work during z ° 7

First OBSERVATORY. Drawn from description furnished by John H. Wat- son, Esq., Mayor of Chapel Hill, N. C. the vacations of the university. Thus was established the first geological survey by public authority in America. It was sus-

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SOME BEGINNINGS IN SCIENCE. 769 tained by an annual appropriation of two hundred and fifty dol- lars, continued for five years. When Mr. Olmsted resigned in 1825 to accept a professorship at Yale, Dr. Mitchell took up the work of the survey in addition to the duties of his professorship in the university. Olmsted’s report was published in two parts, in 1824 and 1825, and filled in all about one hundred and twenty Tue AstronomicaL CLOCK. This clock still keeps the time for the university. Drawn by E. L. Harris. octavo pages. The American Journal of Science observes of this survey that, regarded especially as the gratuitous vacation work of a single individual, and in view of the state of geological sci- ence in this country at the time, it “must certainly be looked upon as creditable -in the highest degree both to the enter- prise and to the scientific ability of its projector, and it has un- doubtedly been of great benefit not only to the State which authorized it, but to the country and to science generally, by

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770 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the stimulus which it afforded to similar enterprises in other States.” A few years later, in 1829, we find Dr. Caldwell purchasing of W. and S. Jones, mathematical instrument makers, London, the equipment for an electrical laboratory at the University of North Carolina. The first item on the bill, which lies before me as I write, is “a three-feet plate electrical machine with large branch conductor, supported by two glass pillars, double collectors, mounted in strong mahogany, varnished frame, with six brass legs fitted into brass sockets and screw nuts, negative brass con- ductor on claw-feet stand from the ground, with connecting slid- ‘ te “a ‘ me AG ee > = in nets, | res BS a Sr Sis oe A Pror. Mircuetyt’s LaBoRATORY AND OBSERVATORY. After photograph by Collier Cobb. ing tubes, brass bells and wires, etc., £45.” The total amount of this first bill for electrical apparatus was £153 4s. 6d. Dr. Caldwell published a Compendious System of Elementary Geometry, in seven books, to which an eighth is added, containing such other propositions as are elementary; subjoined is a Trea- tise on Plane Trigonometry. He was one of the earliest advocates in the South of popular education by the State. Dr. Mitchell was the author of a Manual of Chemistry, a second edition of which was passing through the press at the time of his death ; a Manual of Geology, illustrated by a geological map of North Carolina; a Manual of Natural History, and a Geography

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 771 of the Holy Land. Between 1830 and 1840 he contributed many valuable articles to Silliman’s Journal. Denison Olmsted became more widely known than either of the other pioneers in science. In the course of his work at Chapel Hill he gave the first geological description of the Deep River coal beds, and of the accompanying New Red sandstone, and re- ferred the strata correctly to the same age with the Richmond coal beds and the Connecticut River sandstones. He began re- searches to determine the practicability of obtaining illuminating gas from cotton seed, but removed to New Haven before he had secured definite results. His Natural Philosophy, which is still a standard work, appeared in 1831, and his Astronomy, another important work, in 1839. One wonders why such good beginnings should have borne so little fruit; but when we bear in mind that the institution which thus early fostered science had the greater part of its endowment fund swept away by the civil war, that the spirit of the South since that great event has been largely commercial and industrial, and that the income of the old university, from legislative appro- priations, tuition fees, and endowment funds, is only forty-five thousand dollars, the wonder ceases. ——_-@jeq—_—_—- THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. By C. F. HODGE, Pu. D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, CLARK UNIVERSITY. Iil.—THE UTILITY OF VIVISECTION. SIDE from the highest “use of science,” its satisfaction of man’s intellectual wants and its influence upon his char- acter, science has many “ practical ” values connected with its de- velopment. And it is to these “uses” of physiological research that we will confine attention, bearing in mind that we are ad- dressing those who believe that, after duty, human health and happiness are the highest values in the world, and that the greatest evils in the world, after moral evil, are human suffering caused by disease and premature death. How much “use” humanity has for help in these regards may be seen from a glance at vital statistics. “Of 1,000,000 people starting out in life, 497,000 will die, almost all from disease, before reaching the age of forty-one.”* We are losing yearly in this country over 302,806 children under five years of age.t There certainly is no “ use ” in this. * Albert Buck. A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health, vol. ii, pp. 328, 329. + Tenth Census Compendium, p. 1707.

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_ POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. A recent writer* has actually cited mortality statistics to prove the futility of vivisection. The figures do show that in England since 1850 certain organic diseases have been on the in- crease, despite the slight advance in our knowledge of them. At first blush this table given by Leffingwell strikes one as a serious argument against the utility of research. On closer inspection, however, it only reveals the astute cunning of this author in the selection of his diseases. Almost without exception these maladies lie very deep in the hereditary tendencies of the race, and we could not expect them to be checked and reversed in so short a time. With increase of wealth and advance in civilization the chance that defectives may leave enfeebled progeny is greatly in- creased, and that there has not been an even greater increase in these diseases is cause for congratulation. But even if the statis- tics would support the significance Leffingwell attaches to them, what are we to do about it? The only courageous course would seem to be to acknowledge the extreme difficulty of the problems involved and attack them with redoubled energy. Over two thousand years of clinical observation and empiricism have prob- ably about exhausted possibilities in these directions, so that our only hope would seem to lie in experiment; and the less prelimi- nary experimenting on men, the better. If Leffingwell had been able to prove from statistics that there is no curable disease in the world, he would have had a strong argument. As it stands, how- ever, it must be acknowledged to be the strongest possible argu- ment for the side of research. The chief point of unfairness of the table lies in Leffingwell’s selection of diseases. Why confine attention to statistics of or- ganic disease? In acute diseases, where we would naturally look for the first fruits of scientific work, the gain has been considerable. In support of this, we may quote a few passages from News- holme’s Vital Statistics. On page 273 he says: “If these chil- dren ” (the 858,878 born annually in England) “ be traced through life, the changes in the death-rates occurring 1871-1880, as com- pared with 1838-1854, would result in an addition of 1,800,047 years of life shared among them; and since this number of births occurs annually, it may be reasonably inferred that there is an annual addition of nearly 2,000,000 years of life to the community, the greater share in which musi be ascribed to sanitary meas- ures, ... In the decennium 1871-1880, the death-rate from fever fell from an annual average of 885 per million to 484, a decline of forty-five per cent” (page 183). For scarlet fever the decline be- tween 1875 and 1885 was forty-nine per cent (page 185). From tables, page 101, we see that the death-rate per 1,000 in * Albert Leffingwell. Vivisection, p. 75, Boston, Mass., 1889 (date of introduction).

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 773 1838-40 was, for males, 23°3; in 1887, only 19°8; for females, in 1838-40, 22°5 ; in 1887, only 17°8. From comparing death-rates for the ten years before and after 1872, the year of the passage of the Public Health Act, we find that “no less than 392,749 persons who, under the old régime, would have died, were, as a matter of fact, still living at the close of 1881. . . . Add to these saved lives the avoidance of at least four times as many attacks of non-fatal illness, and we have the total profits as yet received from our sanitary expenditure ” (p. 127). “ We may add that if the death-rates between 1881-1888 are included, the improvement becomes even more striking.” Thus: Mean annual death- Record of years. rate per 1,000. Public Health Act, 1872. Ten years, 1862-’71................ 22°6 Pee: Fe tks cccesenvvcus 21°8 Five “ 1875-"80................ 20°79 “ QS hs cic coe swuwake 19°30 Ee 19°38 ee ee 18°79 EE ee ee 17°83* For Boston, a * London, NG 9:55 4h a denewsaciew 19°6 * Lowell, Mass., Cctattnnaen Oe. Sele 26°6 “ Massachusetts, DO ttn eine wedueneae 20° 6+ We are frequently met here by the statement that improved sanitary measures have nothing to do with vivisection. But, in order to gain the passage of costly sanitary measures, sound rea- sons must be given ; these are drawn almost wholly from the pure sciences of physiology and hygiene, and in just those points which bear on public sanitation science owes much to experiment as an essential part. The truth of this we shall see more and more clearly as we proceed. The most encouraging feature in the comparison of the new with the old tables of vital statistics is the decrease in child mor- tality. Newsholme, page 101, gives tables of annual death-rates by age-groups from 1838 to 1887. From this we see that whereas in 1838-’40, in every thousand infants born, 72°6 died under five years of age, in 1887 only 57°8 were lost—a gain of over twenty per cent. Abbreviating the table, we have, per thousand births: AGE— 0 to 5 years. 5 to 10 years. | 10 to 15 years. Se ert 72°6 9°7 5°3 oe) eee ere mere Te 57°8 4°9 2°9 EE Ki RRR wes vores eperceael 20°5 49°5 45°2 * Arthur Newsholme. The Elements of Vital Statistics. London, 1889. + A Summary of the Vital Statistics of the New England States for the Year 1892. Boston and London.

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. These things give us ground for courage and hope, but not for rest—not as long as diphtheria is annually taking from the homes of this country its 49,677 children; not while fevers are yearly “baking to death ” 126,332 of our people; and while consumption is causing years of suffering and the loss annually to this country of 102,199 valuable lives. Were this wholesale slaughter the work of a national enemy or of visible wild beasts, the public would not be slow in its ap- preciation of any attempt to meet the common foe. But the struggle is none the less real, and the intelligence and often the courage and self-sacrifice required to carry it on are no whit less than in the struggles of a race to subdue a savage continent or a human enemy. With the conquest of all the continental areas assured to man, if war, according to the hopes and theories of some, were a thing of the past, the next great step in the develop- ment of the race must be this conquest of the forces of disease. A comparatively small branch of the human race has come to face the issue squarely on experimental lines, and to realize the fact that success can be achieved in no other way. The fate of the Hindus stands as a warning that even an Aryan strain may lapse into the abject imbecility of zodlatry and mysticism. The race that meets this Stupendous issue, that succeeds in giving to men the laws by observance of which can be attained, not only freedom from disease, but also the development of the highest type of man, that race alone can carry out to its full perfection the evolution of mankind. In course of its development this race will be able to bestow incalculable benefits upon other races and upon even the animal species which it finds useful to pre- serve. 1V._THE ARGUMENT AS TO THE UTILITY OF VIVISECTION IN SPECIAL CASES. Attempts to prove or disprove the utility of vivisection by special cases have needlessly complicated and embittered the dis- cussion. Matters involved in the warmest medical controversy have been freely introduced, and naturally an abundance of strong language has been at the disposal of either side. It must there- fore be distinctly understood as we proceed that this is not the place to settle medical controversies nor to write a complete his- tory of useful medicine. We are to deal not with medical con- troversy nor with medical history, but with pure argument—argu- ment to prove from special instances the use to humanity of vivisectional methods of investigating the processes of living Nature. This being our purpose, we must leave to experts all discussions of such things as antitoxine, hydrophobia inoculation, etc., and confine our attention to cases about which there is the

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 775 least medical controversy and about which people generally agree. We will thus select classical cases, the older the better, and only so many as will serve to render the argument clear and to illus- trate best the methods of vivisectional work. The special cases of Harvey, Charles Bell, Magendie, and Claude Bernard have come to be an established feature in every discussion of this subject, and so many wrong impressions re- garding them remain uncorrected that we must consider their work at some length. A knowledge of the circulation of the blood, no intelligent per- son can deny, has been of great practical value to men. It affords a foundation for all laws of hygiene and for the practice of sur- gery and medicine. The first great step in the line of this discovery was made by Galen. “By ligating in a living animal an artery in two places, and opening the vessel between the ligatures, Galen demon- strated that the vessel contained blood. Thus by an experiment upon a living animal, a vivisection, the first great source of error, the supposition that the arteries contained air, was removed, the true nature of an artery demonstrated, and the modern theory of the circulation made possible.” * Whatever may be the claims of Servetus and Cesalpinus, there can be no doubt that the one man to unite the observations of his predecessors into an intelligible whole, to found his own observations upon experiment, in short, to discover the circulation of the blood as we now understand it, was William Harvey.+ The claim is often made that Harvey discovered the circula- tion by “thinking,” by “inductive reasoning,” and not by vivi- sectional experiment. As well say that Columbus discovered America by thinking and not by experiment. Harvey not only thought out the circulation, which is a very small matter, but he demonstrated it to be a fact by innumerable experiments upon living animals, which is a very great matter. Here, again, we must emphasize the fact that Harvey did not study, and could * H.C. Chapman. History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood, p. 12. Philadelphia, 1884. + Read J.H. Baas. Outlines of the History of Medicine. New York, 1889, pp. 527-530. Also Sprengel, in his Geschichte der Arzneykunde, gives Harvey the frontispiece in vol. iv, and devotes forty pages (50-89) to his work of discovering the circulation of the blood. Also Haeser, Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin, vol. ii, pp. 252-262, devotes eleven pages to “ Discovery of the Circulation, Harvey.” And when a man comes forward and says, ‘**Tt is only our insular pride which has claimed for him the merit of the discovery,” he brands himself as a person with whom it is impossible to reason (as does Lawson Tait, Uselessness of Vivisection upon Animals, p. 6). Any one desirous of investigating the trustworthiness of Tait in such matters can find him fully discussed, in a way he has not been able to answer, in the book Physiological Cruelty, by “‘ Philanthropos,” Appendix E, and also in Heidenhein, Vivisection, Leipsic, 1884, pp. 85 ff.

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776 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. not possibly have studied, in dead animals “the motion of the heart and blood in animals.” To found his great thesis on a broad basis of experiment, Harvey vivisected a great many kinds of animals, from his own person to “shrimps, snails, and shell- fish.” Chapter I of Harvey’s great work, De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus,* begins, “Cum multis vivorum dissectionibus (uti ad manum dabantur) animum ad observandum primum appuli quo cordis motus usum,” etc. Chapter II is entitled Ex vivorum dissectione, qualis sit cordis motus. Chapter III is entitled Arteriarum motus qualis ex vivorum dissectione. Chapter IV is entitled Motus cordis et auricularum qualis ex vivorum dissectione. The argument that Harvey was led to his discovery by “ rea- soning upon the valves in the veins,” as stated by Boyle, is well answered by his translator, Willis, who points out at some length that “when we turn to Harvey himself, in his works we nowhere find that he approaches his subject from the quarter now particularly indicated ” (i.e., from the purpose of the valves in the veins). Even Harvey was attacked during his life on the ground that the discovery of the circulation was of “no use” (Willis, p. 258), “because men still continued to die.” For Harvey the blood passed through the flesh (per partiwm porositates), and not until the microscope was available was it possible for Malpighi to discover the capillary circulation in 1661. This he did in the exposed lung of a living frog. In recent years Claude Bernard { greatly advanced our knowl- edge of the circulation by demonstrating, wholly by vivisectional methods, that the flow of the blood is regulated by a nervous mechanism continuously acting to contract or dilate the vessels according to the requirements of each organ or part of the body. Thus it is seen that every important step in the advance of our knowledge of the circulation of the blood has been made by vivi- section and could not possibly have been made in any other way. Similarly, the testimony of Sir Charles Bell is constantly ad- duced to prove the futility of vivisection. Bell is the anatomist to whom, with Magendie and Johannes Miiller, we owe the first * Harvei Opera, 1737, or The Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Sydenham edition, London, 1847. ¢ Willis. William Harvey, a History of the Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. London, 1878, pp. 301 ff. ¢ Cl. Bernard. Legons sur le Diabéte, Paris, 1877, p. 43.

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 777 great advance in the experimental study of the nervous system. He first demonstrated, though in no thoroughly satisfactory manner, the twofold function of the spinal roots. It is true that Bell did say some things derogatory of physiological experiment about the beginning of this century. But it is also true that his actions speak louder than his words. By reference to his works, we find that Bell made this great discovery in the only way pos- sible—viz., by means of vivisectional experiments. He actually vivisected asses, kittens, rabbits, fowls, monkeys, and dogs, per- forming the same experiments for which Magendie has been so severely criticised.* Charles Bell was exceedingly sensitive upon the point of causing pain to animals, as is shown by several pas- sages in his works; and it is certainly a strong argument for the necessity of vivisection that a man of his sensitive nature should be compelled to resort to this method in order to demonstrate the truth of his theories, It must be remembered that he had no anszsthetics, and therefore his position can not apply to the present discussion of the subject. Were he operating to-day, with chloroform, ether, morphine, chloral, paraldehyde, cocaine, and other anesthetics at his disposal, he need have had no twinges of conscience about the pain his experiments occasioned. Magendie completed Bell’s work, placing it upon a firm basis by means of experiments for which he has been accused of most atrocious cruelty. It is sufficient to reply that Magendie, too, worked before anzwsthetics were discovered, and when people’s ideas about physical pain were very different from our ideas at present. And Magendie was, to say the least, as oblivious to his own suffering as he was to that of the animals he experimented upon. When cholera broke out in France, in 1832, he went as a volunteer into the center of the afflicted district, and afterward served in the great cholera hospital, the Hétel Dieu, during the epidemic in Paris, and for his heroism received the cross of the Legion of Honor t—* The fiend Magendie.” Take, for example, another great line of physiological work than which few discoveries have been of more practical value to human life. Upon a knowledge of the physiology of respiration we build and ventilate, or ought to, at least, dwelling and school houses, audience rooms, and hospitals, The first important discovery in this line was made by Sir * Charles Bell. Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain. London, 1811. Transcribed by H. U. D., 1813. Also, Nervous System of the Human Body. London, 1830. + J.C. Dalton. Magendie as a Physiologist. International Review, February, 1880, p. 120. The story of Magendie’s repentance and distrust of vivisection, shortly before his death, has often been adduced against this method of research. After careful search through all the accounts of Magendie’s life (thirteen in number), Dalton is able to say that there is no intimation of any ground for this idea, VOL, XLIx.—60

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778 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Robert Boyle (1670), who found, by the use of his air pump, that if he deprived animals of air they died. He vivisected in this way kittens, birds, frogs, fish, snakes, and insects.* Boyle also discovered that by keeping animals in a closed reservoir the air became unfit to sustain life. Priestley, a century later (1772), continued Boyle’s experiments by keeping mice in air-tight receivers until the air was vitiated and would no longer support life. He then tried to restore the air to its former condition: he rarefied and condensed it, heated it, exposed it to water and earth, and treated it in many other ways, each time testing it with living mice to ascertain whether it would again support life. All this was to no effect. In every case the mice died. Finally, he found that after plants grew for a while in the vitiated air, mice could again live in it. Thus was discovered the important relation between animal and vegetable respiration, and we now plant trees and lay out parks, and call them the “lungs of our cities.” Two points must be emphasized here: first, that Priestley could not have done this with dead mice; and, second, that no one except Lawson Tait and Miss Cobbe would have the hardihood to claim that he ought to have used live men instead of live mice, on grounds of moral rights, and from the fact that the physiology of man is “so different” from the physiology of the mouse. Turning to still another important line of scientific work, diseases of microbic origin are said to cause four fifths of the sickness in the world. As an example of researches in this field, we may cite the classical work of Edward Jenner.} Jenner began to study in earnest the disease cowpox, and its relation to smallpox, in 1775. For twenty-one years he patiently investigated the subject, and found that no one who had once suffered an attack of cowpox was taken with smallpox, although frequently exposed. “Legends of the dairymaids” had told for generations that an attack of cowpox conferred exemption from smallpox forever after. Jenner might have told the same story; but, if he had not proved the truth of his assertion by experiment, we might still have nothing but “legends of dairy- maids” and no vaccination. In May of 1796 Jenner began his experiments. He says (page 29): “The more accurately to observe the progress of the infection, I selected a healthy boy, about eight years of age, for the purpose of inoculation for the cowpox.” This inoculation was followed by an attack of the disease. But Jenner does not * Boyle. Philosophical Transactions, vol. v, pp. 2011-2055. ¢ Edward Jenner. An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variole Vaccine, December 20, 1799. London, 1801. eh Be =e ae eee oe)

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 779 stop here. Again, he says: “In order to ascertain whether the boy was secure from the contagion of the smallpox, he was inocu- lated the 1st of July following with variolous matter immediately taken from a pustule, Several punctures were made in both arms, and the matter was carefully inserted, but no disease followed.” Some might have called the discovery complete at this point, but Jenner realized that one case is not every case, and that he must repeat the experiment, which he did scores of times, even going so far as to endanger human life in order to establish the truth of his discovery. For he goes on to say (page 41): “To con- vince myself that the variolous matter made use of was in a perfect state, I [at the same time that he inoculated a patient previously inoculated with cowpox] inoculated a patient with some of it who had never gone through the cowpox, and it produced the smallpox in the usual regular manner.” Previous to the introduction of vaccination in London the average annual death-rate per million from smallpox was (News- holme, table, page 192): RR c cdccdesevchivecescscnseketubae 4,260 BUTS SRD. és cccccecccececosecsscougebeses 5,020 SORBED, 00 0cccccscivesceganssecepeeasen 2,040 beginning of Jenner’s work. BUG. 60 080s deen sdencaeiesesenenaeens 262 BEE oss cnscusenneetenameeniiaeaeaan 1,419 tes +6 000050 40000800006eeeenbeesecnout 24 Bensk cncccusesncasenesaetcauesanueanes 9 Germany now has the most efficient laws of probably any country for making not only vaccination but repetition at stated intervals obligatory. As a result smallpox is rapidly disappear- ing. In 1888 the deaths from smallpox in the entire empire amounted to one hundred and ten, less than 2°5 per million, and the majority of these occurred on or near the boundaries of other countries. We can easily appreciate the usefulness of this, Still, during this work Jenner was persecuted and abused. Jenner’s experiments belong to the class of investigations which since 1850 Thiersch has made for cholera, Lister for in- flammation of wounds, Pasteur for rabies, Koch and Pasteur for splenic fever, M. Freire for yellow fever, Koch later for cholera, and has now begun to make for consumption. Thiersch’s experiments on cholera, which caused the death of fourteen mics and proved that cholera is communicated by swal- lowing particles of cholera discharge, have been an important factor in the sanitary legislation of every civilized country. Two of the London water companies experimented with cholera-polluted water upon 500,000 people, causing the death of 3,476 human beings in 1853-’54, This is the popular accidental

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we ees ae » \ 780 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. experiment*which antivivisection writers tell us to wait for, and which they say is sent by Providence to teach men physiology. Thiersch made the same experiment upon fifty-six mice, the con- ditions being accurately determined and scientifically controlled, and with the death of fourteen mice gave the world more exact information about the contagion of cholera than all the cholera epidemics recorded in history. This is the scientific experiment which we are told should not be made.* The antiseptic method, which we owe in so great a measure to the vivisectional ‘experiments of Joseph Lister, is past all reason- able controversy and we may refer to it here. It has come to be used in hospitals generally, and has reduced mortality from sur- gical operations to one tenth of what it was before. Any one who has seen even a few cases of antiseptic surgery will readily agree with Dr. Keen when he says: “Sir Joseph Lister has done more to save human life and diminish human suffering than any other man of the last fifty years.”+ Still, Lister was obliged to leave England to continue experiment in his merciful work after the passage of the restrictive law in 1876. In the Tiibingen Hospital died from amputation before intro- duction of Lister’s method and after: Per cent. Per cent. ee ike ieee ee wks bree ene 43°5 8°2 Th ccchnnkeved tadedsenesececshontie 80°6 2-9 We might extend much further the list of useful discoveries which have depended for some essential part of their develop- ment upon vivisectional experiment; but such is not our present purpose. The reader can find these amply discussed elsewhere. We would, however, at this point call special attention to the way in which a discovery of this kind is received. Jenner’s smallpox inoculation was obliged to run the same gantlet of popular and professional favor and disfavor as Lister’s discovery, as Koch’s and Pasteur’s are running now. Such discoveries are in even greater danger from ignorant and enthusiastic supporters than from learned opponents. The problems involved are very com- plicated. Exceptions of every kind occur—e. g., a person may have smallpox twice, and so, although vaccination protects in most cases, it does not in all; and, further, as Jenner himself says, “inoculation sometimes under the best management proves fatal.” * In the case of one of these complications in London, Jenner * John Simon. Experiments on Life. London, 1881. + W. W. Keen. Our Debts to Vivisection. Reprint from Popular Science Monthly, May, 1885, p. 15. } Heidenhain. Die Vivisection, p. 34. * Jenner, loc, cit., p. 57.

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 781 has himself left a record in strong English of the way he felt. Writing to Moore in 1811 he says: “ The town is a fool, an idiot, and will continue in this red-hot, hissing-hot state about this af- fair until something else starts up to draw aside its attention. I am determined to lock up my brains and think no more pro bono publico, and I advise you, my friend, to do the same, for we are sure to get nothing but abuse for it.” * We are, however, discussing the utility of a method, and while we will not introduce Koch’s treatment as an argument for the utility of vivisection until it has been perfected and the medical profession has reached a decision as to its value, we can hardly find a better example of the vivisectional method. Koch’s method is that of Jenner perfected by using animals instead of men. His discovery in 1882 of the tubercle bacillus has already become of inestimable value in directing sanitary measures and in recog- nizing the earlier stages of consumption while cure is possible. This, we are told by an antivivisection writer, “ was discovered by the microscope, not by vivisection.”+ How did Koch make this discovery ? It is true the microscope assisted as spectacles help to read. But Koch, in the examination of tuberculous matter, discovered a number of germs with the microscope. Which one of these caused consumption no number of microscopes could tell him. This had to be settled by most careful experiments. There are several steps in the process. The first is to identify all the differ- ent kinds of microbes found constantly in tuberculous bodies, For convenience we will cali these microbes a, b, c,d. These are mingled together. The second step is to cultivate these germs in one test tube after another until perfectly “pure cultures” are obtained—i. e., nothing but a’s in one, nothing but b’s in another, and so on. Up to this stage he has not the least idea which of these is the germ of consumption. The only way he can deter- mine this point is by experimenting upon living animals, He must then inoculate a number of healthy animals, one with germ a, another with germ b, another with germ c, another with germ d, The four animals are now watched carefully. The animal inocu- lated with germ a, we will say, sickens and dies with unmistak- able symptoms of tuberculosis. Those inoculated with germs }, c, and d are not affected. He repeats the experiment several times, and if each time with the same result is justified in con- cluding that germ a is the cause of tuberculosis, while the other germs are harmless. This is but the first stage in the investigation. After the dis- * Crookshank, op. cit., fol. i, p. 139. + Frnest Bell, M.A. Weighed and Found Wanting, Victoria St. Society publication.

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782 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. covery of the cause comes the question, How can this cause be controlled ? How can its action be prevented? Here, as Koch says, men have begun at the wrong end of the problem. Since the beginning of medicine the doctors have been experimenting upon men to find a cure for consumption. The problem here is too complicated, and in consequence little has been learned. Ex- periment must begin, he says, with the bacillus itself. We must grow it first in pure cultures in test tubes, in all manner of differ- ent culture media and under all conditions of temperature and light, in order to ascertain under what conditions it grows best and under what conditions it can not grow. We must next sub- ject it in the test tube to the influence of different chemical sub- stances, and when some compound is discovered to kill or hinder the growth of the bacillus in the culture, then the substance must be tried upon tuberculous animals to ascertain whether in their bodies as in the test tube it will act to kill the bacilli without in- juring the animal. When a substance fatal to the bacillus and harmless to the animal is found, with all due allowance for differ- ences between the animal and man, it may be tested on man. This, in brief, is but one important line of research, and clearly it should be carried out thoroughly for every infectious disease, A single link in the chain of procedure requires absolutely to be welded by experiments upon living animals. With millions on millions of human beings and animals suffering and dying yearly for lack of this knowledge, no truly humane person can for a mo- ment deny to an investigator the right to complete his work by introducing this link. In view of the stupendous vaiues involved it is clear that any amount necessary of animal or human sacrifice and suffering is wholly justified. Whether unnecessary suffering is inflicted is a question which only the highest experts can adequately decide. Prof. Bowditch* has so thoroughly discussed the subject of pain caused by vivisection that we would pass it by without mention, were it not for the fact that the public mind has been of late so much abused by misstatement and exaggeration on this head, Prof. Yeo’s estimate, the most reliable we have, is that in every one hundred experiments seventy-five are “absolutely painless,” twenty are as “painful as vaccination,” four, as “ painful as the healing of a wound,” one, as “ painful as a surgical operation.” The pain of vaccination is altogether trifling, and that of the healing of a wound after antiseptic treatment is also practically nil. This leaves but one per cent of all experiments as painful to any serious degree. During over ten years’ active experience in * H. P. Bowditch. The Advancement of Medicine by Research. Science, July 24, 1896.

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THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 783 three laboratories in this country and a number of the leading laboratories abroad, I have never had occasion to perform or wit- ness an experiment of this painful class. Discovery of new anzs- thetics and more recent methods of operation have doubtless re- duced the pain of experimentation even below Yeo’s estimate. In all laboratories in this country, and equally abroad, I have always found anesthetics adequately and uniformly employed. In the recent discussions before the House Judiciary Com- mittee of Massachusetts upon the bill relating to inspection of vivisectional experiments in the medical schools and universities of the State, none of the petitioners for the bill were able to cite a single case, or the reasonable suspicion of a case, of abuse of vivisection, as having occurred within the State of Massachusetts, In order to obtain as reliable data as possible upon this point, I sent blank tables, arranged according to the table below, to all the laboratories in Massachusetts where vivisectional experiments were likely to be made. Returns were kindly sent in from all the laboratories, and may safely be taken to represent the experi- mental work in the State during the year 1894~’95. PAINFUL AS Number ANTMAL. used Painless. “ Vacci Heali f | Effect of tion. | wound. | poison, | Disease. Frogs... ..+.00+ 866 845 4 a 17 Pigeons........ 23 19 - 4 oe Rate... cccccee 25 25 ee oe ee cee Ravbs..cvccce 146 61 50 ee 5 80 Guinea-pigs.. .. . 465 os 150 ee se 315 Oat... sc ccccces 22 18 2° os 4 eee i clades 95 91 “~ 2 2 ia BED . ccccccece 80 10 ee ee oe 20 Squirrels....... 8 8 Sie Totals....... 1,675 1,072 204 6 28 365 (64%) (12°29) (0°42) (1°6%) | (21°8%) Contrast with this the 34,419 human beings who die of disease annually in Massachusetts, A general principle underlying vivisectional work is also re- vealed in the table, viz., that the lowest animal adequate for the purposes of the research be employed in preference to one more highly organized. This entirely negatives an assumption often advanced that animal vivisection tends toward human vivisec- tion. The whole tendency of modern physiology has been exactly the reverse. Animals have come to be used in order to save human beings from abuse.* In the very beginning of medicine * The recent action of Dr. J. 8. Pyle (A Plea for the Appropriation of Criminals con- demned to Capital Punishment to the Experimental Physiologist, Canton, Ohio, 1893), so

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784 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. every attempt to cure disease or alleviate suffering must have been, in the nature of the case, an act of human vivisection. A large proportion of modern medicine at present is equally in essence nothing more nor less than human vivisection, and it is only gradually, as elements of experiment and uncertainty are eliminated from remedial measures by more exact knowledge, that the practice of medicine becomes anything more than human vivisection.* A further argument against the utility of animal experimen- tation is based on differences between animals and men, which make it unsafe to apply results directly from the animal to man. A logical error is here involved; for, while there are physio- logical differences between different animals, to one point of dif- ference there are many points of close similarity. <A difference in physiological function is technically known as an idiosyncrasy. These differences exist between individual men as well as be- tween different species of animals. -A man who has had small- pox or measles acquires an idiosyncrasy which protects him from having them again. In some cases this difference exists from birth; in others it is impossible to acquire it. Man himself be- gins life as a microscopical speck of living matter, and in his physical development passes through and beyond the lower stages of organic life. Hence the fundamental physiological processes and functions he has in common with the great body of living things beneath him. On this wider view physiological idiosyn- crasy becomes the strongest possible incentive to experiment. How is it that certain species have become wholly immune from certain diseases? "With the secret of this immunity discovered, it may be easy to induce a similar immunity in another species or in man. The conclusion which follows from the foregoing chapters bears directly upon a topic of considerable present importance, viz., that of legislative interference with scientific work. With due appreciation of scientific achievements in the past, we must keep ever before us the fact that the hardest labors and richest harvests in science are still in the future. And every considera- tion of religion, morality, altruism, humanity, and utility urge to

far as I have been able to ascertain, is an individual matter, and can not be taken to repre- sent in the slightest degree the tendency of experimental medicine or the attitude of ex- perimental physiologists in this country. * The Zend-Avesta permitted a doctor to practice his art upon three heretics. If these all died or were made worse by his treatment, he was forbidden, on penalty of death, to fol- low his profession further. If they recovered, he might begin practice upon the faithful. — Sprengel. Geschichte der Arzneykunde, vol. i, p. 126, (Refers to Zend-Avesta, Part III, p. 836.) + For fuller discussion of this topic see Bowditch, Joc, cit., pp. 8-16, and appendix. ©

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aw aoe THE VIVISECTION QUESTION. 785 ‘ the prosecution of physiological education and research with una- bated energy. Hence no legislative action should be taken which could possibly offer hindrance or annoyance to either teachers or investigators. In accordance with the pernicious principle that a law can do no harm except to offenders, the English Parliament, in 1876, passed an act severely restricting vivisectional work. This action of England was promptly reversed by every other European na- tion where the subject was agitated, and by every State Legisla- ture in this country to which the matter has been referred. Within the past year this reversal has been reaffirmed in Switzer- land and in Massachusetts. The restrictive act in England served not in the least to abate the agitation and protect physiologists in their work, as was intended; but, as an eminent English physi- ologist puts it, has “only tended to encourage the opponents -of science in their vexatious interference.” English antivivisec- tionists under this encouragement have shifted position from restriction to total abolition, and have increased the agitation. We have in this country at least three societies organized on the platform of total abolition of physiological experiments. The legislative measures advanced thus far by these organizations have been mild in the main; but while they emphasize before the public the fact that their laws do not aim to “ prohibit” experi- ments, they are also unguarded enough to speak of them as “the entering wedge for more radical measures in the future.”* Clear- ly, for medical and scientific faculties, for medical societies, and for all who have at heart the advancement of humanity and sci- ence, the strategic point at which to meet the enemy is the point of “the entering wedge.” After conscientiously reading their literature for the past five years I feel warranted in saying that science has little to fear from the efforts of the antivivisection societies. Their methods of agitation would sink even a worthy cause. The real danger lies with scientific men themselves who entertain ideas of con- ciliation and compromise which will admit the point of the “ en- tering wedge.” Prof. Michael Foster has had the benefit of twenty years’ experience in conducting a laboratory under restrictive legislation, and his advice should certainly carry great weight. He writes as follows: “My earnest advice” (to us in America) “is to straighten your backs, and, knowing that no legislation is necessary on grounds of humanity, and that all legislation is bad for science, strain every effort to defeat the agitation.” + * Antivivisection, June, 1896, pp. 9 and 13. Aurora, IIL. + Private letter from Prof. Foster to the writer, under date of February 1, 1896, VOL. XLIx,—61

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eos mee s 7 oat | IEE _— ee ee ee eT a. See Es Sh 2 ae ae . . , wet, iT ae? > 786 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ACETYLENE, THE NEW ILLUMINANT. Br V. J. YOUMANS. — advent of the electric light, the Siemens-Lungren regen- erative burner, and the Welsbach incandescent mantle, all ‘within a comparatively short period, threw the lighting industry into a very unsettled condition. There had begun, however, to appear some order out of the chaos. As the special advantages of the different systems were recognized, the purposes to which each was best adapted were noted. The development of the industries was going on very satisfactorily, when a new competitor appeared in the shape of acetylene. It is now stated that Mr. Edison and Nikola Tesla are independently working out still another system, based on the vacuum-tube phenomena; a subject in which Mr. D. McFarlan Moore claims also to have made a great step in advance by the invention of his vacuum vibrator. Vacuum-tube lighting, however, is still in the laboratory, and, while surprising tales are told of its great beauty and high efficiency, it is too soon to even prophesy intelligently regarding it. Acetylene has, however, during the last few years been much discussed, and considerable data are available regarding it; so that an inquiry into its history and value as a practical illuminant is of interest. Acetylene (C,H,) was first described by Edmund Davy, who obtained it accidentally by the action of water on a mass of car- bonized tartar and charcoal powder, with which he had attempted to prepare potassium. He called the new gas klumene. Some years later it was rediscovered by Berthelot, who obtained it by passing ethylene through a red-hot tube; he noted its occurrence in coal gas, and later succeeded in making it by passing a power- ful electric current between two carbon poles in an atmosphere of hydrogen. The resulting mixture of acetylene and hydrogen was passed into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride, and the insol- uble copper compound thus obtained, which is extremely explo- sive and has recently caused several serious accidents, was then treated with hydrochloric acid, which liberated acetylene. Acetylene is a colorless gas, having a rather disagreeable odor, somewhat resembling garlic and phosphorus. The peculiar odor noticed when the burners of a gas stove strike back is due to the formation of acetylene. Its specific gravity when compared with air is 0°91 (ordinary coal gas has a specific gravity of about 0°607). At 0°, and under a pressure of 21°5 atmospheres (322°5 pounds: per square inch), it becomes a mobile, highly refractive liquid. Water at 18° dissolves its own volume of the gas. When ignited at an ordinary burner it gives a smoky, dull flame, and with oxygen

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ACETYLENE. 787 forms an explosive mixture, as it does also when mixed in certain proportions with air; but when burned through a very small tip and under slight pressure, or when mixed with coal gas or air in proper proportions, an exceedingly brilliant and highly luminous flame is produced. Acetylene is poisonous, combining with the hemoglobin of the blood, to the exclusion of oxygen, to form a compound similar to that yielded by carbon monoxide. Moissan, however, reports that when prepared from pure calcium carbide, and after being purified by liquefaction, it has an ethereal odor, and can be breathed in small quantities without evil effects. Re- garding its explosiveness Mr. J. M. Crafts says: “ Experiments, using a two-inch gas pipe as a cannon, show that from five to six per cent of acetylene mixed with air forms an explosive mixture, . . . About ten per cent of water gas is necessary before an explo- sive mixture with air is formed.” Explosive mixtures in the air of a room would be produced by much smaller percentages than these. Lechattelier gives 2°8 per cent acetylene mixed with air as an explosive compound. So far as its poisonous qualities are concerned, acetylene seems to have a little the advantage of water gas; the poisonous principle of the latter is carbon monoxide, whose combination with the blood is somewhat more energetic than that of acetylene, and which has no odor to serve as. a warn- ing in case of a leak, as has acetylene. Acetylene is, however, more prone to form explosive mixtures. This is due to the fact that in the combination of carbon and hydrogen to form: acety- lene 61°100 units of heat are absorbed. Thus the heating power of a cubic foot of acetylene is sufficient to raise 407 kilogrammes (a kilogramme = 2°2 pounds) of water 1°C. The combustion of the same amounts of uncombined carbon and hydrogen as are present in a cubic foot of acetylene will raise only 336°5 kilo- grammes of water to 1° C., leaving a difference in favor of acety- lene of 70°5 heat units—the unit being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogramme of water 1° C. . Acetylene is one of the important bodies, much used by the chemist in the synthesis of organic compounds. Itis also reported to be of value in polariscope work, permitting the reading of solu- tions so highly colored as to be opaque to the ordinary sources of light. Some interesting experiments with the gas in abnormal physical states were recently performed by J. J. Suckert, during a lecture before the Franklin Institute. A tube of liquefied acety- lene was cooled to —28° F., and then the pressure removed. Rapid evaporation took place, and a portion of the liquid gas was solidified into a snowlike mass whose temperature was found to be —118° F. A part of this snow plac n some mercury in a saucer soon froze the latter, and another/portion, on being dropped into water, upon which it floated; gave off acetylene

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788 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. gas, which was readily ignited and burned with its characteristic sooty flame. Regarding the illuminating power of acetylene, a proper burner using five cubic feet per hour will give from two hundred to two hundred and forty candle power. Five cubic feet of ordinary gas give from fifteen to thirty candle power; that is, a cubic foot of acetylene will give about eight times as much light as the same amount of coal or water gas. Indeed, it is claimed by Prof. Lewes and others that the formation of acetylene in the ordinary gas flame accounts for the latter’s luminosity, and it has been pro- posed to enrich water gas by the addition of a small amount of acetylene; but so much of the latter was found necessary to pro- . duce any appreciable result as to render the process impracticable. Acetylene requires a much larger amount of air for complete com- bustion than does ordinary gas. This is a distinct disadvantage, as the large amount of air cools the flame, and thus diminishes its luminosity. The temperature of the acetylene flame is about 1000° C., that of an ordinary flat coal-gas flame being 1360° C. The present rise into prominence of acetylene, which up to 1888 was simply a laboratory product, is due to the discovery of the formation of calcium carbide in the electric furnace. There is some controversy as to who first made this discovery, but the honors seem to belong to Mr. T. L. Wilson, of the Wilson Alumi- num Works. In 1888 Mr. Wilson began a series of experiments with the electric furnace for reducing refractory ores; during one of these a curious, dark-brown, dense mass was formed, whose immersion in water produced a violent evolution of gas, which upon investigation proved to be acetylene. A French chemist, Moissan, independently discovered the process, and reported it at the meeting of the French Academy, in December, 1892. But as Mr. Wilson sent samples of the carbide to Lord Kelvin in the summer of 1892, for examination, he seems to have pre- ceded Moissan, at any rate in announcing his discovery. All the alkaline earths form carbides in a similar way, which, when treated with water, give off acetylene. It may be interesting to note, in passing, that by means of the electric furnace, a carbide of silicon has recently been obtained, which under the name of carborundum is coming to be used extensively as a polishing and grinding material. It is extremely hard (scratching rubies) and is said to wear well. Another interesting product is the carbide of titanium, the hardness of which is sufficient to scratch the diamond. This discovery of the ready formation of carbides under the great heat of the electric furnace is of special interest to the geologist, as bearing on the theory that these carbides are present in large quantities in the interior regions, to which water must occasionally penetrate; the resulting generation of gases ee a ea —ae a. =e > oe : 2 tk wal cry nen ogee ~ ng -_> ait 2 * 6 €

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i i : a \ -= nil ACETYLENE. 789 and production of high pressures and heat accounting for the various volcanic disturbances and the large natural deposits of petroleum and other carbonaceous material, which occur so abun- dantly in some districts. Pure calcium carbide has a specific gravity of 2°262; in a dry atmosphere it is odorless, but upon exposure to moisture evolves the peculiar odor of acetylene. When exposed in lumps to the action of ordinary air it becomes coated with a layer of hydrate of lime, which protects the interior of the mass from further oxi- dation. It is not inflammable, and can be exposed to the heat of the ordinary blast furnace without decomposition. It is, in fact, a very stable compound, its ready decomposition under the action of water being quite at variance with its other chemical proper- ties. It was first prepared by Woehler, in 1862, by fusing an alloy of zinc and calcium with carbon. He called it acetylene carbide. It forms a dark grayish or red dense mass, which upon fracture shows a crystalline metailic surface. The whole process of manu- facturing acetylene, from the preparation of the lime and coke onward, is very simple, and the only reason why it is new as a commercial product is the difficulty of causing a combination be- tween the calcium of the lime and the carbon of the coke. Noth- ing short of the temperature of the electric furnace (3500° to 4000° C.) will bring this about, and the comparative modernness of this apparatus accounts for the lateness of the calcium carbide. The chemistry of the process is as follows: Quicklime (CaO) and coke, or any other substance whose main content is carbon (C), are mixed and fused together in the electric furnace. The cal- cium (Ca) of the lime combines with part of the carbon (C) of the coke to form calcium carbide (CaC,); the oxygen (O) of the quicklime combining with another portion of the carbon to forth carbonic oxide: Ca0 + 38C = CaC, + CO Quicklime. Coke, Calcium Carbonic carbide. oxide, Carbonic oxide is a gas and is driven off, leaving calcium car- bide and the various impurities in the furnace. The further re- action to form acetylene occurs when calcium carbide is subjected to the action of water : _ CaC, + 2(H,O) = Ca(OH), + O,H, = Water. Slaked lime. Acetylene. The following description of the commercial manufacture of calcium carbide as conducted at Spray is based on a paper by G. de Chalmot, who for some time had personal supervision of the works of the Wilson Aluminum Company at Spray, N. C., and

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790 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. an address by W. R. Addicks, of Boston, Mass., delivered before the New England Association of Gas Engineers at their twenty- sixth annual meeting: The electric furnace is of ordinary brick, two and a half by three feet (inside measurements) at the bottom. The front side consists of four iron doors. The electric current enters at the bottom and top; the lower electrode is an iron plate covered with eight inches of carbon (pieces of carbon pencils or a mixture of coke and coal tar). Sixteen copper cables 0°75 inch in diameter convey the electricity from the dynamos to the bottom electrode ; sixteen other cables are connected with the top electrode, which is composed of six carbon pencils each four inches square and thirty-six inches long; these are bound together by a sheet of iron, so as to really form only one pencil. The upper electrode is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered by means of a screw. Dynamos giving a current of from fifty to one hundred volts and seventeen hundred to two thousand ampéres are used, actuated by a water wheel of three hundred horse-power capacity. To start the furnace a little carefully ground and mixed lime and coke (this being done by special grinding and mixing ma- chinery, which forms an essential part of the plant) is thrown on the bottom of the furnace, the current turned on, and the upper electrode lowered until an arc is formed between it and the mix- ture. The carbide soon begins to form, and new material is shoveled in as the ingot is built up. The end of the pencil is kept covered with about a foot of the mixture, and is gradually raised by the attendant until the capacity of the furnace is reached; then the current is turned off and the furnace left to cool. This constitutes the whole process, and is extremely simple and inex- pensive, requiring no skilled labor and little machinery. Much time has been lost at Spray in waiting for the furnace to cool, which requires from four to eight hours. In the new plant of the Philadelphia company at Niagara the lower electrode and the bot- tom of the furnace consist of a car, which, as soon as the run is finished, can be drawn out and a fresh car substituted, thus ob- viating the loss of time and heat in waiting for the furnace to cool. Many other improvements, including an arrangement by which the mixed lime and coke are automatically fed into the furnace, are expected to materially reduce the cost of manufac- ture at the Niagara works. The proportions of lime and coke are roughly calculated by means of the atomic weights involved in the reaction, but in prac- tice it is found that, owing to impurities and loss in the process, these amounts have to be exceeded somewhat. After the mass in the furnace has cooled sufficiently, it is dumped on a grate which holds the carbide and permits the unreduced material, amount- oe ee ee sae weet gS

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X ACETYLENE. 791 ing to from fifty to seventy-five per cent of the original mass, to fall through into a bin, from which it.is collected to be used again. The lime requires to be fairly pure, over five per cent of impurities interfering seriously with the production of carbide. Magnesia is very undesirable, and it is stated that if over three per cent is present a good quality of carbide can not be made. This matter of impurities and the care of the carbon pencils, which when properly looked after wear away only about 0°09 of an inch per hour, but which may make a great deal of trouble if carelessly tended, are the points requiring special attention. Un- slaked lime is said to give the best results. The alternating cur- rent is used at Spray, but a direct current can be employed. Be- sides coke, soft coal, anthracite, charcoal, pitch, tar, resin, and asphalt have been tried in combination with lime. Indeed, the first mixture used by Mr. Wilson was lime and tar, which had been boiled together in a caldron and then thoroughly dried. With the exception of charcoal, however, none of these substances were found of any value as compared with coke, although they all produced some carbide. As regards the amount and quality of the light obtained from acetylene properly burned, there seems no question as to its great superiority over either ordinary coal or water gas. It stands about even with water gas in poisonous qualities, but is more liable to explosion. Greater care would be required in handling it, especially if the proposition, which was at first well received, to use it in a liquefied state from cylinders under great pressure, should prove practicable. Its success as an illuminant, however, depends almost entirely on the cost of manufacture, and regarding this point it is some- what difficult at present to get reliable data, chiefly, perhaps, be- cause of the experimental stage in which much of the apparatus still is. The Progressive Age, a New York publication devoted to the interests of electricity, gas, and water, recently formed a commis- sion which it sent down to Spray for the purpose of determining the actual cost of manufacturing calcium carbide. The commis- sioners were Prof. Houston and Drs. Kennelly and Kinnicutt, and their conclusions, after careful examination of the works and a testing of two full runs, were published in the Progressive Age for April 15th, and are as follows: “Our estimate, therefore, of the cost of producing calcium car- bide at Spray, by working the furnaces three hundred and sixty- five days a year and twenty-four hours a day, yielding on the average one ton of two thousand pounds gross carbide a day, is $32.76 per ton. Of this amount $14.39 is for material. The freight charges on lime and coke are heavy at Sprey,.s and add materially to the cost.” FP 4e8 - ee. ors oe ae Nee cone ar wae es 7 Nish . | 7) ws sd Le ee ea. .*. Lo a

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792 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. They found an average net yield of acetylene of 4°926 cubic feet of moist gas per pound of net carbide, or 4°696 cubic feet per pound of gross carbide. <A gross ton of carbide, then, will yield about 9,400 cubic feet of acetylene at a cost very slightly above $32.76, as the final formation of acetylene is practically without expense. Nine thousand four hundred cubic feet of coal or water gas costs the consumer somewhere between fourteen and sixteen dollars, roughly about one half as much as the same amount of acetylene. But as acetylene gives over eight times as much light per cubic foot, a large margin seems to be left for decreased gas bills to the consumer and increased profit for the producer. On the whole, then, it may be said that acetylene promises to be an important rival of the present methods of illumination, and de- serves the careful examination of both the consumer and manu- facturer of light-givers. It has been proposed to use calcium carbide as a concentrated fuel on war vessels and in places where space is of more impor- tance than cost. Dr. Frank has made the following calculation of the gain in space over coal: To provide power for a one-thou- sand-horse marine engine for twenty-five days would require four hundred and thirteen tons of coal, occupying a space of about fifteen hundred cubic feet. In this space could be stored enough of the carbide to propel the ship at the same rate for seventy-five days. In other words, as a fuel one ton of carbide is equal to three tons of coal. There are works engaged in the manufacture of calcium carbide at Spray, N. C., at Niagara Falls and at Lock- port, N. Y.; in Europe, at Betterfeld, Prussia, at Neuhausen, Switzerland, at Baden, in Germany, and at Troyes and Val- lorbes, in France.

THE native Micronesian population of the Marshall Islands is repre- sented by Dr. Steinbach to be rather increasing than decreasing—a census on one of the islands showing an increase of about fifteen per thousand a year. The density is about sixty-eight to the mile. The people are divided into four sharply defined classes : the common people, or Kayur ; the next higher class, the Leataketak, comparable with the village magistrates in Germany, who see that the orders of the chief are carried out ; the ordi- nary chiefs, Burak ; and the Iroj, or head chiefs. Neither of the two lower classes own land, but they are allowed to grow as much produce or catch as much fish as is necessary for their sustenance ; and they have to per- form certain services for the chiefs. The ordinary chiefs often possess larger holdings than the Iroj, or head chiefs. All the members of the four classes acquire their rank through the mother only. The son of a woman of the Iroj class is always an Iroj, even though the father be a common Kayur. *The chiefs have still considerable dignity and power, including that of life and death.

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEAVES. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEAVES. By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS. y= we admire and enjoy the greenness and the general effect of foliage, and regard the forms of single trees if they are particularly graceful or otherwise peculiar in shape, we seldom give special attention to individual leaves, but are rather inclined to neglect them as common and trivial. Yet, as Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews * well says, while they may be common, “ they are far from commonplace. If we doubt this, let us try to draw or paint a single leaf. Only a great artist can depict all of some one of its manifold truths; one may draw ever so carefully and Fie. 1.—Wurre Prive, Lear at A. well, yet he can not tell with the pencil or the brush all the truth and beauty of one leaf. Its color is too waxen and pure to be imitated by earthy pigments; its outline is too subtile, its teeth are too finely and vigorously formed, and its veins are too infi- nitely complex for one to copy with absolute, lifelike accuracy. No, it is not possible to portray all the beauty of a leaf with the pencil, Yet this work of Nature’s wonderful art is common: the * Familiar Trees and their Leaves. By F. Schuyler Mathews, With an Introduction by Prof. L. H. Bailey. Published by D. Appleton & Co. at

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794 POPULAR SCIENCE’ MONTHLY. world is filled with untold billions of leaves, no two of which are exactly alike. “It is undoubtedly the fact that we do not:fully appreciate either the beauty or the usefulness of trees; but after Fie. 2.—Catarpa LEarF. we have become really familiar with them, and have learned readily to distinguish the different species, we find ourselves in a new world of absorbing interest, in which beauty and use have expanded to proportions far beyond our previous conceptions.” Many pleasant and profitable lessons can be learned from Mr. Mathews’s two hundred and odd sketches of leaves taken from Nature, with their accompanying brief descriptions. The single lesson to which we would here call attention is the variety in the forms of leaves. The purpose and condition of the life of the tree are revealed in no small measure by its leaves. The needle of the pine enables the tree to withstand a hurri- cane on a mountain top, yet its slender figure is perfectly adapted to the task of gathering light and air for the tree’s life. Not less plainly does the diversity of character in a leaf reveal the diversity of tree life itself. No two leaves are exactly alike;

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. at THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEAVES. 795 no two trees are exactly alike. There are specific as well as ge- neric differences which are strongly marked. One tree leads a rugged, wild, and struggling life; another an easy, luxurious life. The rough and fuzzy leaf of the slippery elm, the silky leaf of the beech, the shiny leaf of the gray birch, these are all widely ; different; but there are also distinct differences between the z leaves of the several kinds of birches, elms, and maples. v Still, there are puzzling similarities, and one is often compelled to study minute details in order to make sure of a particular species. The catalpa leaf is mentioned as that having the simplest form. It is without divisions, and has an entire and unbroken edge. The magnolia leaf, which is oval, might as well have been Fie. 8.—Waurre Oak. taken as the type; and there are others equally simple. The most complex form of leaf is exemplified in that of the horse- chestnut. A very interesting exercise may he had in tracing the differ- ences in the shapes of the leaves of trees of the same family,

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796 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. as of the oaks, where we have the rounded lobed leaf of the white oak, the pointed lobed red-oak leaf, and the obovate, ever- green leaf of the red oak, with numerous transitional and deriva- tive shapes. In the maples, too, the typical three-lobed, deeply indented leaf branches out into a great diversity of forms, all easily referable, however, to the primitive one, the peculiarities of which are dependent upon the depth, the number, and the mi- nuteness of the notchings. Another series of sports is shown in Fie. 5.—Live Oax. Fie. 4.—Rep Oak. b\ the birch leaves, where the pointed, serrated leaves of the black and yellow birch are quite different in shape and general appear- ance from the pointed, much-notched, glossy, isosceles-triangled leaves of the white birch. This tree has other marked character- istics. “Notice the bough where it joins the white trunk; this triangular brown patch below the branch is always present in any tree of any age. The leaf stem is slender, rather long, and not downy ; the leaf (often growing, as in my sketch, in pairs) is very smooth and shiny on both sides; also, the stem being slen- der the leaf shakes with the slightest breeze, and its varnished surface, reflecting the sunlight, breaks it into shifting, sparkling green fire.” Another series of sports may be studied in the leaves of the same tree, as the sassafras, of which three plainly marked shapes may be found on the same twig, and the mulberry similarly char- peenngenvtetg 2 Pat 25

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[iS dnani a aia Sa THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEAVES. 797 acterized. A peculiarity of opposite style is presented in the leaf of the tulip tree, which is unique in shape, being cut off at the end and having a marked hol- low or notch where nearly every other leaf is angular or convex. Our space is filled, and we have said nothing of the pin- nate leaves, or the spiny leaves, or the leaves of the spruces and firs, of all of which as interest- ing studies might be made. The greatest sphere of use- fulness which a tree occupies, Mr. Mathews says, is connected with its life. It is a great‘air purifier; it absorbs from the atmosphere the carbonic-acid gas which is poisonous to us; it holds and slowly dispenses moisture which the parched air needs; it gives out the ozone (or oxygen in an active electro- negative condition) which is peculiarly conducive to our health; and it modifies heat which would otherwise be over- powering. Each leaf is a build- er up and an air regulator of a nature which is beneficial to us. “Its capacity for heat and sunshine is something astonish- ing. I have estimated that a certain sugar maple of large proportions, which grows near my cottage, puts forth in one season about four hundred and Fie. 6.—Rep MuLserry. thirty-two thousand leaves; these leaves combined present a sur- face to sunlight of about twenty-one thousand six hundred square feet, or an area equal to pretty nearly half an acre. Every inch of this expanse breathes in life for the tree, and out health for man, while it absorbs in the aggregate an enormous amount of heat and sunlight. In time of rain it also holds the moisture, and allows it to evaporate by slow degrees when hot days re- turn. The forests are vast sponges, which, through the agency of leaves, soak up the beneficent raindrops and compel them

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798 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. to pass slowly through shaded channels to the parched lands beyond. It is indeed quite impossible to overestimate the value Fie. 7.—Touuw Tree. of the billions and billions of leaves which work and build for the benetit of humanity.” M. BERTHELOT reports to the French Academy of Sciences that the sub- scriptions for the proposed monument to Lavoisier, taken in France and other'countries, amount to 47,353 francs, or $9,410. Of this sum, $100 are credited to the United States. The subscription is still open, and consider- able sums are expected from particular sources, as the French Department of Public Instruction and the city of Paris; and the Emperor of Russia has headed a subscription list to be opened in his dominions.

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wr es >» CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. THE EDUCATIVE VALUE OF CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. ' By HENRY L. CLAPP. I KNOW intimately a little boy, now six and a half years old, who has been a persistent questioner since he was four. Thirteen months ago he began to read, and now reads The Youth’s Companion, Alice in Wonderland, Lang’s and Andersen’s Fairy Tales, Kingsley’s Water Babies, and Greék Heroes, school readers, and many other books with good understanding and excellent expression. As he has never been to school, and never has received a day’s instruction in reading—that is, direct in- struction, such as characterizes school work—his progress must be accounted for in some other way. Since it is not my purpose to describe in detail how he learned to read, I will simply say that it may be attributed wholly to persistent questioning on his part, being answered by his hearers, and having ample oppor- tunities to practice what he found out. To this indirect instruc- tion, excessively fragmentary and depending wholly upon his choice, there has been practically no limit. When he was about four years old he would follow up his questions immediately with “Tell me. Why?” When he was five he introduced every subject he wished to talk about with “What do you think?” At six he dropped that, and substituted “Do you know what ?” But,after two years and a half, he seems to entertain no thought of giving up “ Tell me.” His favorite times for asking questions are when he is being dressed in the morning and at his meals. At other times during the day his questions occur at very irregular intervals, and only a few or one at a time. Sometimes he will read for an hour without saying a word, and then, when at play, will ask a ques- tion pertaining to what he has read. Often he will skip forward and back for fifteen minutes without speaking, and then ask a question about something upon which he has apparently been meditating. Frequently he sits at the table in silence for ten minutes, apparently taking no notice of conversation, meditating on some word or idea obtained from something he has read. It becomes evident, later, that he can carry on his own train of thought and at the same time hear and understand conversation, because he questions about both. His mother used the word “disposed” at the breakfast table, but he seemed to take no notice of the conversation going on. At night, when jumping about the room for the mere pleasure of movement, he turned suddenly to me and asked, “ What does ‘disposed’ mean?” One morning I heard him ask his mother . ot? * ats v's

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800 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. “Ts there any key of C flat?” Not getting an answer, he con- tinued: “I have asked you a good many times if there is a key of C flat. Tell me.” The same morning, at the breakfast table, he suddenly introduced a very inappropriate subject with the question: “Do cannibals ever eat their friends? Tell me.” “What made you think of that ?” - “I have heard people say that cannibals eat other people, and so I asked.” Most frequently his questions refer to some idea obtained from what he has read some time previously. For example: “What does prudent mean?” “Where did you see that word ?” “In the story about the Prudent Farmer in Harper’s Third Reader.” “ What does verb active mean?” “ Where did you see that?” “In the story about Squeer’s school, written by Charles Dickens, you know.” “Is a merry heart better than wealth ?” “Where did you read that?” “In Harper’s Third Reader.” “What does effort mean?” “Trying to do something. Where did you see that word?” “In the fable of the stork and the fox.” “What is wisdom ?” “Knowing many things. When a man has many wise thoughts he has wisdom.” “ Yes,” he said, “ wiseness.” “Where did you see wisdom?” “I saw it in the picture of a door. Over the door was a card, and on the card it said, ‘ Wisdom is strength.’ I saw a picture of somebody whispering in an owl’s ear, and it said,‘A word to the wise.’ Is the owl the wisest bird ?” “What is honest milk?” This last question was suggested by his reading a milkman’s circular. On the other hand, many of his questions can not be connected with his reading, but appear to result from reasoning or a recog- nized analogy. “How do plants make themselves bigger when they grow ?” he asked when we were talking about planting his garden. I heard him saying to himself, “ Wildless, wildless.” I asked him what he was talking about, and he replied: “ About plants that are not wild. What are they called?” “Garden or cultivated plants,” I answered. “ What made you say wildless ?” “Why,” said he, “I knew that harmless meant something that wouldn’t do any harm, and so wildless means plants that are not wild.” He mentioned the fall, and I asked him what he meant by fall. He replied: “The winter at first, the first of it. Do they call it fall because everything is falling?” There was some talk about dressing him or putting on his dress, and, reasoning from analogy, he asked, “When God puts the skin on people, is that skinning them?” Ionce read of the people in the moon being like grasshoppers, and told him about it. When I had finished the story, he said: “ When we look up in the sky we see the moon rolling on above us, and when the people in the moon look up in the sky they see the earth rolling along above them. What is the strange puzzle about that?” I told him that his specimen of

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CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. 801 mica was silicate of potash, and he asked, “Why is mica silicate of potash ? Because they put ashes in a pot ?” These questions have been recorded to represent an innumer- able number unrecorded, and to show the wide range of thought and the variety of reasonings that a child under six years of age may have. They show his natural method of acquiring knowl- edge, but they can only suggest the ceaseless activity of his mind during all his waking hours. His habit, to a greater or less degree, is the habit of all chil- dren. Very early, even before they begin to talk, they manifest a desire to know the causes of things; and they continue to show natural curiosity until they go to school, which they seem to | recognize as a place where curiosity is very much out of place, since so little opportunity is given for its exercise. In that case | curiosity is apt to be replaced by laziness and apparent dullness. Out of school they are, with rare exceptions, very thoughtful and exceedingly busy about something. They question much for the satisfaction which they experience in finding reasons or ex- planations of various acts. Each questions from his own point of view, and thereby increases his understanding and develops his own mind, These voluntary questions engage his whole atten- tion; they are for the time of the highest interest to him, and, on that account, of the greatest importance to his proper mental de- velopment. As he leaps about for the mere pleasure of physical movement, his thoughts also dart about among scenes past and present, and imagination carries him on to the future and back again like a flash. What pleasure he takes in these mental and physical movements when he is at full liberty to do as he pleases! He is happy because he is fulfilling the laws of his being, devel- oping his mind and body by his own self-activities. He can not help questioning any more than he can help jumping or thinking. In a proper home there is only moderate restriction on any of these means of development, and accordingly he develops there very fast. In the fields and woods also there are no restrictions on natural development. Running in the fields, climbing trees, and playing games of all sorts are powerful developing processes. Queries are rapidly formed and as rapidly answered, probabilities are balanced, decisions are made, and bodily movements follow in exact conformity to the judgment and will. The moment children step into the ordinary schoolroom oppor- tunities for questioning and spontaneous judging and willing are cut off. They are now going to be trained and developed by a logical, systematic, step-by-step method, frequently called nor- mal. All physical movements with any vigor in them must be regulated by a minutely detailed system of gymnastics, which frequently comes to be so dominant that all natural play at recess VOL, XLIx.—62 fh madiss 22

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802 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. must give way to marching and countermarching. In the school- room questioning, judging, willing, and spontaneity in general seem to be vested in the teacher alone, to be incompatible with his idea of pupils’ right thinking. The educational code there is, “ Sit still, ask no questions, learn and recite your lessons, and do what I tell you.” This ancient code makes the conditions favor- able for the application of questions assumed to be asked after the Socratic method, in which as practiced the pupils’ self-activities appear to be very much overlooked. The universal method of teaching is catechetical, the teacher asking all the questions and the pupils attempting to answer them. The teacher sets the conditions and makes all the attacks /on ignorance, negligence, and incompetence, and may be said truly to be on the offensive always; while the pupils constantly attempt to comply with conditions, repel attacks, and conceal their shortcomings, and may be said as truly to be always on the defensive. The mutual relations of teacher and pupils may be quite accurately determined by averaging the conditions which the graduates of various schools remember to have existed when they went to school. How they outwitted the teacher forms a bright spot in the memory. It is long remembered and easily recalled, Like a good joke, it is delightfully piquant and suggest- ive of similar jokes. The customary one-sidedness of teaching makes school work more or less disagreeable and progress comparatively slow. It is difficult tq excite and sustain interest. Repression, coercion, and machinery become necessary to make the government respected and respectable. Strong disciplinarians rather than good teachers are required when children’s activities, either of body or mind, are directed into hard, unnatural channels or are kept down by forcible means, The teacher questions, struggles against the con- stitution of her pupils’ minds, and really dominates them at last. Herbart says, “ Tediousness is the greatest sin of instruction.” The pupils often feel that their work is uninteresting and difficult without knowing why or how to help themselves; and they learn, often by bitter experience, that it is discreet to obey and learn and recite their lessons, however distasteful they may be. That is the traditional way—the way passed over by their parents, in which they are expected to go, and by which the torrent of their impulsive questions must needs be dammed up for many a long year in the future as it has been for centuries in the past. Re- pression is the word naturally and correctly applied to such a system, Children’s natural, constant, and almost irrepressible desire to question freely about everything that comes w:.4.0 the range of their experience has not been considered of any special value

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CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. 803 in educating them. Even Froebel seems to have overlooked its great value as a means of developing reason, judgment, the rela- tion of things, and everything that makes for real knowledge. Out of school it has room. A man may question everything, past, present, and future, but a child’s inalienable right to say “Why ?” out loud in a schoolroom is hardly recognized. He is to take instruction without question. Traditions in education are almost unchangeable. Children, as a rule, do not like to be held to a definite line of questioning by a teacher, unless the subject is very interesting by nature. The impressive, commanding, magnetic teacher may have no apparent difficulty in holding the pupils to her questions; but pride in that feat partakes strongly of vainglory. What will they do when left to themselves? What can they do without her? How far can they go alone? To what degree are they self-controlled. Fine instruction has value, but teaching pupils to teach themselves, and simply and skillfully directing their self- activities to that end, is a great deal better. Herbert Spencer says, “ Bear constantly in mind the truth that the aim of your discipline should be to produce a self.governing being, not to produce a being to be governed by others.” President Eliot says: “ All teachers who deserve the name now recognize that self-control is the ultimate moral object of train- ing in youth—a self-control independent of temporary artificial restraints, exclusions, or pressures, as also of the physical presence of a dominating person. To cultivate in the young this self- control should be the steady object of parents and teachers all the way from babyhood to full maturity.” There are a few schools in which the pupils feel free to ask questions, when it is necessary, in school time. In many schools there is a standing invitation to ask and answer questions before and after school. Such an invitation amounts to a prohibition of questioning. In many schools the pupils are trained to talk; but the substance of the talk is along the old line, reproduction, or a new form of recitation, better than the old, because in the pupils’ own language. Nevertheless, training children to ques- tion in school time as a means of developing reason, power of comprehension, and self-control is scarcely appreciated anywhere. Even suggestions of children’s questioning are exceedingly few in literature on education; but records of its actual practice are unknown. Two lines in Tate’s Philosophy of Education and a few lines concerning the Jesuits’ methods of teaching in Quick’s Educational Reformers are all the suggestions that have come to my notice, The Jesuits divided their boys into two camps and had them question each other, to stimulate rivalry and emulation. It will be readily conceded that teachers like to question

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804 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. pupils and to show their skill in questioning. A good many so- called experts consider the ability of the teacher to question logic- ‘ ally as the measure of his value. This is a very superficial view of the matter. It has resulted in positive injury to many teach- ers, and greater injury to more pupils. Some teachers confess that they are disinclined to allow their pupils to question as a practice, since the questions may be point- less, illogical, and inadequate. That is precisely the kind of work which the school should undertake to remedy. The pupil’s ques- tions reveal the condition of his mind quite as much as his an- swers to the teacher’s questions. His anxiety to avoid errors moves him to say what he thinks the teacher desires. When he questions he is thrown off his guard, and his misconceptions, and feebleness or acuteness of mind are revealed inadvertently and the teacher can help just when and where help is needed without undue interference, which is so common in school. Moreover, these teachers claim that such freedom as this work necessitates might lead to disorder, or what passes for disorder in the opinion of those who judge the order by the degree of still- ness and lack of movement prevailing. So they keep the reins taut in their own hands and set up a despotism of varying degrees of severity. _ Many an inexperienced teacher, who has learned this method at some training school for teachers, may charge her failure in maintaining order to her persistence in trying to hold a large class of pupils to her questions. Her logical plans and orderly questions are commonly inelastic, unsuitable, monotonous, and sometimes irritating. She bends the wills of her pupils to her own; but-there is too much elasticity in their mental habitudes to endure the strain long. In a few days the monotony of a single voice, hardly still during the day, and the vain attempt to “follow my leader” in her set and searching questions result in restlessness, inattention, and disorder. Her pupils can not readily get used to the one-sided game. The aims which the average teacher finds the most difficult in reaching are, to secure attention, arouse interest, induce sponta- neity, elicit independent thought, give enjoyment, and prevent ordinary school work from becoming or appearing a task. This difficulty also may very largely be charged to the traditional mode of questioning. There is seldom any enjoyment in it. Herbert Spencer says: “ Experience is daily showing with greater clearness that there is always a method to be found productive of interest—even of delight; and it ever turns out that this is the method proved by all other tests to be the right one.” All teachers unite in extolling spontaneity in the abstract, but almost universally ignore it in their teaching by reason of alleged Sl as #) * eee bad

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CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. 805 difficulties in reducing it to practice. They are always talking about attention, interest, and independent thought, even to their pupils, while they are continually heading off the development of those desirable attributes by restricting their pupils to answering questions referring to tasks which they have set. Certainly their pupils seldom find “delight” in their questions, but, on the con- trary, find comfort in evasion, as they very frequently say they understand the subject under question when they do not, in order to get rid of the galling questions which seem especially designed to reveal their deficiencies and bring about their disgrace. Supervisor Martin, one of the keenest and wisest observers on the Board of Supervisors of Public Schools in Boston, says in his report recently issued: “If there be a general weakness, it lies in the failure to develop in the pupils the ambition and the power of self-help. The skill of the teachers is more fully exhibited in their presentation of subjects than in stimulating pupils to inde- pendent effort. Much of the work is simple giving and taking and giving back.” Independent effort being generally wanting, spontaneity of necessity must be wanting, because there can be no independent effort where there is no desire or will to make it. In this regard probably the schools of Boston are no more deficient than schools at large. But, in view of all the talk made at educational conventions during many decades, it is remarkable how little progress in spon- taneity has been made in school, even since Froebel’s time. Froebel said: “I must not neutralize and deaden that spon- taneity which is the mainspring of all the machinery; I must rather encourage it, while ever opening new fields for its exercise, and giving it new directions. Can I not then even now gradually transform their play into work, but work which shall look like play, work which shall originate in the same or similar impulses, and exercise the same energies as I see employed in their own amusements and occupations?” Pestalozzi also claimed that “spontaneity and self-activity are the necessary conditions under which the mind educates itself, and gains power and independ- ence.” A careful distinction should be made between children’s activ- ities and self-activities, the one often being confounded with the other by teachers. Generally their activities in school result from a compelling force of will, of laws, of penalties, all of which are kept well out of sight in some schools, but in the immediate fore- ground in most schools, This compelling force is often necessary under present conditions, but not so often as practice would make it appear. Generally teachers’ traditions and scholastic training are no safe guides in dealing with self-activities edacationally. Self-

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806 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. activity is spontaneous, the result of an inside motive. How to teach children to desire to undertake and stick to school work, whether the teacher be present or absent, tradition does not state. To be sure, children’s questioning in school as a real educative force and a rule of practice is, it may be, startlingly new; but any means, precedented or unprecedented, that will certainly re- sult in spontaneous activity should be earnestly sought for and fairly used. The idea of educating children through their activities has of late years found expression in giving them something to do with their hands, as seen in the various forms of manual training. The advocates and teachers of this work indulge the thought and give the impression that it brings out children’s self-activities re- markably well. Many fondly believe that by means of it the “whole boy” is sent to school. Nevertheless, his self-activities seem to have but little more opportunity for development than before the doing era, advantageous as that really is. Children in all departments of manual training are taught, instructed, crammed, compelled, it may be, as of old, and then they work out the instruction with head and hand, whereas formerly the head only attempted to follow instructions, more often unsuccessfully. Certainly a great advance was made by the introduction of manual training; but spontaneous self-activity is not a leading motive in the work, if any at all. The work is prescribed. The child’s curiosity or investigating spirit does not receive its satisfaction in any form of manual training now in use. Indi- vidual experimentation and investigation have small place in it, so that the need of other educational forces is felt. The spirit of inquiry is much less apparent in school than out. Whose fault is it? Surely not the children’s. Nature studies are doing the most to foster the spirit of inquiry, manual training hardly any- thing. Constructiveness is important, but no more important in education than investigation. Investigation and voluntary work are the expressions of self-activities, while prescribed work is the expression of activities governed by a temporary, outside, dominating influence. In connection with manual training H. Courthope Bowen says in his work on Froebel and Self-activities: “ Broadly speaking, Pestalozzi’s plan is one of observing and imitating ; Froebel’s, one of observing and inventing. To exercise the creative, originating powers of the child is Froebel’s main object; to teach the child to speak and to do work already prescribed is largely the aim of Pes- talozzi. Froebel’s plan, therefore, more directly tends to develop independence and originality of character.” To carry out Froebel’s plan children must have far more true liberty in thought and ac- tion in school than they now have. Their spirit and temper must

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CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. 807 be reached if they are to be educated properly. Education must become less Pestalozzian and more Froebelian. So it does become when children question. The idea of educating children through play, where self-activi- ties are at their best, is not new, having been not only clearly set forth in theory but reduced to practice by Froebel. The only application of the play element as a means of development in our systems of education is found in the kindergarten. No one has shown how it can be made useful in schools beyond the kinder- garten. To most teachers it seems utterly incompatible with the work of such schools. They are not willing to admit in any de- gree that “ play is the work of the child.” If the play element is of so high educational value in the kindergarten, why is it not of much higher value all along up through the elementary school, where the pupils play much more vigorously, intelligently, and skillfully ? Even young men and women who give up so much for baseball, polo, tennis, and golf, prove that the play element abides long; and, although it now results in healthful exercise, and a development of body and mind that is too frequently and unwarrantably claimed as the result of school work, it might be turned to the account of school education if half the time and attention given to prescribed studies were given to it. Full opportunity to ask questions in the schoolroom in school time gives the play impulse in children an excellent outlet. Their unique expressions and inadequate conceptions result in questions and answers that are not only instructive but decidedly entertain- ing to all concerned. They are often irresistibly funny without intending to be. On the other hand, there being ample room for the play of thought, the zest of play frequently runs through their exercises, When the teacher sees the need of comment or expla- nation, the attitude of their minds is exactly appropriate, and their attention spontaneous and perfect ; never so willing and complete when the teacher talks, questions, reasons, prescribes, and com- pels. This judgment is not the result of a single, ephemeral ex- periment, but of demonstrations repeated through years. Under the system of spontaneous questions and self-conducted exercises “blue Monday,” so called on account of the apparent dullness of pupils on Monday forenoon, disappears with the ap- parent exhaustion on Friday afternoon. The opportunity to stand up, turn about, and use muscles and wills in a way that does not savor of militarism and gymnastics conduces to great activity and excellent temper. Appropriate conditions determine the spirit of all life and action. The habit of asking questions puts the questioner in the atti- tude of an investigator and develops an active habit of mind. Always to be questioned induces waiting passivity, and the dif-

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808 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ference is radical and momentous for true education. In ques- tioning lies the germ of original research; all inventions, dis- coveries, and progress have come out of it. Only the questioner becomes a discoverer. And since it is obvious—often disagreea- bly so out of school—that the questioning, investigating habit is the child’s most marked characteristic, and the most direct mani- festation of a constitutional current of mental action that can not be repressed long any way, and seldom without danger, it seems inexcusable that any educational agency worthy of the name should fail to develop so important a habit by every means pos- sible. Its careful cultivation would be sure to result in such a success in original research as schools have never yet won. Prof. C. S. Minot says, “To train men to originality in every field of production is the proper function of a true university.” Prof. N. 8S. Shaler made essentially the same -statement in the Atlantic Monthly. It is not likely that originality will be called out easily in the university when all through the primary, sec- ondary, and collegiate education, fifteen years or more, it has been permitted to lie dormant. Men do not begin to train trees and vines of mature growth. If originality is to be brought to full fruition in life, its obvious beginnings as seen in children’s questions and curiosity must be cherished most carefully, not only in the university, but in every school that leads to the uni- versity. Originality, like playing the violin, must be encouraged early, if proper development is to be attained. Children like better to work or play in company with one an- other than with adults; and when so working or playing they do not lack for questions and answers, At their parties they play various mental games with much zest. There is no satisfactory reason why this play faculty should not be brought into the schoolroom everywhere as it has been in a few places, by means of pupils’ questioning guided by the teacher. Their questioning has been found especially valuable in all review work, in history, geography, language work, civil govern- ment, physics, mineralogy, botany, and mental arithmetic. In the last four studies the questions are nearly always new and ampromptu. In this work they find the required variety in questions and voices, they measure their strength with one another, their wit and fancy find expression in amusing and unexpected turns, and their diligent attention and mental alertness are constant. The free- dom, pleasure, and exhilaration that are essential elements of the work lead pupils to do their best. Their exuberant spirits, energy, individuality, and originality find proper outlets, and, in conse- quence, their tempers are improved. They have time to frame and answer questions based on their own data, and a place for

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CHILDREN’S QUESTIONING. 809 “applying theory, or putting acquisitions into practice, and for personally using for productive ends their disciplined powers.” So they learn to stand up unembarrassed, to lose self-conscious- ness, to think on their feet, to set conditions as well as comply with them, to lead thought as well as follow it, and get that real practice in adapting themselves to constantly changing condi- tions that will serve them so well when school life has ended. All this work tends directly to that most important acquisition, self-control in body and mind. Perhaps the greatest benefit derived from mutual questioning is of an ethical nature, since it affords the best opportunity in school for the cultivation of the most refined human relations. The pupils become habituated to deference, self-restraint, polite- ness, kindness, unconsciousness of self, and equality of rights as regards time, attention, instruction, and opportunity to work without interference. Egotism, selfishness, plagiarism, the desire for display, and the struggle for personal rewards have little room for growth on account of persistent practice in ways that make for qualities of an opposite character. The teacher’s illustrations from the workings of society and the administration of govern- ment find their appropriate places and are immediately put into practice in this genuine, embryo part of the body politic. The pupil’s judgment is constantly appealed to. As teachers have said many times, the pupils seem like one great family, each mem- ber working for the common good. The educational value of the boy teaching the boy by simple language and blackboard illustra- tions is recognized. The reflex action of teaching is seen to be as valuable to the boy as to the teacher. The ethical value of mutual questioning is especially notice- able in the pupil’s graduating exercises, which are the legitimate results of their regular work. Each pupil has an opportunity to do according to his ability. There are no picked scholars, no exhaustively trained precocities, no survival of the fittest, no false show, no tragic or comic declamations or mere mouthings of the misty words of statesmen and poets; but each reveals his own thoughts in his own way, pruned and strengthened by his train- ing. The ease, interest, energy, self-reliance, and politeness with which they carry on their impromptu exercises in the presence of five hundred people can not be understood by even distinguished educators, versed in traditional methods only, who may be present. The doctrine of opportunity has not been preached enough, and the wonderful constitution of the mind and its power to de- velop itself by its own energies when fully aroused have been so often and so unjustly claimed as the direct results of systematic or dogmatic instruction that the truth, when held up to view, may not be recognized and acknowledged. a - 4

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810 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. A fitting conclusion to this presentation of the educative value of children’s questioning may be found in a brief mention of the children’s own thoughts concerning the subject. There having been no conversation or suggestions concerning the matter, the pupils who averaged fifteen years of age were asked to give their ideas of the advantages of questioning each other, and they expressed themselves thus: “ We don’t waste time, because if our teacher is out of the room we can go on with our recitation. Having to decide on the answers to our questions makes us think. We have to know more about our lessons if we ask questions than if we only answered them. We have more questions than if our teacher made them all. We are all of about the same age, and understand and misunderstand things in about the same way, and can help each other out. Questioning helps us to talk and obliges us to depend on ourselves, When thirty-eight children are making questions, some one of them may think of a question that the teacher may not think of. We look forward to conducting our graduating exercises without help from our teacher, and this work trains us for that.” 0m THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. By Pror. WILLIAM ROMAINE NEWBOLD. [T* this and my succeeding paper I intend to take up a group of phenomena which involve some of the most perplexing of psychological and metaphysical questions. There is no problem that can be of greater interest to us as human beings than that which concerns the nature of my self, my origin, and my destiny. Of my origin and my destiny exact Science is not yet in a position to say much, and of my nature and constitution she knows little more. The greater interest therefore attaches to those cases in which the consciousness of self seems to be disordered, and, although we are far from a complete comprehension of them, we can go far enough to show that they present phenomena which are closely akin to those which we have been examining. We may set aside at the outset the notion that the real self is an immaterial, invisible, indestructible something called mind or soul in which my mental states inhere. Whether anything of the kind exists or not I do not know; if it does, we know nothing of it, and it is not of the least significance except as a symbol for the indestructibility of the conscious self. The only self in which I have interest is the self that feels, endures, hopes, and the only self I can know is the self that is manifested in consciousness. Setting aside, then, this notion of the self as mind or soul

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THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. 8it apart from consciousness, there remains as the object of inquiry consciousness as we know it. In my first three papers (Decem- ber, 1895, January and February, 1896) I have given my reasons for thinking that we may conceive of it as a web containing mani- fold and constantly shifting strands. Sensations of all kinds, some vivid and some obscure, memories, anticipations, emotions, and deliberate volitions succeed one another in bewildering confusion. Yet at any given moment this apparent confusion is in reality a system the form and constitution of which is determined by laws as inflexible as any that rule in the physical world. What, then, is my self? Is it merely another name for the whole? Or are there parts of this ever-shifting, kaleidoscopic phantasmagoria which are parts of my self in a more special sense than the others ? I think there are. In the first place, and in the broadest sense of the word self, all those sensations which go to make up my con- sciousness of my body as distinguished from the sensations which I regard as springing from the outer world are peculiarly mine. The appearance of my body from without, the double sensations that arise from contact of part with part, but especially the vague sensations that are always pouring in from every muscle and joint, from the heart, lungs, stomach, and intestines, these all blend into a confused mass which forms the background or stage upon which the more distinct elements that are supplied by the special senses play their parts. Any changes in this mass I feel as changes in my self. Emotions and moods, and the indefinable difference between the feeling of health and the feeling of disease spring from obscure changes in it, but I feel them as changes in my self, But with reflection comes a tendency to narrow the meaning of the word self. Who has not gazed in the mirror at what others call his self until the sense of opposition between the real self and that at which he was looking became so intense that he turned away almost frightened and glad to sink again into the old familiar sense of unity with his body? The more I reflect the less does my body seem important to me. J am the inner life of thought. Most of my thoughts I acknowledge as truly mine, and most of the deeds that spring out of them I recognize as be- longing to me. But occasionally a thought appears toward which a sense of strangeness arises—it seems none of mine. Possibly because it is so much better than my usual thoughts that it seems like a breath from a higher world, possibly because it is so wicked that I am almost tempted to believe it comes from a devil, pos- sibly merely because it is insistent and does not go when I bid it. So of the impulses and desires that control me. Most of them are mine, but now and then I do something toward which I feel, when in

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812 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. I look back upon it, a curious sense of irresponsibility, as if it were not of my doing after all. Such deeds are always those which I seldom do; my everyday virtues and my everyday vices I must admit are mine, But there is just one thing which I always acknowledge as mine, It is the sense of effort. It matters not whether I employ it in contracting my muscles to the utmost, in fixing attention upon some uninteresting object, in following some distant end in spite of the solicitations of the present, or in overcoming for some moral reason the claims of the greater pleasure—this sense of effort I always acknowledge and always must acknowledge as mine. The word self, then, seems to stand for the most frequently re- current elements of my inner life, with the consciousness of effort as its very essence and core. But it is evident that we can not, whenever we speak of it, think all these things. To evade that necessity most men probably make use of some vague thought symbol which the word self suggests. Symbols of this sort are known as concepts. They play a great part in our mental life; without them the marvelous achievements of the human mind would never have been. Yet they are so shadowy and evanescent that it is almost impossible to determine their precise constitu- tion, and the more complex and diverse the phenomena they stand for, the greater the difficulty of fixing and deseribing them. The task is almost as fruitless from the practical point of view as it is vain from the speculative, yet an immense amount of labor and ingenuity has been expended upon it. Most of the work com- monly termed metaphysical is based upon the conviction that these shadows are or represent realities apart from the concrete things for which they stand; sundry attributes are ascribed to them, and out of these imaginary attributes the metaphysician tries to construct a science. Most of the difficulties that attach to the notion of a self or ego spring out of this confusion be- tween the symbol and the things symbolized, and I shall there- fore say no more of the symbol, but confine myself to the concrete states of consciousness which constitute my thinking self and which alone possess interest for me. If this analysis of the self be true, it will follow that the con- sciousness of self can be modified by the addition to or subtrac- tion from my inner life of large masses of stable elements, and this appears to be borne out by the facts. Extensive changes in the mass of bodily sensation are fre- quently accompanied by modifications in the sense of self. I can not go into this in detail, but those who care to follow the subject out will find it treated at length by Prof. Ribot in his little mono- graph, The Diseases of Personality.

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THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. 813 Great changes in one’s circumstances and surroundings are often connected with similar changes in the self-consciousness, A journey to a foreign land, the sudden death of a relative or friend, a great disappointment in love or in business, or an equally great and unexpected success—all these necessarily involve the demolition of many of one’s most permanent habits, plans, and expectations. There may follow a period of confusion in which the self of the present moment looks back upon the self of the past as a very different being. Analogous changes take place normally in the course of life with the constant addition of new experiences and development of new instincts. The sense of self usually changes impercepti- bly to keep pace with these new growths, but sometimes the change can be felt. The young man or young girl sometimes notices it during or at'the close of the period of adolescence, and we frequently become conscious of it at other times, when some- thing brings very clearly to mind the events of years ago. Not long since I ran across a book over which I used to pore as a child, but had not seen for years; when I opened it, my present self for just one moment fell away, and I was again a child of eight. It was a strange experience, and the childish self that then for a second or two lived again was much more unlike the present I than I commonly think of it as being. If our memories are constituent parts of our self-conscious- ness, it follows that any extensive abolition of memories will im- pair or destroy a man’s sense of self. This is so common a phe- nomenon that I need not quote illustrations. More interesting are those cases in which certain portions of a person’s memory are abolished and restored at varying intervals, especially when illusory memories and other delusions are commingled with the memories that remain. In such cases we get true modifications of the patient’s personality. One of the best known of these cases is that of Ansel Bourne.* Mr. Bourne lived in a village near Providence, R.I. On Janu- ary 17, 1887, he went to Providence, drew five hundred and fifty- one dollars with which to pay for a farm he intended to buy, and then disappeared. About two weeks later he appeared in Norris- town, Pa., styling himself A. J. Brown, rented a room, divided it in two by curtains, lived and slept in the rear room, and opened a little shop in the front for the sale of toys, confectionery, notions, etc. During the six weeks he lived there no one noted anything unusual in his demeanor. “On the morning of Monday, March 14th, about five o’clock, he * This account is abridged from Dr. Richard Hodgson’s paper, A Case of Double Per- sonality, in The Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, vol. vii, pp. 221-257.

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814 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, heard, he says, an explosion like the report of a gun or a pistol, and, waking, he noticed that there was a ridge in his bed not like the bed he had been accustomed to sleep in. He noticed the elec- tric light opposite his windows. He rose and pulled away the curtains and looked out on the street. He felt very weak, and thought he had been drugged. His next sensation was that of fear, knowing that he was in a place where he had no business to be. He feared arrest as a burglar, or possibly injury. He says this is the only time in his life he ever feared a policeman. “The last thing he could remember before waking was seeing the Adams express wagons at the corner of Dorrance and Broad Streets, in Providence, on his way from the store of his nephew in Broad Street to his sister’s residence in Westminster Street, on January 17th. He waited to hear some one move, and for two hours he suffered great mental distress. Finally, he tried the door, and, finding it fastened on the inside, opened it. Hearing some one moving in another room, he rapped at the door.” His landlord opened it, and from him he learned where he was, how he came there, and what day of the month it was. The landlord thought he was insane and sent for a doctor, and the doctor iele- graphed for his relatives and had him taken home. Prof. James, of Harvard, and Dr. Hodgson heard of this case about three years later, and got Mr. Bourne’s consent to their in- vestigating it. Prof. James hypnotized Mr. Bourne, with the hope of reviving the Brown state, and was surprisingly successful. He told the story of his wanderings correctly, giving clews to his doings during the two weeks that elapsed after he left Providence and before he appeared in Norristown. Of his own history he could tell very little. Said he: “Seems as if I was sot right down there in Dorrance Street without knowing where I came from. Got into a spot, don’t know how I came there, both ends are blank.” His name, he said, was Albert John Brown. He was “born in Newton, N. H., July 8, 1826 [he was born in New York city, July 8, 1826], had passed through a great deal of trouble, losses of friends and property; loss of his wife was one trouble— she died in 1881; three children living, but everything was con- fused prior to his finding himself in the horse car on the way to Pawtucket; he wanted to get away somewhere—he didn’t know where—and have rest. . . . He had heard of the singular experi- ence of Ansel Bourne, but did not know whether he had ever met Ansel Bourne or not. He had been a professor of religion him- self for many years, belonged to the ‘Christian’ denomination, but back there everything was mixed up. He used to keep a store in Newton, N. H., and was engaged in lumber and trading business; had never previously dealt in the business which he took up in Norristown. He kept the Norristown store for six or

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THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. 815 eight weeks—how he got away from there was all confused ; since then it had been a blank. The last thing he remembered about the store was going to bed on Sunday night, March 13, 1887.” Some of these statements are true and others are not. He was never in Newton, N. H., in his life, and never engaged in any kind of trade. He had been a carpenter, farmer, and itinerant evan- gelist. His first wife did die in 1881, but he had married again; of his second wife the Brown personality never had any knowl- edge. The nature of this change of personality is now fairly clear. The greater part of Ansel Bourne’s memories were obliterated ; the few that remained had lost all organic connection with one another, and gave rise to illusions of memory. Probably his new name and his notion that he had engaged in the lumber and trad- ing business sprang from confused recollections of his own name and of his trade asacarpenter. But there was no material change in the active side of his nature. His character and instincts re- ; mained pretty much what they had been before. Further inquiry . showed that he had had several epileptiform “ fainting fits ” with- in the last few years, and had been early in life the subject of a sudden loss of sight, hearing, and speech, followed by a “ miracu- ; lous” cure. > Another typical case is that of Félida X——. This girl was first a seen by Dr. Azam, of Bordeaux, in June of 1858. She was then about fifteen years old. About two years before hysterical symp- | é toms had appeared ; between her fourteenth and fifteenth years, at a intervals of four or five days, and especially after some emotional | excitement, she would feel a pain in the temples, followed by over- powering drowsiness. After an apparent sleep of ten minutes or so she would awake in a secondary state. It would last an hour or ” two, and then she would pass into her ordinary condition through q a period of unconsciousness, as before. In the primary state she was perfectly sane, was intelligent, , resolute, and diligent, but taciturn, gloomy, even morose. She was not affectionate, was inclined to dwell upon her condition, and : suffered much from pains of obscure origin. In the second state § she was gay, hummed a tune over her sewing, was quick of move- ment, vivacious, fond of visiting, was emotionally sensitive and generally flighty. Her pains were much better. In her first state she remembered all her childhood and what had happened during other occurrences of the same state, but nothing of the second. In the second, however, her memory was complete, embracing , the first as well as the second. She then spoke of her primary condition as her “attacks” (crises) or as that “stupid state” (cet état béte). Occasionally a third state made its appearance. The transition was as above described, but in it she seemed ne Seema: = i hasnt yi

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816 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. mentally confused, was the prey to intense terror, saw horrible visions, etc, She married when between sixteen and seventeen years of age, and Dr. Azam lost sight of her for sixteen years. In 1876 he hunted her up again, and had kept her in sight until the appear- ance of his book in 1887. Considerable changes have taken place in her condition. The transition states are much shorter, being scarcely noticeable. Her second state has continuously gained ground upon her first, so that in 1865, ten years after its first ap- pearance, her life was about equally divided between them. In 1875 the first only recurred at long and irregular intervals and lasted only a few hours. In 1887 its recurrences were rarer and shorter still, Throughout her life she has been a hysteric of the worst kind. She had had her sensations of touch, taste, and smell impaired, she had had frequent hemorrhages from the nose, lungs, and stomach, and when excited had convulsive attacks. On one occasion she had a hemorrhage from the scalp. Red spots often appear on the left side of the body and are accompanied by pain and heat, frequently by swelling. One such swelling on her hand burst her glove. The third state, that of panic terror and mental confusion, has become much more frequent and lasts longer. With advancing years and troubles her second state has become less gay and careless, so that the contrast of character is not so marked, but the gulf in her memories remains as wide as ever. She went toa friend’s funeral in the second state; on her way home she passed into the first and could not imagine what brought her into a cir- riage full of mourners, Her sister-in-law died after a long ill- ness; Félida passed into her first state and knew nothing of her death, but, remembering her illness, inferred that she had died from the mourning garb in which she found herself clad. Once in her second state she grew jealous of another woman and tried to hang herself, but was cut down in time by her neighbors. When she recovered she expressed the wish to go into her first state, for then, she said, she would forget her misery. And she did, for the next time she passed into it she showed herself most affectionate to the former object of her jealousy. The changes that take place in Félida’s case are more far- reaching than those of Ansel Bourne. Not only are large blocks of memories erased, but the active side of her mind is profoundly affected. Yet one would scarcely say that the two Félidas were different people. Rather does it seem that the real Félida is the second, the one which first came to light amid the changes of adolescence. It is like Ansel Bourne’s case reversed, for A. J. Brown is Ansel Bourne shorn of nearly all that was his; the sec- ond Félida is the first Félida completed by the addition of much that was her birthright.

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THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. 817 I have already alluded to the fact that Ansel Bourne early in life suffered a sudden loss of sight, hearing, and speech, and as suddenly regained them ; and in the case of Félida I also alluded to her hysterical condition and to her third state. Now, all these phenomena from the purely psychological point of view belong under the same category. The sudden splitting off from the true Ansel Bourne of a mass of states and tendencies which took a new name and called themselves a new person is precisely analogous to the equally sudden splitting off from Ansel Bourne’s conscious- ness of his powers of sight, hearing, and speech. In my first three papers I have developed at length the conception of consciousness as a co-ordinated system capable of greater or less dissolution or disordination without the destruction of its component elements. These two cases are illustrations in point. In both the period of complete disordination or “ unconsciousness” was very brief and was followed by a recombination of the elements which had formerly constituted a personality into a distinctly new system, which in one case assumed a new name, In Félida’s third state we have a third recombination of some of these elements, but it is apparently very imperfect, for it is accompanied by hallucinations, and hallucinations depend in large measure upon defective co- ordination. In the case of A. J. Brown the new system seemed relatively quite stable, for it was evoked three years afterward by simply disordinating Mr. Bourne’s consciousness. Yet in its later occurrences it appeared to be disintegrating. I have spent a good deal of time upon these three cases be- cause their relative simplicity, their similarity, and the care with which they have been observed make it easy to form a concep- tion of the way in which the successive states were related to one another. The next which I shall take up does not differ from © these in kind, but is much more complex. In it we see the pa- tient’s memory-store split into at least five groups, among which the use of his sense organs and muscles is repartitioned in a most curious manner, while his character presents in each state certain distinctive traits. Louis V—— was born in Paris, February 12, 1863, of a dissolute and hysterical mother and an unknown father. Even in his early childhood he was hysterical, had hemorrhages from the stomach and transient paralyses. His mother maltreated him, and he be- came a vagabond. At eight years and a half he was committed tothe house of correction at Saint-Urbain. His health was fairly good until March 23, 1877, when he was frightened by a viper, which wound itself around his arm while he was gathering wood. That night he had a violent attack of convulsions; when they passed away, his lower limbs seemed permanently paralyzed. His character was gentle and timid. Three years later he was YOL, XLIx.—-63

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818 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. transferred to an asylum at Bonneval, where he was taught the trade of a tailor. After two months he had a convulsive attack which lasted fifty hours; at its close the paralysis had disap- peared and with it all recollection of the past three years, includ- ing all that he had learned in the tailor shop. His character and tastes had also changed. He had become quarrelsome, greedy, and rude. Formerly he did not like wine, and used to give his allowance to his comrades; now he stole theirs whenever he could. He robbed a fellow-patient and escaped; when recaptured he fought savagely with his captors. In June, 1881, he was released as cured. For the next three years and a half he spent the greater portion of his time in insane asylums in various parts of France. In January of 1885 he escaped from the Bicétre in Paris, where he was then confined, made his way to Rochefort, and enlisted in the marines. He was soon arrested and convicted of theft, but was thought to be insane and was sent to the asylum. There he fell into the hands of Professors Bourru and Burot, of the medical school at Rochefort. With infinite pains they recorded his condition, traced out his past history, and in their little book, Variations de la Personnalité (Paris, 1888), have given us a very careful analysis of the phenomena which he presented. After his release from Rochefort, Louis V—— was studied by other alien- ists, especially by Dr. Mabille, of La Rochelle, and Prof. M. J. Voisin, of the Salpétriére.. Of late years his health has improved and many of his strange symptoms have disappeared. The case is too complex to be given at length; a brief outline must suffice, MM. Bourru and Burot found that his conscious existence seemed split into at least five major states, in some of which several minor ones might be distinguished. In each state he remembered certain portions of his life, possessed certain sen- sations, had coitrol of certain groups of muscles, and manifested certain traits of character. Each state could be induced in two ways: (1) By applying an electric current, magnet, or some sub- stance—such as a bar of soft iron or a piece of gold—to a definite portion of his body; (2) by suggestion. Later Dr. Mabille dis- covered a third method of induction: by pressing upon certain groups of muscles he could cause them to become rigid, and then the patient passed into that state in which those muscles were regularly rigid. Of these five states, the most important—that is, the one in which he approached most nearly to the normal—could be pro- duced by applying a bar of soft iron to the right thigh. In it he was free from paralysis, and the strength of his arms was nearly equal, but his left side was abnormally sensitive. His character was that of an agreeable but commonplace young man; his lan- guage was correct; he could read and write fairly well. He re- 5 = :

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“ Syphon’ Yas ve & a La THE SELF AND ITS DERANGEMENTS. 819 membered the greater part of his life, but forgot the periods during which he had been in other states. Of the four other states of which I shall speak, the first three are marked by paralysis, sometimes accompanied by contracture, of the left side, right side, and lower half of the body, respective- ly; in the fourth he is free from all paralysis. With the paraly- sis the sensations of the paralyzed portions, including those of the special senses, are diminished or abolished. When paralyzed on the right side he is excitable, violent, and impertinent; smokes all the time, and bothers every one with de- mands for money or tobacco. His speech is thick and almost unintelligible. He fawns upon those who are kind to him, but if crossed in the least flies into a rage. He professes himself an atheist and ultra-radical, and desires to kill those who exact of him tokens of respect. He either boasts of his thefts and justifies them or denies them altogether. He remembers very little of his past life, but, so far as it goes, his memory is excellent. He lives chiefly on milk. Applying a magnet to the right arm causes difficulty in breath- ing, anxiety, mental confusion, slight movements on the right side; then the paralysis, anzesthesia, etc., all pass to the left side. His character is absolutely reversed. His speech is correct; he is gentle and polite; he thinks himself too ignorant to have opin- ions on questions of politics or religion. He no longer drinks milk at all. Of his former life he remembers only those frag- ments in which he was paralyzed in the same way. Upon applying a magnet to the nape of the neck, the paralysis and anesthesia pass to the lower half of the body. He is de- pressed ; his speech is childish ; he can barely spell the simplest syllables. He is stupid, and can not give his age correctly, but he can sew quite well. His memory covers those three years only during which his legs were paralyzed and in which-he was taught the trade of a tailor. Upon passing an electric current through his body, or apply- ing a magnet to the top of his head, a fifth state is produced. He is free from all paralysis, and finds himself transported to the day when he was frightened by the viper. His muscular strength is about two thirds what it was in his first state; his character is that of an amiable little boy of fourteen. While in this state he fell asleep and dreamed aloud of his days at the reform school, telling a lazy companion that he ought to be grateful to the kind superintendent, and try his best to escape the vagabond’s life which was otherwise in store for him. For his own part, he said, he was grateful to the judge who sent him there; he was sick and ignorant then and would have been lost, but now he proposes to lead an honest life of labor. The doctors tried to keep him in

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ee NO er lt SOT te ag OA STEN i 820 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. this state and bring him gently to a consciousness of his true situation, but he soon fell into a convulsive attack and passed out of it. I have no comments to make upon the reported efficacy of magnets and other physical agents in producing these phenomena. Most neurologists maintain, I believe, that they act only through suggestion, but a few claim that they have in some cases a specific effect. I have never seen any such phenomena myself, but the evi- dence is strong and the field seems to me one of the most promis- ing for psycho-physiological investigation. Quite apart from that, there can be no doubt that this constant shifting and redistribution of the elements of Louis V——’s per- sonality rest at bottom upon a physiological foundation. Espe- cially significant is the impairment of speech, when the paralysis was transferred from the left to the right side. The right side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain, and wice versa. Now, it is known that in right-handed people the organ of speech is situated upon the left side of the brain. If these phenomena were wholly dependent upon suggestion, the patient’s mental symptoms would correspond to what he thought they ought to be. But he would scarcely know that a right-sided paralysis ought to be accompanied by disorders of speech. It seems to me quite certain that in one of these states the right hemisphere was chiefly active and in the other the left; it is fair to infer that his other states depended also upon the functioning of definite portions of his brain, although one can not specify what those portions were. Mr. F. W. H. Myers, in commenting upon this case,* con- jectures that possibly in all of us the right hemisphere is less highly evolved than the left, and that, “just as certain of our visceral arrangements retain the traces of our prehuman ances- try, and just as our dextro-cerebral speech centers are often stam- mering, childish, or wholly inefficient, so also our dextro-cerebral ‘character-forming’ centers—the centers which on that side of the brain sum up or represent our highest activities—may retain, in their inferior evolution, traces of that savage ancestry which forms the somber background of the refinements and felicities of civilized men.” Louis V——’s states, although more complex than those of Félida X—— and Ansel Bourne, do not differ from them in kind. In all we have an apparent dissolution of the conscious self and the reconstruction of its elements into a new form. But one of these forms calls for special comment. In his last state Louis seemed to have fallen back into the condition in which he was * Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, vol. iv, p. 23.

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EXAGGERATION AS AN 4STHETIC FACTOR. 821 eight years before. This is more than a reconstruction of ele- ments; it involves the revival of much that we usually suppose to be irretrievably lost. If such a recrudescence of the old child- ish self is possible, we must suppose that the growth of the brain is carried on like that of an onion, layer upon layer. Of course, I do not mean this literally. I merely mean that those portions of the brain which were active in childhood, the activity of which constituted my self of that period, may exist years after they have been disused, and then suddenly be brought into action again. Many such cases have been reported. The patient is de- scribed as literally relapsing into childhood ; her thoughts, memo- ries, desires, acts, even her writing, are those of her former childish self. It is claimed by others that there is no true relapse into childhood ; the patient merely acts the part of a child according to her present notion of what she used to be. I have no doubt myself that it is possible. If A. J. Brown could lie dormant for three years under Mr. Bourne’s skull only to revive the moment Mr. Bourne was hypnotized, I see no reason why our childish selves may not also survive, and in some cases there is good rea- son to think they have done so. But most of the cases reported are susceptible to the other interpretation, and, as it is the most simple and natural, I would resort to it whenever possible. In my next paper I shall take up those derangements of per- sonality in which there seems reason to believe that the second- ary system does not wholly perish upon the reconstruction of the first. EXAGGERATION AS AN ASTHETIC FACTOR. Br M. F. REGNAULT. J Pp erarar nape is a natural tendency of our minds, and the fact is recognized by every psychologist. Yet, when we study human thought and action, we forget the propensity to exaggeration and exercise our ingenuity in accounting for seem- ingly odd social facts which could be readily explained by apply- ing this principle. There are not, perhaps, any branches of hu- man activity in which the tendency to exaggerate is not marked. We might observe its effects in all branches of science if we should bring them up one by one. In history, persecutions and revolu- tionary disturbances have resulted from the exaggeration of an idea which may have been just in itself, but, taking possession of the mind, it assumes an absolute character, while nothing in- tervenes to counterbalance it; and, acting under the domination of an exclusive preoccupation, men commit deeds of a most aston- ishing character. In linguistics, the influence of the same prin-

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822 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ciple may be seen in the transformation of languages, through the prevalence in certain classes of society of the affectation of pe- culiar pronunciations, So the investigator, having discovered and proved a fact, tries to generalize it and magnify its impor- tance ; and sometimes he is able to make his contemporaries par- ticipate in the error. Yet the exaggeration is occasionally justi- fied, and then occurs one of those great discoveries that mark new eras. I shall not go into all these questions, but shall examine sim- ply the part played by exaggeration in our idea of the beautiful ; nor shall I consider whether, as some philosophers believe, there is an ideal of beauty—a beau ideal—outside of and above us, but shall confine myself to the illustration of the conceptions of beauty exhibited in the customs of the various races of men. When we look at the ornamentation of costumes, for instance, and at devices for enhancing personal appearance, we find that they have been carried so far as to provoke mutilations. The negroes of Africa, strongly differentiated as they are from other races, are prone to exaggerate the peculiarities of their physi- ognomy. With lips already thick, some tribes stick thorns into them to provoke irritation and cause them to swell out still far- ther. The Wolowe women of the Senegal have learned to in- crease the prognathism or projection forward of the upper jaw. According to Faidherbe’s description of the process, “as soon as the girl child’s first incisors have appeared, they are extracted with a pair of pincers, and when the second begin to come out they are forced by a continual action of the lower incisors and the tongue into a forward direction.” The negro women of the shores of Lake Tanganyika, to make their breasts larger, cause them to be stung by ants. The women of the Assinians of Guinea are, according to Mondiére, still more ingenious, It is a sign of beauty among them, he says, to have the largest possible nipples; and “children of five years, as well as larger ones, may be seen hunting the nymphs of the Myrmidus fornarius and pulling at their breasts while the insects bite them, to make them swell more quickly.” The negroes are also proud of their woolly hair, and some of them go so far as to build an enormous structure on their heads. Travelers say that the plaited headdress of the young women at Jenna, in the valley of the Niger, looks like a dragon’s crest. The same custom prevails in Oceania among the Fijians, who have woolly hair too, and wear coiffures measuring as much as about five feet in circumference. Many peoples—Malays, Kirghis, Hottentots, Namaquas, Bush- men, Brazilian Indians, and Society Islanders—are addicted to the practice of flattening their noses, and sometimes, as in the case of a ES ge hrre}

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EXAGGERATION AS AN 4STHETIC FACTOR. 823 the Hottentot Venus, they break the bone. On the other hand, peoples who have thin noses can never get them aquiline enough. Persians cultivate this shape by pressing the sides of the nose, and the custom existed in France in the sixteenth century. Paint, by which the appearance of the features may be modi- fied at the least cost, is much used by all peoples. Sometimes it is employed to extend the beard. Aino women think it a fine thing to have a mustache, and by this means give themselves a full one. Opposed to them are the American Indians, who, being almost beardless, pull out the few beard hairs they have. Black eyes and thick eyebrows are highly esteemed in the East, and the women use kohl for the production of the desired effect. The ancient Egyptians were fond of large, almond-shaped eyes, and produced the appearance of them by painting a pro- longation of the outer commissure of the eye. The custom pre- vailed widely, and is represented in all the sculptures. The Japanese, too, like almond eyes, but want them oblique, and se- cure that appearance in the same way, only giving a different di- rection to the stroke. This particular custom has disappeared from among other peoples, but the use of paints still continues, and we paint our lips rosy and blacken our eyebrows. The origin of these practices is evident. There are others the motives of which are more debatable, but are elucidated on com- parison with these. We mention especially the atrophy. of the feet among the Chinese. Some have attributed it to the jealousy of husbands, or to regard for a queen who lived many centuries ago and was lame; but Malte-Brun and Ploss say that the Chi- nese naturally have small feet. Their women have sought to ex- aggerate this ethnic characteristic. The object, in the examples we have cited, has been to ac- centuate a characteristic of the race, In other cases man exag- gerates the weight or the volume of an ornament assumed origi- nally for another purpose. According to Herbert Spencer, the ornament was primarily a sign of distinction. It was worn in a conspicuous place as a testimonial of a successful hunt or of a victory over the enemy. Savages still hang human teeth or the claws of wild beasts from their noses, lips, and ears. The Chib- chas wear in this way chains formed of as many golden feathers as they have slain enemies. The next step is to increase the volume and weight of the orna- ments. Under the spur of emulation the ear lobe, for example, is loaded down with trinkets till it is stretched so as to touch the shoulder. The enlargement of the ear lobe then becomes the desirable thing to the savage, and his chief effort is to bring it about. Under a like perversion of taste, similar effects are pro- duced with the stick inserted into the thick of the lips. In this

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824 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. way some peculiar features of mutilation hitherto obscure to eth- nologists are reasonably explained—deformations practiced in all the quarters of the world by diverse peoples ‘in no way related to one another, but urged by the same thought arising spontane- ously in their minds. The value of the object inserted in the ear, lips, or nose varies according to the wealth of the wearer. The rich use something that is considered precious, as alabaster, rock crystal, or ivory among different African tribes; while a poor man contents himself with a disk of horn or metal, or even a sim- ple rolled leaf. The more wealthy he is, the heavier is the orna- ment and the more accentuated the deformation. While atten- tion has not been particularly directed to this point, some travel- ers have noticed that the degree of mutilation varies in the same people according to the coquetry, wealth, or rank of the person. ‘Sometimes the fancy runs to enormous bracelets and rings, the Bongo women wearing such ornaments weighing twenty-five kilogrammes. These shackles of enormous weight have been in- terpreted by some sociologists as reminiscences of slavery; Park Harrison supposed that the enlargement of the ear lobe was an offspring of sun worship ; and other authors have invented a de- sire to resemble venerated animals as the prompting motive. for mutilations. Of kindred character with the deformations already described are those due to a desire to show that the subject is not obliged to work for his living. The mandarins and literati in Annam and China let their finger nails grow long and inclose them in sheaths, A similar custom exists in Polynesia and some parts of Africa, Fatness is a mark of woman’s beauty and signifies ease and wealth in Uganda and among the Tuaregs. In contrast to these, the Javanese are proud of extreme thinness, and eat clay to produce it. This is an exaggeration of a characteristic of their race, for they are naturally slender. Whatever is the fashion comes from the principle of exaggera- tion, and our clothes are shaped according to the same law. It is not more ridiculous to stretch the ear lobe till it lies on the shoul- ders than, as was done at the end of the fourteenth century, to wear shoes with toes so long that the ends of them were tied to the knee; or to wear the enormous ruffs of the reign of Henry III of France, and those structures which nearly doubled the height; or the headdresses of the time of Louis XIV, or the extravagant crinolines of thirty years ago. We look upon the ways of our ancestors as ridiculous and incomprehensible, without considering that we are acting very much like them. We often meet at parties and balls persons who go beyond the present fashion, some exposing more of the shoul- ders, and some wearing more pointed shoes, A fashion modest in

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EXAGGERATION AS AN 4STHETIC FACTOR. 825 the beginning is made absurd by a continued course of exaggera- tion. We never reach the most extravagant form in the begin- ning, but it is the culmination of a series of modifications becoming progressively more accentuated. Thus, the long-toed shoes were the growth of more than a century. The point began about the middle of the thirteenth century, reached its longest at the end of the fourteenth century, and disappeared all at once in 1420, when it gave way to the square-toed shoe. The influence of exaggeration in forming the ideal of beauty is illustrated, too, in the art of different peoples. One of the elements of a Siamese woman’s beauty is, according to M. Léon Rosny, an arched shape of the eyebrows, causing them to resem- ble crescents; and if we examine photographs of these women we shall find that the curvature of the eyebrows is indeed more marked in them than in their neighbors, the Annamites and Burmese. This feature is much exaggerated in their statues, and is most strongly indicated in the Buddhas in the Musée Guimets. The Hindus are even more slender and tall than Europeans, and admire a full pelvic development in women. While we have tightened our corsets to increase the appearance of slenderness and heighten the contrast between the waist and the hips, our admiration for classic art has prevented our carrying these exag- gerations into statuary; but the Hindus have not refrained, and their works therefore have a very peculiar character. The Siamese and Hindus, however, are not highly esteemed as artists. We will now, therefore, take some examples from a peo- ple in whom the high excellence of this faculty is undisputed— the Japanese. While their designs are usually very various, when they come to depict feminine beauty they exhibit a single type, which we find identical on all the “Kakemono.” It is a strange kind of beauty, with the face greatly elongated, the nose continuing the profile of the forehead, and the eyes excessively oblique; a beauty rare enough in Japan, where the plebeian woman’s face is short and round, but which may be found in the patricians and in the courtesans of high rank. Wecan prove the exaggeration here by figures. In the Japanese photographs the line of the eyes forms an angle of from two to seven degrees with the horizontal. This is said by some authors to be only in appear- ance, but M. Regalia has proved its reality by measurements of the cranial orbits. In the Japanese drawings the line makes an angle of from thirty-five to forty-four degrees. A comparison of these with old drawings of the eighteenth century will show that the exaggeration has become much more marked in the present cen- tury. _ The Grecian portrait seems the perfection of the human type to us, and artists copy it, although it is actually rare. In it the

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~ 826 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. line of the nose is more or less perfectly the prolongation of the line of the forehead. The hollow at the root of the nose is almost effaced, and the prominence of the nose is softened. The absolute Grecian profile would therefore be represented in a drawing by a single continuous line for the forehead and nose. Yet another condition is essential for obtaining the fine Grecian profile. The forehead should not be receding. This marks the distinction be- tween the Grecian and the Egyptian profile. The artists who lived under the Theban dynasties represented the human profile by a single line for the forehead and nose; but the line was oblique, making the nose prominent and the forehead retreating. They simply exaggerated a race characteristic—as may be shown by examining the mummies or the fellahs of the present time. Several theories have been offered to account for the Grecian type of profile. Its existence in the Hellenic race has been denied. The few Grecian skulls in our possession present it very rarely, but some of them incontestably approach it. It may have been more common in the aristocratic caste. We must certainly acknowl- edge that it was not common, but it does not follow that it did not exist. It may still be found, though not very often, at Arles and Marseilles; and I have perceived it in some profile photo- graphs of Greeks of Asia Minor in the collection of the Sociélé de Géographie of Paris. It has been suggested that the Grecian profile was hieratic, borrowed from the Egyptians, improved upon and transformed. It is true that the archaic Grecian sculptures, as at Mycene, display a profile with salient nose and retreating forehead, and that the type was persistent on many funeral vases. Grecian art may have imitated Egyptian in its begin- nings, although it is believed now that the imitation did not play a@ very preponderant part in the matter. But when, at a later period, the artists created the special profile of their statues, they could not have been guided by reasoning alone, This would be opposed to all the observations on the subject made by other peo- ple. They may have designed it, but to do so they had to start from visual perceptions. A third supposition is that the artists exaggerated a type which they had opportunities of observing among their countrymen, especially in the aristocratic and liter- ary classes. An examination of the ancient statues will throw light on this point. In studying the pictures of the great men of Greece reproduced in the Iconographie Grecque of Visconti, it will be remarked that a large number of them resemble the ideal type copied in the statues of the gods. In order to proceed with mathematical exactness we have measured the angle, the apex of which is the root of the nose and the sides a line drawn from that point tangent to the forehead (disregarding the projection of the sinus) and the prolongation of the line of the nose, We have ap-

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EXAGGERATION AS AN 4STHETIC FACTOR, 827 plied this measurement to twenty-seven profiles of statues of cele- brated men, passing by all that could not be certainly identified, and taking only those on which the name was engraved, and which bore evident resemblance to the figures on their medals. We likewise passed over mythological personages like Homer, Sappho, and others, whose existence is not fully proved, and kings whose features might have been idealized for the sake of flattery. The angle thus determined measures from seven to fifteen degrees on the master-works of ancient statuary, statues of divinities and heroes. Of the twenty-seven human statues meas- ured, five had angles cf fifteen degrees or less, seven of between fifteen and twenty degrees, eight of between twenty and thirty degrees, and seven of thirty degrees and more. A small number of these profiles, it will be observed, present angles not departing greatly from those of the statues of the gods. We do not estab- lish a mean from these, for we recognize that the sculptor may have exaggerated in the case of subjects who presented marked profiles. It can not be objected that the artist sought to idealize these men of genius; for the purest profiles are not those of the most celebrated characters. Solon, Plato, and Socrates, who en- joyed so great fame, appear to less advantage than Hermarchus, Bias, and Epaphroditas, who were much less well known. We can obtain a more exact conception of the special charac- teristic of these statues by comparing them with the figures in Visconti’s Iconographie Romaine. The Romans all had a very convex nose with the root usually depressed ; and a tangent could not be drawn from that point to the forehead, even if the projec- tion of the sinus were neglected. Of fourteen persons examined, only four had that line tangent to the forehead, while it was secant on all the others. The Grecian bust, on the other hand, had it tangent, with only two exceptions. Furthermore, the angle is very open in the Roman busts, ranging from twenty-four to q forty-eight degrees. It appears, then, that the Greeks, like other peoples, established their ideal type by starting with the real and exaggerating certain qualities. In this study of exaggeration as an element of ssthetic art, I make no criticism, but rather place myself in the position of those . artists who see in the ideal something beyond and above the real. This conception has been assailed. In the eyes of many, the ; artist should confine himself strictly to copying the real, and be nothing but the inferior rival of the photograph—or rather, per- haps, of the composite photograph, which gives the mean of the features of several persons by fixing them upon a single sensitive 7 plate. When anthropologists recognize the merits of artists’ k canons, they regard them as the expression of the truth, because they represent the mean proportions of a large number of in-

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828 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. dividuals. The camera is doubtless useful to beginners, and helps them to avoid great errors; but the artist has nothing to do with it; he takes his inspiration from Nature, and his canon will vary according to the subject he treats. A slender and nimble runner will not have the proportions of an athlete. Further- more, the artist will put something of his own into his subject, exaggerating, usually without thinking of it, some features that have impressed him, and ignoring others. Such departure from truth is not necessarily wrong. Exag- geration, like all our tendencies, may have a good or a bad result, according to the use that is made of it. We reprehend it when it develops unpleasant traits into undue prominence, or when it im- prisons us in inconvenient and unseemly garments. But when it emphasizes among the traits of our countenance those which are associated with intelligence, bringing out the forehead which thinks, augmenting the facial reliefs upon which emotion is ex- pressed, and retiring the merely physical features, it offers an attractive ideal and one that should not be despised. We are not wrong when we admire the beauty of those among us in whom the characteristics of our race are exaggerated. They possess in the highest degree those features which are in course of development, they represent the generations of the future, and are worthy, by this title, to be perpetuated.—Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from the Revue Scientifique. ENRICO FERRI ON HOMICIDE. By HELEN ZIMMERN. SECOND PAPER. baer passes in review 1,711 individuals, of whom 711 are soldiers, 699 criminals, and 301 madmen. In this minute examination of anthropometric data he discusses almost every case, pointing out its specific characteristics by means of ample comparisons, which justify his methods of research and his con- clusions, as well as throw light on the difficult and not yet firmly established study of criminal anthropology. To close this section of his learned work, he devotes a portion to the reaffirmation of the inferiority of criminal as compared with normal man, and to the analogy that certain anomalies and delinquent characteristics present, deducing thence criminal degeneracy. Very remarkable are the differences of cephalometric characteristics between a cer- tain number of soldiers examined, among whom were some stu- dents. The superiority of the latter was incontestably proved by the great anterior semicircumference of the head, by the greater

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> k ENRICO FERRI ON HOMICIDE. 829 cranial capacity, by the larger frontal diameter, and the minor development of the upper jaw. Worthy of note, too, in regard to this last point is the result of the examination of homicidal mur- derers as respects recidivistry. The former showed less cranial capacity and a minor frontal diameter, while their upper jaws were more developed. Having examined these chronic anomalies in criminals in re- affirming the conclusions arrived at by the modern school of crim- inal anthropology, Ferri gives us the physiognomy of murderers in their characteristic traits, calling to aid the help of photogra- phy. It is an interesting series of pictures that he has thus grouped together. Here is the apish type; there the half-mad; there one with large jaws, the most characteristic and frequent feature; the type with receding forehead, etc. The study of tem- perament and of race in the order of delinquency, which repre- sents the bio-psychic personality of an individual and of a people, is not yet well matured, as opinions with regard to their influ- ences are many and varied. Still, some progress has been made. Thus it is popularly held that full-blooded, passionate, energetic temperaments are more prone to homicide, while the truth really lies in the opposite direction; the physiological character of this determination is rather a general denutrition of the organism and of the nervous system which originates that irritability and that lack of inhibition by which men react with more difficulty against the murderous impulse. Race, whose marked influence in biological and social mani- festations is, however, denied by many eminent scientists, is nevertheless one of the concurrent factors in the determination of a crime and one which can not be overlooked. Race is not the only factor in the distribution of homicide in Europe, for side by side with this run the social economical conditions induced in their turn by this very race. In this distribution there are mani- fest three distinct ethnographical groups—the Greco-Latin, the Germanic with the Anglo-Saxon, and the Slav—which stand for the three large zones of homicide. In the first place for the greater frequency of homicide stand the Latin peoples—Italy, Spain, Roumania, Portugal, France, and Belgium ; in the medium zone the Slav people of Russia and Austria; for the minor fre- quency of this crime, the peoples of Germanic origin of Germany, Holland, and England. The sad supremacy pertains not to Italy but to Spain. With this extended survey of the organic constitution of homi- cidal delinquents Ferri terminates the first section of his book. The second part is devoted to the study of the psychic constitu- tion of the murderers. He first wisely clears the ground with regard to the interpretation of psychic data and the relations be- ni Fi

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x 830 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tween ideas and sentiments in the genesis of homicide. In this place Ferri recapitulates his famous classification of homicides into madmen born ; homicides habitual, by occasion, and by pas- sion; and finds that among these types the most characteristic and marked are the homicides born and the insane homicides, with whom alone he is occupied in this volume.* He then exposes with a large array of facts the most marked psychological characteristics of the born homicide which consti- tute his psychic condition before committing his crime. These characteristics are moral insensibility ; insensibility toward the victim, toward the sufferings of others, a cold ferocity in the execution of crime, which is sometimes pushed to cannibalism; an apathetic impassibility after committing the crime and even in sight of the corpse of the victim; quiet sleep after the com- mittal of the deed. These characteristics—indifference at sight of the sufferings and death of others—are extended to the person- ality of the murderer himself. Such persons are noted for their moral and physical insensibility with regard to themselves, which is sometimes pushed to the point of analgesia, to impassibility to their own punishment, to indifference to death, and which also manifests itself in the frequency of suicides among delinquents. They are also cruel and insensible toward their own accomplices, whom they will betray and even kill. This ferocity, this indif- ference, this insensibility, of born homicides, serve as a psycho- logical explanation of other characteristics which are conjoined to these and which help to support these views. Indifference is chronic, manifesting itself also in a preoccupation with most tri- fling things quite outside of the crime committed or of a diverse character, and which certainly can not by any means be attributed to a supposed corruption during confinement. They feel no repug- nance to the idea or to the act of homicide before the crime. They have no moral sense, they use expressions which pertain to honest work or expressions which ridicule their crime, which they regard as a simple transgression. They do not hesitate to boast before- hand of the crime they intend to commit, as though it would do them credit; and even admit that they are disposed to commit many more; they have not, in short, any remorse concerning their offense. To this absence of remorse, of which Ferri traces the differential characteristics, must be added the obstinate denial, the disinclination to repair the injury done or to repent, the indif- ference to escape punishment, the easy adaptation to prison life, * The invention of this gradation and variety of types among criminals, certainly the most fecund and fundamental, so cleverly carried into the camp of criminal anthropology, has already been put forward by Ferri before the publication of this his latest work, and he has every right to be proud of it.

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4 i ¥ F 5 ENRICO FERRI ON HOMICIDE. 831 the indifference to the number of their condemnations, and, in more direct mode, satisfaction in the crime consummated or re- morse at not having achieved their aim; and, finally, in many cases the explicit confession that they feel no remorse or repent- ance. However, the lack of repugnance to crime and of remorse can not be said to be universal and to manifest itself in every direction of criminal activity, because, excepting in those crimi- nals who have never had either the one or the other sentiment for any species of offense, there is often verified a kind of moral Daltonism which, though lacking in criminals who, having a very obtuse moral sense of certain crimes, on the other hand have a most delicate perception. One among many salient examples is that of a thief who has a horror of homicide, and of the homicide to whom the thought of theft is repellent. This moral Daltonism extends also to the impelling causes, and to the execution of the crime, that is committed for one reason and rejected for another. It extends itself to the very instruments used to commit the homi- cide. It may also arise from caste prejudices, as, for example, in the man who killed his brother because they were both in love with their housemaid, and who cried out in the court, “ You had every right to kill me, but none to dishonor me!” It is thus in cold blood, so to speak, that Ferri studies the psychological constitution of born homicides and the manifes- tation of their moral sense. He also examines their sentiments. Religious sentiment is extraneous to the genesis of crime, and hence moral and immoral men are found indifferently among atheists and believers, though the number of atheists is rare among homicides, who, as a rule, have the religious sentiment highly developed, a proof of which is found, among other things, in being tattooed with religious symbols, their superstitious piety, and lastly their true and real religious cultus, even to seeking a comfort in crime and to finding a convenient faith in pardon. As a general rule, indeed, nearly all delinquents are deeply pious. The egotistic sentiment of homicide may be resolved into the forms of amour propre and the sense of enjoyment, including under the latter heading pride, vanity, love of display, vendetta, covetousness, and prodigality. Homicidal thieves have also other characteristics of the true homicide, such as a reckless squander- ing of money acquired by murder, a passion for play, for women, and for alcohol. The ego-altruistic sentiments or those purely altruistic, such as love, family affection, etc., are not lacking in homicides when they are not in conflict with the egotistic. Mur- derers are even not incapable of noble actions, but their immoral temperament renders these unstable and contradictory, and thus it may occur that the same altruistic sentiment finds expression in their very crime.

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‘ 832 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. And this brings us to the last portion of this study concerning the psychic constitution of murderers—that is to say, to the intel- lectual element. We already know the cerebral inferiority of delinquents as compared with healthy subjects. This inferiority in the class of born homicides can not be better characterized than as a weak and incomplete association of ideas. The intel- lectual characteristic of mental weakness in delinquents does not exclude in some of them a certain degree of intelligence in other branches of mental activity—so much so that, according to Lom- broso, there are found murderers who have talent, not to say genius. These, like all born homicides, have in common the lack of a moral sentiment; as regards intelligence, they may be classed under these two headings: The sanguinary homicide, la béte humaine, who kills more often for vendetta or for covetousness, and the calculating homicide, who kills for covetousness and for ambition, and is often endowed with brilliant intellectual quali- ties. Generally speaking, however, in all criminals, as a result of their defective association of repellent ideas, there is very marked improvidence. This improvidence is shown in many criminals by the carelessness with which they themselves reveal their misdeeds, the imprudent manifestations they are the first to give during and after the consummation of the crime, the careless manner in which they leave traces of it, the way in which they return to the site of their deed, as well as in not foreseeing the punishment. In others, instead, the art they adopt to render dif- ficult the discovery of their deeds is very marked, and the per- centage of the authors of crimes who have remained undiscovered is remarkable—twenty-five per cent in Italy on crimes that have been denounced, without counting the contingent of those where even the crimes have not been discovered. As a conclusion of this positive examination of the born homi- cide, Ferri thus defines the fundamental psychological characters of these persons: “ Abnormal impulsiveness of action for lack of or owing to weak power of resistance to criminal desires.” In general, normal man, although subject to temptations and to momentary criminal impulses, fights against them. A case in point is that of the celebrated alienist doctor Morel, who, feeling himself suddenly impelled to the idea of throwing a workman who happened to stand near him into the river, fled from the spot. The born homicide can not thus defend himself. These facts, in which is delineated the embryo of that pathological homicidal obsession which our author now goes on to examine, can be explained by congenital weakness of development, the nerve centers having been arrested, and hence not apt nor edu- cated to resist. It may also happen that the delinquent does not complete his

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ENRICO FERRI ON HOMICIDE. 833 crime; but this is usually due not so much to internal resistance (active inhibition) as would occur in normal man, as to an exter- nal and present force (passive inhibition), which hinders its exe- cution, such as an unexpected incident which takes the place at times of this defect of inhibition, giving to the delinquent the resisting force which he lacks. And this brings us by a natural transition to insane homicide, The author arrives at the conclu- sion that there does not exist a special form of homicidal “ mono- mania,” but that all the forms of madness may be accompanied by homicidal excess. Hence the criterion that he has adopted in his symptomatology of homicidal mania. He differs from the classifi- cation that is purely clinical and descriptive, and frequently insuf- ficient for the scientist as for the magistrate. His favorite genetic criterion of the initial idea and the action of homicide in the in- sane delinquent is very useful in achieving a good result from the important and very distinct comparisons between the delinquent and the criminal madman, and the delinquent and common or non-criminal madman. As a basis for this comparison it is neces- sary to distinguish the insane delinquent from the non-insane, a matter of deep importance not only for science but also for juris- prudence, because from this distinction arise the various degrees of imputability and the divers means of social defense to be adopted. It is further needful to distinguish in these madmen the insane conduct exclusively due to their intellectual degen- eracy from that criminal one which is also due to the lack of the moral sense. In point of fact, in non-delinquent madmen the greater abnormities are to be found in the intellectual func- tions, while in the delinquent abnormities of the moral sense are most marked. Of course, this is a mere academic discussion, for a real and sharp natural distinction between the forms discussed can not exist, and the non-insane delinquent and the insane are fundamentally equal when it comes to be a question of criminal manifestations, Let us now consider the psycho-pathological symptoms of homicide. Ferri, with his rich array of facts, of opportune eluci- dations and examples, undertakes this examination, dividing this last section of his book into two groups which deal with the mo- ment of the homicidal act and the attitude of the insane murderer before, during, and after its execution and during his trial; and finally, as a last chapter, he adds the conclusions to be drawn from the antecedents of the criminal’s life and the recidivity of the insane homicide. The deliberation in this unhappy person is due either to the slow invasion of the homicidal idea (homicidal obsession) or to momentary impulse. Hence two distinct generic types of psycho- pathological characteristics, The first type, in which the decision VOL, XLIX,—64

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x 834 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. to commit the crime springs from a slow and reflective process which increases from the weak or static (obsession) state until it becomes an irresistible impulse and takes a violent and dynamic form, finding vent in the criminal act, is very frequent under the influence of the delusion of persecution, in chronic alcoholics, in hysterical subjects, etc.,and is also seen in other non-violent forms of mental alienation. Sometimes the madman has a perfect cog- nizance of his own madness, so that he will often warn others as to the crime he intends to commit and knows the punishment due to it, and yet nevertheless this will not deter him unless fortuitous external causes intervene. In fact, it often happens that madmen affected by homicidal obsession, incapable of restraining them- selves, afraid of themselves, in order not to yield to the homicidal impulse, take the precaution of wounding or mutilating them- selves, in order thus to divert their ungovernable impulse, and render it impossible to execute their purpose. A case in point is that of a man who, unable to dominate the violent force impelling him to murder his wife and children, consigned himself to the police and had himself shut up in an asylum. The second type, in which the determination to homicide pro- ceeds from a spontaneous impulse (the transitory mania of the old school of psychiatry), from a species of impulsive vertigo, without a real impulse or motive, is found generally in epileptic subjects. This tyrannous impulse toward crime is also due very frequently to hallucination and illusion, often ignored by those who have to do with madmen. Homicide from hallucination pre- sents three subtypes: first, that in which the madman acts under the terror of a fearful hallucination (epileptics, alcoholics, etc.) ; secondly, in consequence of delirium from delirious homicidal premises (persecution mania); thirdly, in obedience to the im- perious commands of an inward voice. Nevertheless, this does not exclude the criminal motive (vendetta, jealousy, etc.) which sometimes determines the insane to commit homicide (especially the epileptics), motives which they readily, however, confess. To complete the psycho-pathological characteristics as to the deliberate moment of homicide in the insane, Ferri treats of homi- cide as an end in itself or as a means toward a legitimate end, observing that if in mad homicides murder is an end in itself (killing to kill, impulse without motive) or as a means to an end, more often social and juridic (defense from imaginary perils, withdrawal of their victim from misery, etc.), in common mad- men it is always a means to reach an antisocial end. This re- mark is all the more important because, besides refuting the ancient affirmation which is still repeated, that delinquents have always a motive for their deed, while madmen have none, it also refutes the other no less erroneous affirmation of Esquirol

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ENRICO FERRI ON HOMICIDE. 835 that “in delinquents murder is a means, in madmen it is an end,” adopted until now by most scientists, and only lately dis- missed as inadequate by the most eminent anthropologists and criminalists in consequence of Ferri’s criticisms published in 1886, In the present book the author adds two other characteristic motive factors found in mad delinquents—that is to say, homi- cide for purpose of suicide (for example, a man kills another in order to expiate his crime on the scaffold); and sacrificial homi- cide induced by the desire to kill, to sacrifice a victim for his own good or for the good of both murderer and victim. This, accord- ing to Ferri, is the attitude of the insane homicide before, during, and after his criminal excitement. First, and less common, there is the premeditation which approximates the insane homicide to the homicide born. The concomitants of this type may be the killing of his victim openly in the face of witnesses, the lack of accomplices, the latter an important feature and one that the mad homicide has almost always in common with the murderer by passionate impulse. It is not, however, unknown that madmen associate to commit crimes, from the sociability that is a charac- teristic of the epileptic, and forms indeed yet another proof of the fundamental identity of epilepsy and congenital delinquency with so-called moral insanity, so wonderfully demonstrated by Lombroso. While committing the crime the manner of the mad homicide is generally agitated. He is also of a violent ferocity, which dif- fers from that of the born homicide, which may lead him to the point of cannibalism, just as it does the latter. Another symp- tom, which is, however, exclusively seen in the insane (imbeciles, idiots, epileptics), is that of the monstrous sexual passion that finds its vent on the corpse of their victim (necro-philomania), to which must be added the murder of persons beloved or of persons unknown, as well as indiscriminate massacre. _ The symptoms and the attitude of the mad homicide after his crime are in part common to those of the born homicide, although the psychological genesis of these symptoms is different. These are: calmness after committing the act, which often continues when arrested and during the trial, impassibility at sight of the corpse, etc. A true characteristic symptom distinguishing the mad homicide from the born homicide is great prostration and abnormal sleep into which he often falls after his murderous assault, very different from the calmness and the placid sleep of the born homicide. Notable, too, is the impulse toward suicide that seizes him immediately after the consummaticn of the deed, an instantaneous reaction of his moral sense, the feeling of relief, as though a heavy weight were removed, the moral Daltonism

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XN 836 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and the moral valuation of the crime which may rise to the point of true remorse, The characteristics of the attitude of the mad homicides dur- ing their trials are the frequent energetic protests that they are not mad, the dissimulation of their insanity or even the simula- tion of another form of madness different from that from which they suffer, the nonresistance when arrested, the instinctive at- tempt at flight, and the alibi they prepare for themselves in cases of premeditation ; their frequently detailed confession, often made in phrases such as “It was not I. It was my head. I was blinded by my illness. I felt a blow on my head,” and so forth. Or when, like other delinquents, they are not anxious to invent excuses for themselves, they either do not excuse themselves at all, or even accuse themselves of imaginary crimes, as though they wished to make themselves out worse than they are. Ferri finally proceeds to analyze very carefully the groups of symptoms regarding the life of the criminal before and after the committal of his crime as well as his hereditary antecedents. The previous conduct of the born homicide is often very regular ; and then suddenly, a little before the murder, a change of life and character will take place. Another characteristic sometimes is the perpetration of other crimes after the first homicide. Following this last research Ferri gives us in conclusion the most important deductions which result from this portion of his great work, as to the psychical constitution of the born homicide and the mad homicide. He sums them up into twelve axioms, which should prove of invaluable use to the judicial authorities. These it is not easy to condense, and for their precise formula we must refer our readers to Ferri’s book. Crime is always a decided condition. This is the final and lucid outcome of his learned work, a conclusion at which Virgil and Lombroso respectively arrived, and a conclusion that honors these thinkers. In his future volume he promises to treat of the two other typical figures of homicides from passionate impetus and homicides from occasion, to which we look forward. One important point Ferri touches but slightly, and that is, Is crime nowadays the exception or is it not rather the rule? It must unfortunately be concluded that it is the rule in the actual epoch Europe is traversing; this does not mean, however, that crime is @ normal phenomenon, but: only helps to confirm the innate rela- tions that exist between economic conditions and criminal facts, or rather, in Ferri’s own words, “that the present social crisis has reached such a point as to render even criminal symptoms acute and profound, which does not exclude that in a more advanced phase of social order, such as scientific socialists look forward to, crime, like every other symptom of social pathology, will be re-

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SKETCH OF ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS. 837 duced to the smallest proportions, such as occurs to common ill- nesses on the cessation of a more or less prolonged epidemic.” This-book Ferri has dedicated to his little three-year-old son Dante, expressing the hope, as he says in his dedication, that when he is old enough to understand it, Italy may show fewer signs of moral pathology. It is certainly a remarkable work, and reflects great credit on its writer by its minute and impartial research. ow i a SKETCH OF ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS. OR the facts in the life of RopErt Empire RoGErs, as well as of the other members of this family famous in science, the memorial paper of the late Dr. W. S. W. Ruschenberger is almost our only authority. Robert Empie Rogers was the youngest of the four brothers, sons of Patrick Kerr Rogers and Hannah Blythe, whose researches, several and joint, have conferred so much honor on the name. He was born in Baltimore, Md., March 29, 1813, and died in Philadelphia, September 6, 1884. His father having been called to be Professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics in William and Mary College, removed to Williams- burg, Va., in 1819. There his mother died in the next year, when Robert was seven years old, and the boys, Dr. Ruschenberger says, “ became almost foster children in the families of the pro- fessors.” Robert seems to have received special care at the hands of the Rev. Adam P. Empie, D. D., and his wife, and in recog- nition of that care assumed the name of Empie. He was taught by his father, and after his death by his brothers James and William. The profession intended for him was that of engineer, and he began the exercise of it as an assistant in the survey of the Boston and Providence Railroad, Nothing is known about the engagement or the work done by young Rogers, except that the results of it were not satisfactory. In a letter written to his brother William in 1833, Robert expresses doubt of his prospect of success if he should try engineering again, and confesses that his favorite desire had always been to become an instructor. Civil engineering was given up, and Robert, having determined to study medicine, became a pupil of Dr. Robert Hare, Professor of Chemistry, “and worked zealously in his laboratory till the close of his undergraduate course.” He was graduated from the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania in March, 1836, offering as his thesis a paper on “ Experiments on the Blood, together with some New Facts in regard to Animal and Vegetable Structures, illustrative of many of the most Important Features of Organic Life.” This thesis was published, with illustrations, in

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~ 838 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the American Journal of the Medical Sciences. He, however, preferred chemistry to medicine, and served from 1876 as chemist of the first Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, under his brother Henry, who was chief of the survey. In this position he was associated with James Curtis Booth and John F. Frazer as the other assistants. In the fall of 1841 he was invited to the University of Virginia to take the place in teaching the chemistry classes of Prof. John P. Emmet, who was ill. Prof. Emmet not recovering from his illness, Mr. Rogers was in March, 1842, elected in his place Pro- fessor of General and Applied Chemistry and Materia Medica, a position which he held with credit till 1852. In August of the latter year he was elected Professor of Chemistry, in the place of his brother, James B. Rogers, deceased, in the University of Penn- sylvania. In 1856 he became Dean of the Medical Faculty of that institution. In July, 1862, during the civil war, he was appointed acting assistant surgeon in the Army of the United States, and assigned to duty in the Military Hospital at West Philadelphia, where he served not quite one year. At his suggestion a steam mangle was set up under his supervision in the neighborhood of the hospital. On the day it was completed he was showing a woman how to feed it safely, when his right hand was caught in the machinery and crushed. He was able with his other hand to throw the machine out of gear and stop it, but while a workman was lifting the cylinder, weighing eight hundred pounds, from off the disabled hand, the great piece slipped from the crowbar and fell upon it, aggravating the injury it had received. He was anxious lest his wife should be seriously shocked by too quickly realizing the severity of the mutilation he had suffered, and, to prevent this as far as possible, he left the carriage in which he was conveyed a short distance from his house and walked home. The hand was amputated by Prof. Smith, of the university, and its place was supplied for a time by an artificial hand. “ Almost ambidextrous prior to the accident,” says Dr. Ruschenberger, “he speedily learned to write with his left hand and to use the right arm, beneath the shoulder, in prehension with notable skill in his experiments while lecturing.” About this time the United States was swept by the “ oil fever,” and visions of wealth to be suddenly acquired by the pos- session of a well turned many an otherwise well-balanced head. Prof. Rogers did not escape the epidemic; and the fact that a man so well informed in scientific matters as he was associated in the enterprise contributed no little to the success of the scheme for organizing the Humboldt Oil Company in February, 1864, to which a capital of a quarter of a million dollars was contributed. Organization was all the success the company had. Land was

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z “4 SKETCH OF ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS. 839 bought, wells were dug, and the work was carried on for some time without profit; and finally, in 1873, the whole concern was sold out, a nearly total loss to the shareholders, Prof. Rogers was the largest holder, having one fifth of the shares, and lost more than any of the others. In 1872 Prof. Rogers was appointed, with Dr. H. R. Linder- man, by the Secretary of the Treasury, a committee to make ex- aminations in the mint at Philadelphia for the purpose of ascer- taining the extent and sources of a waste of silver that was alleged to be taking place there “in excess of the amount tolerated by law.” The processes of assaying and refining the bullion and converting it into coin were carefully tested by numerous experi- ments at the mint and at the Assay Office in New York. About two months were spent in the examination. The result of it was presented July 25, 1873, in a well-considered and elaborate Report on the Wastage of Silver Bullion at the Melter and Refiner’s De- partment of the Mint. This investigation, valuable in itself, was also valuable in its consequences, because it suggested modifica- tions in the method of refining the precious metals which were afterward adopted. The Director of the Mint said in his annual report that the results obtained were conclusive of several points, and would be valuable in future minting operations. Prof. Rogers next made an examination of the working of the mint at San Francisco, concerning which he reported to the Director of the Mint. In 1874 he experimented at the Assay Office in New York concerning means of ridding the establishment of inconveniences suffered from acid vapors. “ Prior to that time nitrous-acid fumes, arising from the nitric acid used in refining silver, were allowed to escape through the chimney into the open air, seriously annoy- ing neighbors. To correct the evil, Dr. Rogers had constructed in the attic of the building a furnace for burning coke, into which the fumes were conveyed and burned.” Instead of extinguishing, these fumes promoted the combustion of the fuel. He afterward conferred with the Treasury authorities in Washington concern- ing plans which he had proposed for the equipment of a refinery in the mint at San Francisco. The plans, which included ‘a sul- phuric-acid process recommended by him, and the erection of ad- ditional buildings, were carried out under his supervision, and the completed work was put in charge of the superintendent in August, 1875. “At the suggestion of Dr. Rogers during the progress of the work, an artesian well was sunk within the hol- low square of the mint, which supplies one hundred thousand gallons of water daily for all the uses of the establishment.” The succeeding report of the Director of the Mint mentions the advantage to the public interests which attended the operation of the refinery. In connection with this work in the mint Prof.

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840 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, Rogers also made a careful investigation and estimation of the probable total production of the Consolidated Virginia and Cali- fornia Mine in Nevada. He was further, from 1874 to 1879, or for about six years, a member every year of the Annual Assay Com- mission. He was for twelve years one of the chemists to make © an analysis and daily photometric test of the illuminating gas supplied to Philadelphia. In 1877 Prof. Rogers was elected Professor of Medical Chemis- try and Toxicology in Jefferson Medical College; and, to accept the offer, resigned the position which he had for a quarter of a century held in the university. His entrance into this institution was the occasion of a flattering demonstration at the time of the opening of the course of 1877-78 with an introductory lecture, “Tt was estimated that not less than twelve hundred physicians, students, and others were crowded into the hall. At the conclu- sion of the lecture a silver vase was presented to him as a token of the respect felt for him by the great class of medical students.” Prof. Rogers became a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1837; was interested in its proceedings through most of his life; attended its meetings at irregular inter- vals for many years in succession ; participated in its discussions, and delivered lectures to promote its interests. Many of his verbal communications are noted in its proceedings from 1859 to 1862. He was a member of the Franklin Institute from April, 1838, except when living away from Philadelphia; became a life member in 1855; one of the Board of Managers in 1857; was one of the vice-presidents for seventeen years from 1858; was chosen president in 1875; and on retiring from that office in 1879 was returned to the Board of Managers for the rest of his life. “He was particularly active in the work of the institute, delivered courses of lectures on chemistry before its classes, assisted in the management of its public exhibitions, served on several of its standing and on many of its special committees, the most notable of which were one on tests of the efficiency of dynamo-electric machines, and another on the dangers of electric lighting.” At the celebration of the semi-centennial anniversary of the founda- tion of the society, February 5, 1874, he delivered an address on the history of scientific discoveries and their practical applica- tions in the half century, in which he pointed out how the work of the institute had contributed to the progress of science and the diffusion of knowledge. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Soci- ety in 1855 and a member of its Council in 1859. He was a fre- quent attendant at its meetings, served on several of its commit- tees, and often took part in its discussions. He was less often present at the meetings of the College of Physicians, of which he

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SKETCH OF ROBERT EMPIE ROGERS. 841 was elected a Fellow in 1857. At one of these meetings, according to Dr. Ruschenberger, he related an incident in the case of a trial for poisoning He, as an expert witness, contributed to the estab- lishment of the fact that the subnitrate of bismuth sold in the drug stores was contaminated with arsenic, which had not previ- ously been suspected. He became a permanent member of the American Medical Association in 1852, when he attended the meet- ing at Richmond as the representative of the University of Vir- ginia. He represented the University of Pennsylvania in the meetings of 1853 and 1872, representing also at the latter meeting the medical profession of Philadelphia, and delivering the address of welcome to the delegates. He took an active part in the forma- tion of the Society of the Alumni of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, and was its treasurer for several years. With his brothers Henry and William he took part, in 1840, in the organization of the Association of American Geol- ogists and Naturalists, which afterward became the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The catalogue of his writings includes four papers under his own name alone in physiology, chemistry, and metallurgy; twelve papers by him and William B. Rogers in chemistry; a paper on the analysis of magnesian limestone by him and Martin H. Boyé; three papers by Dr. H. R. Linderman and him in metallurgy and electricity; a paper by James B. Rogers and him on the alleged insolubility of copper in hydrochloric acid; and seven papers by William B. Rogers and him on subjects in chemistry and meteorology. He also edited the American edition of Lehmann’s Physiological Chemistry, which was published in 1855; and he was joint author, with James Blythe Rogers, of a text-book of inorganic and organic chemistry, compiled from the works of Dr. Edward Turner and Dr. William Gregory, which was published in 1846. Besides his regular occupations, Prof. Rogers was sometimes engaged as an expert in criminal trials; frequently delivered lectures, illus- trated by experiments, for the benefit of institutions; and often did works of kindness and benevolence. Three instances are men- tioned in which he heroically saved persons from drowning. He had a remarkable faculty, Dr. Ruschenberger says, in the use of tools of all kinds, and a respectable talent for mechanical con- trivance. He.was author of many inventions—notable among them the Rogers and Black steam boiler—and of several modifi- cations and improvements of electrical apparatus. This ability was early manifested, in 1835-36, in his original experiments on osmosis, in which he demonstrated how ryan in the blood are produced by respiration.

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, Correspondence. *"OMAN’S CLAIMS TO THE BALLOT. Editor Popular Science Monthly : Sim: The “antagonism of the sexes” sug- ted in your criticism of my paper oa ene and the Ballot, in the June number of the Monthly, must have been read between the lines, as I have not the least feeling of that nature to betray. I confess, however, that I have a passion- ate love of justice which is apt to be aroused by any attempt to forestall judgment such as was made by Mrs. Linton and Mr, Talbot in announcing the raison d’étre for woman. Believing, =i do, that neither they nor any one else can give one iota of proof in regard to “causes of existence,” whether of an ameba or woman, a little irony is pardonable. No attempt whatever was made to give the important arguments in favor of woman suf- frage, as these were ignored in Mr. Talbot’s article, his efforts being mainly directed to the testimony of “Nature” against a femi- nine share of government. One of the best reasons I can urge for the gift ot the franchise to woman is its edu- eative effect upon herself. I hold strongly to the doctrine of personal responsibility, and think enough evil has been accomplished by “trusteeship,” however generously and con- scientiously it may be exercised in particular instances, The special laws referred to as resultants of woman’s effort were: The bill granting pew rights to women in the State of ermont, October, 1847; the removal of dis- abilities from the women of Kansas in 1859 ; and the granting of property rights to the women of Connecticut in 1877. The testi- mony in regard to these is as follows: “ From 1848 to 1853, inclusive, I edited The Wind- ham County Democrat, published by my hus- band, George W. Nichols, at Brattleboro. Early in 1847 I addressed to the voters of the State a series of editorials setting forth the injustice and miserable economy of the property disabilities of married women. In October of the same year Hon. Larkin Mead, of Brattleboro, ‘moved,’ as he said, by Mrs. Nichols’s presentation of the subject in the Democrat, introduced in the Vermont Sen- ate a bill securing to the wife real and per- sonal property with its use and power to de- fend, convey, and devise, as if sole. The bill as passed secured to the wife real estate owned by her at marriage,” etc.* * Reminiscences of Clarinda I. Howard Nich- ols, History of Woman Suffrage, vol. i, p. 175. In 1859 Mrs. Nichols addressed the Con- stitutional Convention in Kansas upon equal legal and political rights for women. Three of the four petitions presented by her were granted, the report being adopted by a solid vote of the Democrats and enough Republi- cans to make a majority.* The Connecticut law of 1877 giving prop- erty rights to women was passed upon Gov- ernor Hubbard’s recommendation, who, in a personal letter to Mrs. Isabella Hooker, ac- knowledged her influence. “Thank your- self and such as you for what there is of progress in respect to woman’s rights among us.” If these women did not supply the mo- tive power that stimulated the sluggish mas- culine “sense of equity and right,” then we are wrong in ascribing causative value to any pleading. It is not a case of post hoe, prop- ter hoc, merely; it has the connection of the match and the flash. As for all generalizations concerning the mental characteristics of women, I think we have as yet no adequate data, and therefore that all books founded on such premises are entirely valueless from a scientific point of view. Aice B, TwEepy. New Yors, August 25, 1896. A CORRECTION, Editor Popular Science Monthly ; Deak Str: On page 569 of the August number of the Monthly E. W. Moir makes the statement that he treated certain cases “‘ ho- mopathically.” The cases were patients suffering with what has been called “ caisson disease.” The cause of this disease is the too sudden removal of supernormal atmos- pheric pressure, or the too rapid removal of one from a chamber of compressed air. To relieve the paralysis thus caused we are told that the patients were again put into a heavy atmosphere. As it was the re- moval from a heavy atmosphere that caused the disease, certainly reintroducing a patient into a heavy atmosphere can not be called homeopathic treatment. There are many others who misuse medical terms quite as recklessly as the word “ homeopathically ” is in the instance mentioned above. Respectfully, J. M. G. Carrer, M.D. WavkgaaN, Itu., August 1, 1896. 2 History of Woman Suffrage, vol. i, pp. 192, + History cf Woman Suffrage, vol. iii, p. 326.

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ANOTHER BISHOP ON SCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 7 E were not a little surprised to read in Nature some time ago an article from which it appeared that Bishop Temple, of London, had, in an address delivered before the Dio- cesan Conference, expressed his en- tire opposition to the teaching of sci- ence in elementary schools. §o far as these schools were concerned he would be glad, he said, “if all these scientific subjects were got rid of en- tirely.” Now Dr. Temple, as Nature observes, is an experienced educator. He was Head Master of Rugby at the time when he wrote his celebrat- ed paper on The Education of the World in Essays and Reviews ; and he has also been an inspector of schools and principal of a training college. He may therefore be sup- posed to know a good deal about education; and we can only regret that we are not in possession of a fuller statement of his views than we find in the columns of our con- temporary, as it is difficult to believe that he could have expressed such opinions as those quoted without qualification. Nature, replying to the bishop, proceeds to show how important technical knowledge is to the commercial prosperity of nations. This does not fully meet the case, however : technical knowledge may be, and is doubtless, of the highest importance to a nation’s commercial prosperity; and yet from an educa- tional point of view it might (con- ceivably) not be advisable to intro- duce science into elementary schools. The question is not as to teaching sci- ence, but as to when to begin to teach it and how to teach it in the earliest stages. EDITOR'S TABLE. Editor’s Table. If Bishop Temple, who has al- ways been regarded as a very en- lightened man, means no more than that science should not be so taught to young children as to tyrannize over their thoughts and cramp their imaginations, we could agree with him. If,on the other hand, he means that there is no way of introducing the teaching of science with advantage into the education of the young, we can only consider him seriously mis- taken, and regret that he should have given the weight of his authority to a very hurtful idea. Many of our readers are doubtless aware that some eminent scientific authorities have been profoundly dissatisfied with the methods and results of sci- ence teaching in the elementary schools both of this country and of England. In spite of their predilec- tion for scientific studies they have been forced to acknowledge that, somehow or other, science as actual- ly taught seemed in a great many cases to possess little or no educative value. The late Prof. Huxley was very strong on this point, maintain- ing that the fault lay in the excess- ive use made of text-books and the overloading of the mind with facts which it could not properly assimi- late. Bishop Temple may have wit- nessed a similar phenomenon; but, if so, the inference to draw is not that there is no place for science in elementary education, but that its true place has not always been un- derstood, or that those who have as- sumed to teach it have not possessed the skill and insight necessary to bring it into vital relation with the minds under their charge. As we take it, the business of sci- ence in early education is not to go

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844 rudely counter to all the natural ideas of a child in regard to the uni- verse, nor to impose upon him at once the somewhat oppressive con- ception of unvarying law, but to cause the idea of law to steal gradu- ally into the mind, and to reveal] and assert itself more and more through the successive observations which a judicious teacher will lead the child to make. Childhood, it should be needless to remark, is a period of great outward activity—a period when impressions from the world around are crowding in on the mind; it is not to any great extent a period of reflection ; and any studies, there- fore, which make a premature or excessive demand on the reflecting powers can not fail to do harm. The youngest child will generalize to some extent—that is to say, will do it fitfully and in regard to famil- iar matters; but wide generalizations in regard to unfamiliar matters lie outside of its natural sphere; and, if forced on its attention, will not only fail to interest, but will, in di- rect proportion to the insistence of the teacher, depress the whole play of the mental faculties and injuri- ously affect the development of the physical system. This is a point where many teachers go astray. Generalizations are so interesting to the adult mind, they seem to help it forward so powerfully, and to be as it were so self-luminous, that a teacher requires to possess more than the usual amount of comprehension of and sympathy with the child mind in order to recognize that they are, in the main, unsuited to the latter, and therefore only to be applied sparingly in its education. This, we conceive, explains why “clever” people, so called, often make but in- ferior teachers of the young. In _ spite of all the psychology and peda- gogics they may have absorbed— perhaps occluded—they can not suffi- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ciently and permanently, day in and day out, distinguish between the mature and the immature in- tellect. Science, like everything else, to - be taught successfully needs to be taught with sympathy. There should be sympathy with the subject as well as sympathy with the pupil. The reason why, in the hands of certain teachers, language and _ literature prove so stimulating as studies, is that the teachers feel them to be re- lated to the higher operations and finer perceptions of the mind, and succeed in conveying this idea to those whom they instruct. The teacher of science should not be con- tent to occupy any lower ground. The laws and facts which he ex- pounds have their own correlation with the past history and future des- tinies of mankind, and with the whole compass of human thought. In dealing with the young we should endeavor to humanize science as much as possible, and to present it as having its origin in the everyday impressions of sense, and as being in its essence merely an improved and beneficent interpretation of the world in which we live. Unless the Bishop of London is a far more reactionary person than we take him to be, what he would ban- ish from elementary schools is just what we would ourselves banish, had we the power, namely, that for- mal, didactic, authoritative instruc- tion in the facts and theories of sci- ence which is more adapted to wither than to nourish the youthful mind, not such teaching as takes the form of a gradual and sympathetic intro- duction to the true order of Nature. Science is just as good for the young as for the old, on the one condition that those who teach it are them- selves scientific enough to under- stand the minds they are dealing with. And the advantage of begin-

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ning betimes is that the mind early accustomed to view the universe as an infinite field of knowledge, and science simply as a method tested and proved by experience for ac- quiring knowledge, is placed once for all in the right relation and atti- tude to all questions demanding the exercise of thought. Many men of eminence in letters have expressed regret that they did not enjoy this advantage in early life; and on every hand we see proofs that the lack which they have deplored is precise- ly the lack under which others are laboring, without, however, a saving consciousness of their deficiency. We want more science, not less, in education, but the science must itself be scientific. THE FOURTH BUFFALO MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. THE meeting of the American Association in Buffalo—its fourth meeting in that city—was eminently satisfactory from a scientific point of view, and was marked by many features of interest. About four hundred members were present. Among them were two of the six founders of the association still liv- ing—Dr. James Hall, and Prof. Charles West, of Brooklyn—whose presence was fittingly mentioned by President Morley in opening the meeting. Later in the sessions a kind of jubilee meeting was held in the Geological Section in commemo- ration of the sixtieth anniversary of Prof. Hali’s work in connection with the New York Geological Survey, when addresses were made by Prof. Joseph Le Conte, W J McGee, and others, in which special features of the survey were presented. The ad- dress of welcome by the mayor of the city was supplemented by a greeting from Dr. Roswell Park, of the Buffalo Academy of Natural Sciences, on be- half of the scientific life of the place. EDITOR’S TABLE, Buffalo—a commercial city—has no great scientific institutions, but sev- eral of modest pretensions, including its university of five professional schools, which has just celebrated its semi-centennial; a second medical school; several libraries; the acad- emy, which boasts of its special col- lection relating to the American bison; and a number of smaller affiliated clubs, each devoted to some particular form of the study of Na- ture. President E. D. Cope, replying to these addresses, spoke of the insig- nificance of our knowledge as com- pared with what we do not know, of the value of original research, the nature of scientific investigation, and the objects of the association. The address of retiring President Morley was on the subject of A Completed Chapter in the History of the Atomic Theory. The addresses of the sec- tional vice-presidents were mostly technical discussions of special top- ics in their several fields, but some, which we shall mention iv another place, offered points of considerable general interest. A similar remark may be applied to the papers in the sections, which offered great variety in character. The proceedings of the Economic Section were marked by the discussion of monetary ques- tions in papers by Mr. William H. Hale and Edward Atkinson; Mr. Stillman Kneeland’s paper on Citi- zenship, its Privileges and Duties; and papers bearing on the “ woman question.” Studies of Indian life were presented in the Anthropo- logical Section, and an air of realism was imparted to the matter by the opening of an Indian burial chest, found in Michigan, and the exhibi- tion of other specimens. The Geo- logical Section paid much attention to caves. The results of cave explo- ration in the United States and their bearing on the antiquity of man

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846 were presented in an illustrated lec- ture by Prof. Cope and Mr. H. C. Mercer; and the making of the Mammoth Cave was explained, and a colossal cave discovered a year ago in Kentucky was described by Prof. Hovey. The last gentleman urged the formation of an American cave club. The section resolved to place a tablet on the spot where the Asso- ciation of American Geologists was founded. In the Section of Mechan- ical Science Mr. W. 8S. Aldrich advo- cated a national endowment for en- gineering research, and the subject POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. of irrigation for the eastern United States was brought to attention. The practical side of chemistry was presented in such subjects as The Chemical Problems of the Pottery . Industry, Sugar-making at the Pres- ent Day, and The Use of Coal-Tar Products in Food. In choosing Prof. Wolcott Gibbs as the president of its next meeting, the association has honored itself in honoring a veteran chemist who was famous when the majority of its present most active members were still schoolboys. Scientific Literature. SPECIAL BOOKS. WE have here a popular view of one division of the fruitful field that is being worked by the physiological psychologists of the present genera- tion in Italy.* The author lays a broad foundation for his treatment of his subject by describing the general functions of each part of the brain and those of the spinal cord. He then takes up the circulation of the blood in the brain during emotion, on which he has made extended re- searches. He has had opportunities to take tracings from the pulsations of the brain in patients whose skulls had been fractured, and shows that any sound or sight that stimulates mental action increases the quantity of blood sent tothe brain. He has tested the same thing also with a balance de- vised by him which has a beam large enough for a person to lie at length upon. Any mental excitement of the subject on the balance inducing a rush of blood to the brain would cause the head end of the delicately poised beam to sink. ‘When the normal condition of the subject was restored the balance would regain its equilibrium. Dr. Mosso has also taken many tracings from the respiration, the beating of the heart, and the circulation of blood in the hands, each class of records showing the perturbations pro- duced by excitement. The variation in the quantity of blood sent to the hands and other outlying parts of the body underlies the phenomenon of pallor, which with oppression of the chest and quickened beating of the heart are among symptoms of fear. Trembling is another one of these symptoms which Dr. Mosso examines. Taking up facial expression, he describes the nervous and muscular actions by which expression is pro- duced, and follows this with a chapter on the physiognomy of pain, in which he gives a series of photographs of a hospital patient undergoing a * Fear. By Angelo Mosso. Pp. 278, 12mo. Green & Co. Price, $1,75. London, New York, and Bombay: Longmans,

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 847 painful manipulation of the arm. He also considers the expression of pain in the faces of certain classic pieces of statuary. Pain is not fear, and this interesting chapter seems to have been introduced as a substitute for material that it was not practicable to obtain. Opportunities for observ- ing fear in children, both in their waking and sleeping hours, are not so rare as in the case of adults. Our author discusses both hereditary or in- stinctive and induced fears of little folk and gives some suggestions as to education for courage. Other aspects of his subjects treated in the closing chapters are the influence of fear on the skin and excretions, the paralyz- ing influence of terror on man and animals, and the maladies and even cases of death which great fright has produced. The treatment is popular throughout, and some of the author’s descriptions—for instance, those of stage fright and delirium tremens—rise to the picturesque. It contains many things that a reader would want to refer to after a first reading, but its translators do not seem to think so, for they have left it without an index. Mr. Conant has added to the literature of the banking business a not- ably convenient and instructive book.* His record begins with banking in Italy, in which country the bank that is considered to have been the oldest, that of Venice, was founded. This is followed by accounts of banking operations in the other countries of Europe. Coming to America, he gives a chapter each to the Bank of the United States, the State banking systems, and the national banking system now in operation. The banks of Canada, Latin America, Africa, and the East also receive attention. While the author has not departed from his historical pian so far as to write a treatise on banking, yet he does not refrain from characterizing the good and the bad features of the systems that he describes. He rates the Scotch system of banks of issue as coming “ nearer to the ideal of successful free banking than that of any other country,” and shows that the Canadian banks were founded on Scotch models, and the first one of them largely by Scotchmen. He also gives in his first chapter a brief statement of the theory of a banking currency, and concludes the volume by setting forth the chief ad- vantages of such a medium. Many persons who are most firmly resisting the present agitation for a change in the coinage system of the United States are convinced that a modification of our method of issuing paper money is urgently needed. Mr. Conant shares this conviction, and in the chapters just mentioned, as well as in the one especially devoted to our national banking system, he vigorously affirms the superior elasticity of bank currency over issues of Treasury notes, and condemns many of the existing restrictions on the circulation of banks as unduly burdensome. Another historical division of the volume relates to crises—the earlier and later ones of the present century, including that of 1893—with a dis- cussion of the causes of these catastrophes. The tendency of the work is to reveal the operation of natural laws in monetary affairs, and to show that legislation that conflicts with these laws always works mischief. * A History of Modern Banks of Issue, with an Account of the Economic Crises of the Present Century. By Charles A. Conant. Pp. 595, 8vo. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons. Price, $3.

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‘eemrs aie | bata Tid ee Lge ae GENERAL In her recent volume, the fourth of the Memoirs of the American Folklore Society, Mrs. Bergen* has brought together and classified fourteen hundred and seventy five different superstitions, thus giving us the most complete collection in English. When it is known that this arduous task was ac- complished during years of invalidism, and is, moreover, but the first installment of the matter in hand, we marvel at the industry of the author. The items are arranged in nine- teen chapters, covering the range of current belief under the headings Babyhood, Child- hood, Physical Characteristics, Projects, Hal- loween and other Festivals, Love and Mar- riage, Wishes, Dreams, Luck, Money, Visit- ors, Cures, Warts, Weather, Moon, Sun, Death Omens, Mortuary Customs, and Mis- cellaneous. What memories of childhood are aroused at the forms of asseveration, such as “Honor bright,” “Hope I'll die,” etc., used to bolster up some unsteady tale, or the terrible iroprecation against disloyalty : Tell tale tit, Your tongue shall be slit, And every dog in our town It shall have a bit ! A deeper interest is added when we think that these childish formule are but parallels of the more serious rites of savages, and link the play of the one to the horrible incanta- tions of the other. Of the augury of the daisy petals— He loves me, he loves me not— nine variants are given. Other interesting kinds of “projects,” or “trying fortunes,” are connected with apple seeds, bed, buttons, four-leaved clovers, stars, water, etc. The fifty or more signs and charms for the causes and cures of warts will be welcome to suf- ferers from that affliction. To the student of comparative mythology the solar and lunar beliefs will offer many links to the Aryan stock. In fact, it is the study of relation- ships which gives most value to this or any work of folklore. The introduction and * Current Superstitions. Edited by Fanny D. Bergen. With Notes, and an Introduction by William Welle Newell. Pp. 161, 8vo. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Price, $8.25. POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. NOTICES, notes by Mr. Newell are written with the usual care and clearness of this investigator, . and add an invaluable guide to the interpre- tation of the superstitions. Mr, Newell says: “In commending this collection to the atten- tion of psychologists, and to the continuing industry of students of folklore, 1 need only express my hope that it may be sufficient to make clear how far-reaching are the studies for which folklore supplies material. The history of religion, the theory of mythologies, can not afford to overlook modern popular beliefs, in which ancient conceptions appear as still effective.” Dr. and Mrs. Le Plongeon years among the ruined cities of the Mayas in Yucatan, living with the people,.and.are__. “Confident that they have mastered d_the Maya_. language, “and learned to read the inscrip- tions” traced _ init, They have made the study of the ‘subject the chief occupation of their lives. One who talks with Dr. Le Plongeon will hardly doubt that his asser- tions are sincere. From his studies of the Maya records, and his comparative studies of Eastern archeology and mythology, he draws most startling conclusions. Among those developed in this book * are the his- toric reality of the story of the Atlantis, and the ascription of an extreme antiquity and an extensive and potent influence to Maya civilization. When Egypt and Accad were young, or even before, he believes, the Mayas were living in Yucatan, a civilized people, with arts and architecture as we see them illustrated in the ruins at Chichen and other mysterious cities, while. their - colonists swarmed in Egypt and Babylonia and all the East, and left imperishable marks on the civilization and the languages of all those countries. This intercourse ceased with the catastrophe of Atlantis, which made the ocean unnavigable for thousands of years, and the story of the Mayas was forgotten. Much space is given in the book to the de- * Queen Mé6o and the Egyptian Sphinx. By Augustus Le Plongeon. New York: The au- thor, and the Metaphysical Publishing Company, 508 Fifth Avenue. London: Kegan Paul, Trench &Co. Pp. 277, 4to, with two portraits and 73 photographic plates,

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velopment of arguments in support of these views from verbal analogies—the most delu- sive of theory. What the author claims to derive from the study of Maya documents is enti- tled to more serious consideration. This is the story of the ancient Maya queen Méo, whose brother and husband, Prince Cobh, was treacherously murdered by his brother Aac. Queen Méo built a magnificent mau- soleum to her consort at Chichen, the ruins of which still exist and have been explored and studied by Dr. Le Plongeon, who has re- covered and possesses the charred heart of the prince, and the stone spear heads with which he was killed. Queen Méo, having refused to marry her husband’s murderer, was obliged to flee from her country, and sought refuge on one of the islands of the sunken Atlantis: Here the Maya record stops; but Dr. Le Plongeon infers, from his Egyptian studies, that not finding the refuge she sought, she went on to Egypt, where she was warmly welcomed by Maya colonists and became influential. Her name, the author affirms, is preserved in that of the Egyptian Queen Mau; her story, with that of her mur- dered husband, became the myth of Isis and Osiris; and she caused the Sphinx to be carved as a memorial toher husband, Dr. Le Plongeon finds the story of Atlantis fully recorded on a stone which is preserved in Chichen, “ as intact to-day as when it came from the hands of the sculptor,” and also in thé manuscript Troano and the Codex Cor- tesianus; and he further affirms that it was embodied by a Maya living in Greece in the Greek alphabet, the names of the letters of which, as recited by students, each represent gue of the lines of the poem. Dr. Le Plon- = theories are are @ utterly a at et n } ae S$ of them, and his other vending. bie. base re > is, however, the possibility that he has been carried away by an unbounded enthusiasm. In his work on Wages and Capital,* Prof. Taussig inverts the usual order of pro- * Wages and Capital: An Examination of the Wages-Fund Doctrine. By F. W. Taussig. New SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. York: D. Appleton & Co. Pp. 825. Price, $1.50. VOL, XLIx.—65 849 ceedings by presenting his own views first, in five chapters, and reviewing the history of the wages-fund discussion from its begin- ning to the present, in the chapters that fol- low. This he does because criticism and comment proceed inevitably from the think- er’s own point of view, and the proper esti- mation of their value depends largely on the reader’s knowing what that is. In the first five chapters (author’s view) it appears that all wages are paid from the products of past labor, and that the supply of products of past labor exists mainly in the form of real capital; that the class of hired laborers de- rive their wages from capital in this sense, and are dependent for their share of the real income, into which capital steadily ripens, on the funds which the employing class find it advantageous to turn over to them. The inquiry is then made whether the capital from which wages come is rigid or elas- tic, with a conclusion against rigidity. The inquiry results in the conclusion that the old doctrine of the wages fund had a solid basis in its conception, incomplete yet in essen- tials just, of the payment of present labor from past product. The theory thus ar- rived at shows the steps by which the wages get into the laborer’s hands, describes the machinery of production and distribution, and so points to the nearest and most obvi- ous causes which affect them; but it does not tell the whole story. In the critical re- view forming the latter part of the book, which begins with the writers before Adam Smith and includes contemporary discussion, the vogue of Mr. George’s Progress and Poverty is declared not due to any solid or consistent reasoning, or to any novelty in principle, and to have excited no great in- fluence on trained students. The author re- | views Prof. Francis A. Walker's contribu- tions to the discussion at considerable length, and maintains that they have never touched the essentials of the matter. Final- ly, while the controversy over the wages fund is acknowledged to be a barren one so far as it is an effort to define the causes which finally distribute wages and settle distribution at large; the author holds that something may still be gained from it as a mode of describing the meth- ods and sequence of production and related points.

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ee Es OI La n Kista SS pnt Bw ER. © pind Maiev ale FAM OT ee OR Rds RE Ww SN i, ite #2 tr. - on > ~ ee ee ee EE EN lias CIT Md A Dak ae Rant wie tb Staal st). Bitty Os ~~ se a eat a ke ——-. oe as 4. eit, = 850 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Prof. Hadley describes his book on Economics* as an attempt to apply the methods of modern science to the problems of modern business, As among the impor- tant changes in economic theory that have taken place within the last thirty years, he mentions the application, by different schools of investigators, of the principle of natural selection and of the results of psychologica] study to account for the aspects of the sub- ject to which they may severally apply. But these things have combined to make the economic science of the present day very dif- ferent from that which formed the basis of John Stuart Mill’s presentation: “ Mean- while, new problems have been developing in modern business life; most conspicuously, perhaps, in connection with .large invest- ments of capital in factories and railroads. The time which elapses between the render- ing of labor and the utilization of the prod. ucts of labor is now so long that the work of the speculator has far greater importance than it had a generation ago. The size of the units of capital is so large that free com- petition often becomes an impossibility, and theories of economics which are based upon the existence of such competition prove blind guides in dealing with modern price movements. We have to study, far more closely than we once did, the effect of combinations upon the intereste of the con- sumers on the one hand and the laborers on the other; to examine the results of meet- ing organizations of capital with organi- zations of labor, and of controlling them by special legislation, or by direct govern- ment ownership. We have to deal with so- cialism, not as the theory of a few vision- aries who try to destroy property rights, but as a series of practical measures, urged by a large and influential body of men who are engaged in extending the functions of gov- ernment.” The endeavor is made to supply the lack of any general work in the English language dealing comprehensively with these problems of modern economics. The book is written for students who are thinkers and for men who are engaged in doing the world’s work, and is hardly likely to be found * Economics: An Account of the Relations be- tween Private Property and Public Welfare. By Arthur Twining Hadley. New York and Lon- don: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. Pp. 496. Price, $2.50. adapted to superficial readers. The special subjects treated are Public and Private Wealth, Economic Responsibility, Competi- tion, Speculation, Investment of Capital, combination of Capital, Money, Credit, Prof- its, Wages, Machinery and Labor, Co-opera- tion, Protective Legislation, and Government Revenue, Mr. Thomas &. Blair, taking up the question embodied in the second title of his book on Human Progress,* and finding the present state of knowledge inadequate to furnish an answer, reasons that the complex- ity of the facts of human experience has been too much for the philosophers, seeks for an instance of better results elsewhere, and finds it in the case of the successful man of affairs. In this book he undertakes to present the conclusions he has reached through the application of business methods to his subject. He supposes man himself to have become the chief agency in the further- ance of the Creator’s scheme for his evolu- tion, his efficiency as such being brought through the operation of his experience of the natural laws controlling his evolution, whereby he becomes acquainted with them and learns to assist in giving them free play. According to the author’s philosophy, human knowledge is limited to the form of working hypotheses as guides of action, but is capa- ble of indefinite expansion within its limita- tions, and includes a large scope of knowl- edge of objective realities ; the knowledge of the actual existence of the basis of religious sentiment is as unequivocal, direct, and con- clusive as the knowledge of our own exist- ence, and thus religion is established ona rigidly scientific foundation; and the active principle in the scheme of human progrees is the impulse to satisfy wants, operating under a law of man’s being, according to which the satisfaction of a want is followed by the emergence of a new want, which is normally of a higher order than the want which it succeeds. Confirmation of these conclusions is looked for in the provision __ which Nature has made for the satisfying of wants of various kinds and the awakening of higher ones. The statements of principles * Human Progress: What can Man do to Further it? By Thomas 8. Blair. New York: William R. Jenkins. Pp. 578. Price, $1.50. RS ia | ae its? rile ypeirre

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Pred SE SES Ao ae a oe and the arguments are overlaid with much verbiage, and this makes the book very hard reading. The Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities of Prof. Arthur M. Comey (Macmillan, $5) was an undertaking German in laboriousness and American in enterprise, and the finished volume is a monument of able and persever- ing effort. Although this work is nominally limited to the inorganic substances, excep- tions have been made by including in it CO,, CO, CSs, the carbonates, cyanides, fer- rocyanides, etc. Prof. Comey acknowledges receiving much aid from the earlier diction- ary of Prof. Storer, but he found the material that has accumulated since 1860, the limit of that work, to be far greater than that previously extant. Different results given by different observers have been set down in many cases, with the authority for each, as it would have been manifestly impossible to verify all such conflicting statements experi- mentally. Under each title the solubility of the substance in water is first given, the date being arranged chronologically in the longer articles. Then follow the specific gravities of the aqueous solutions, and also any data ob- tainable regarding their boiling points. Fol- lowing this is the solubility of the substance in other solvents—first the inorganic acids, then alkali and salt solutions, and finally organic substances. While many of the rarer substances are disposed of in a couple of lines, some of the more important occupy several pages: thus ammonia has five and a fourth pages, glass over three and a half, potassium nitrate nearly as much, and sul- phuric acid over four. In putting the ma- terial together many puzzling problems of nomenclature and arrangement had to be solved, but Dr. Comey'’s gwn practical sense has been supplemented by wise counsel, and when the user of the volume reflects that the dictionary plan can give the maximum of convenience only by sometimes disregarding logic and relationship he will agree that these questions have been well decided. The University of the State of New York has issued Museum Bulletin 14 on the Geol- ogy of Moriah and Westport Townships, Ee- sez County. Besides describing the general geology of these townships, this pamphlet gives the latest information on the important SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 851 iron-ore deposits of that region, and reviews the probable hypotheses as to their origin. It contains a geologic map of the two town- ships, a map of Mineville iron region, and half-tone views of the mining district and sections of the ore bodies. The bulletin is mailed by the State Library on receipt of ten cents, The Natural Science Association of Staten Island has performed a commendable service to local geography and history by publishing the collection of Staten Island Names, o-m- piled by William 7. Davis, and the accom- panying me» prepared by Charles W. Leng. Names for natural features of the island and the waters surrounding it, and for ferries, roads, and villages are included in the collec- tion. With each name is given the location of the place to which it was applied, and in many cases a quotation from some old advertisement, deed, or map is added as au- thority. With some a legend connected with the place is inserted. The list makes a pam- philet of fifty-seven pages, which may be had for 50 cents from Arthur Hollick, secretary of the association, at New Brighton, N. Y. A new and enlarged edition of Hypnotism, Mesmerism, and the New Witcheraft, by Ernest Hart, M. D., has been issued recently (Appletons, $1.50). The original edition was noticed fully in our number for October, 1893. Dr. Hart’s general conclusions in re- gard to hypnotism are that it is very rarely useful for curative purposes, and is danger- ous for platform performances and private amusement. In a new chapter entitled The Eternal Gullible, Dr. Hart gives the confes- sions of a professional “subject” who had appeared in performances with a number of well-known “professors” in London. An appendix contains some lively controversial letters contributed to the British press by Dr. Hart, Dr. Luys, and Prof. Sidgwick. With this may be mentioned A Study in Hypnotism, by Sydney Flower, which is a story of a hypnotizer’s courtship with one of his subjects (Psychic Publishing Co., Chi- cago). Hypnotism and its Relation to Witchcraft, Ghostology, and Mind-cure is the subject of a lecture by J. H. Fisher, which is published as a pamphlet (Seymour & Muir Printing Co., Grand Rapids). Mr. Fisher expresses him-

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self in a vigorous and humorous style, and brushes away the nonsense from the popular idea of hypnotism with an unsparing hand, exposing as he goes along many of the tricks of platform “ professors.” He maintains that good subjects, when not confederates, are hypnotized by their own faith in the power of the operator, that the healing by saintly relics and Christian science is due to just such faith, and that ghosts and witches have had their only existence in a similarly strong belief. Hypnotism is treated more respectfully in a little pamphlet by Prof. G. A, Keene (the author, Masonic Temple, Chicago, 15 cents), who gives a general exposition of the subject, and firmly maintains its value in medicine and surgery. All of these publications ex- cept the second are illustrated. The Examination of Weismannism, by Dr. G. J. Romanes (Open Court Publishirg Co., 35 cents), consists of a series of essays dis- cussing the phases of Weisinann’s theory of evolution as they have appeared in that in- vestigator’s successive publications. The first chapter is a statement of Weismann’s system up to the year 1886, and the second supplies additions bringing it up to 1892. Then follow examinations of Weismann’s theories of heredity and evolution as they stood in 1891, and a final chapter brings the subject up to 1893. From this discussion Dr. Romanes excludes the doctrine of non- inheritance of acquired characters, and deals only with “the elaborate system of theories which Weismann has reared upon his funda- mental postulate.” He represents these theories as being in a continual flux and change, and he had intended to add supple- mentary chapters to future editions of this book in order to keep pace with further de- velopments which he expected to appear. In his opposition to Weismann, Romanes was largely on common ground with Spencer, but there were points upon which he took issue with the latter, some of which are set forth in an appendix. Another appendix contains certain supplementary suggestions on Weis- mann’s theory of germ-plasm. One important way in which the fingers of primitive man assisted his wits is im- pressed upon our attention by Dr. Levi L. - Conant’s study of The Number Concept (Mec- 852 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, as ¥ millan, $2). The number systems of nearly all existing peoples evidently arose from counting on the fingers—some using one, some both hands, and others supplementing the fingers by the toes. Dr. Conant men- tions, however, a few tribes who have nu- meral words only for one, two, and many, and some even whose only numeral seems to be one. He shows from a large number of numeral vocabularies that number words have been suggested in very many languages by the act of telling off the fingers in count- ing. Examples are words meaning “ the end is bent” for 1, “the notched off” or “one hand” for 5, “one on the foot” for 11, and “one man” (all the fingers and toes) for 20. While most peoples have five or ten as their number base, a few have two, going on with words meaning two-one, two-two, - etc. Four is also used as a base, but Dr. Conant has found no recorded instance of a number system formed on 6, 7, 8, or 9. It has been announced recently that the Aphos, an African tribe, have the best of all sys- tems, the duodecimal, but the report has yet to be verified. The vigesimal system, either alone or combined with the quinary, appears in many places and persists even in the French qguatre-vingts. The author believes that he has brought together for this discus- sion the largest existing collection of numeral systems, Among the publications issued by the Sound Money League of Pennsylvania is No. 18, A Dissatisfied Farmer, which shows that most of the depression under which agricul- ture in the United States now labors is due to competition, and especially to the compe- tition of the wholesale operations carried on in the West. The little pampblet is illus- trated with excellent photo-engravings show- ing old and new methods of agriculture, stock-raising, and transportation. (Room 248, The Bourse, Philadelphia.) Under the title The Union College Prae- tical Lectures there have been collected in a volume thirteen lectures delivered at Union College in a course instituted by General Daniel Butterfield. The plan of the course has been evidently to get men prominent in affairs to talk about their respective special- ties to the students of the college. Thus the first lecture on the list is an account of the 7. ha ris HEE IER é re ig a Sette ee pee

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atone is Je ae Military Academy at West Point by General P. 8. Michie, dean of the faculty of the academy, and the late A. H. Rice, ex-Gov- ernor of Massachusetts, gave Some Inside Views of the Gubernatorial Office. Six of the addresses were on public affairs; Henry W. Cannon spoke on Banking and Currency, Montgomery Schuyler on Architecture, An- drew Carnegie on Wealth and its Uses, while pure and applied science were represented by the lecture of Albon Man on Electricity, of General William A. Hammond on Brains and Muscles, of ex-Governor Alonzo B. Cornell on The Electro-magnetic Telegraph, and of Colonel F. V. Greene on Roads. The vol- ume contains the portrait and a short bio- graphical sketch of each lecturer. (F. T. Neely.) The summary and index of Legislation by States in 1895, issued by the New York State Library (University of the State of New York, 35 cents), contains 4,847 entries. This bulletin, which has now been published for six years, is of great service in putting State legislators in possession of the recent work done in other States, and thereby promoting progress and uniformity. A new feature this year is a separate table of constitutional amendments arranged by States, showing the result of the vote on all amendments in 1894 and 1895, and giving also those to be sub- mitted to future vote. Having made a thorough lexicographic study of mineral names for the new dictionary of the Philological Society, Prof. Alert H. Chester has recently issued the results of his labors separately as A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals (New York : Wiley, $2.50 ; London: Chapman & Hall). He has aimed to give with each name its correct spelling, its author, a reference to its first publication, its original spelling, its derivation, the reason for choosing this particular name, and a short description of the mineral to which it belongs. In a few cases he was unable to determine one or more of these points, and he sends out with the volume a circular ask- ing aid in securing the lacking information. Nearly five thousand names are included in the dictionary, and many of the facts con- cerning them are now given in a vocabulary for the first time, having been gathered from little known books or from private communi- SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. 853 cations. A considerable number of imagi- nary derivations and other errors are cor- rected in this work. An introduction contains an interesting history of attempts to system- atize mineralogical names, accounts of the introduction of some errors, and other simi- lar matter. A list of works cited fills nine- teen pages, and an index to the authors of mineral names occupies twenty-four more. The Annual Literary Index, edited by W. I. Fletcher and R. R. Bowker (The Pub- lishers’ Weekly, $3.50), is an annual supple- ment to Poole’s valuable index to periodicals and, by the addition of one feature after an- other, has become much more than that. The volume for 1895 contains besides the Index to Periodicals an Index to General Litera- ture, which rather ambitious title denotes an index to the contents of one hundred and thirty or forty volumes of essays, biographi- cal sketches, etc., published in 1895. There is an Author-index covering these two lists, which is followed by a list of the American and English bibliographies that have ap- peared (in treatises or separately) in the course of the year, a Necrology of Writers, and an Index to Dates of Principal Events. This last is a new feature, and besides its in- dependent historical value it is practically an index to the files of any newspaper. The second annual volume of MM. H. Beaunis and A. Binet’s Année Psychologique (Psychological Annual) for 1895 is much larger than the first, and forms a book of 1010 pages. The volume, which is pub- lished from the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology of the Sorbonne, contains, under the heading of Memoirs of Collaborators, papers on Abnormal and Morbid Characters, by Prof. Ribot; A Glance at Comparative Psychology, by M. Fosel; An Experiment in Reading in which Certain Categories of Words are omitted, by M. Flourney; On Intellectual Phenomena, by M. Bererdon; A Note on the Conditions favoring Hypnotism, by M. Gley; and Mlusions of Weight, by M. Biérnléet. Other papers are given under the headings Works from the Laboratory and General Reviews. The second part of the volume contains analyses of publications and papers that fills fourteen chapters, each cov- ering its separate department, with subdi- visions ; four E'udes @'ensemble, or General

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Studies, by Charlin, Maudsley, Morselli, and Wernicke; Necrological Notices; and a bib- liography embracing 1,394 titles, with an in- dex of authore—these credited to the Psy- chological Review. (Published in Paris by Félix Alcan. Price, 15 francs.) Home Study is a new illustrated monthly intended for elementary students of the vari- ous engineering and architectural branches. Vol. I, No. 8, contains several interesting and instructive articles, among which may be mentioned Stability of Vessels, Electric Currents, Chokage of Drains, Foul Air of Rooms, The Modern Theory of Heat, and Circulating Decimals. (Scranton, Pa. $1.50; 15 cents.) The Bamboo Garden, by A. B. Freeman- Mitford (Macmillan, $3), is an attempt to give a descriptive list of the hardy bamboos in cultivation in England, and to focus such information in regard to them as could be obtained from Japanese as well as from 854 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. European sources. The methods of propa- gation, and choice of position and soil, are considered in the early chapters. Chapter IV deals with the manifold uses to which the bamboo is put, and the curious customs and superstitions connected with the plant in Eastern countries. The remainder of the book consists of a classification and descrip- tion of species. A few illustrations accom- pany the text. Press Working of Metals, by Oberlin Smith (New York: Wiley; London: Chapman & Hall), is a treatise upon the principles of shaping metals in dies, and a description of these dies, both those in present use and of past stages in the art of metel-working. The body of the work is prefaced by a short historical sketch on the probable origin of the art, and the crude methods which were at first employed. The book is essentially technical and of interest to only a special class. Good illustrations are quite numerous. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Agricultural Experiment Stations. Connecti- cut: Cast of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potaeh in Connects 5 Examination of Food a sold in tio n A Frlininay State s and A Preliminary Bulletin of Milk.—New Hampshire Col- Moth and the pple Mag- eS Common Insecticides; ey oy York: Notes on the tes Service for Jul clusive of the rasees. Alabama Geol Survey. Iron-making in Alabama. Pp. 1 Bulletin No. 5: A oltmi- 4 se the Resources of the Upper Gold Baker, Marcus. The Alaskan Boundary. Pp. y pea, Alexander % English Votbe as coh a ve Lessons, Washington: e Au Pp. 80. 50 cents. oan. Gualterie C., Director. Anales de — a ae x. cit cina metereolégica a 4 4 Buenos Tick table Ee E. Coni s eines in Deutsch- ections of a Ger- man raves oer. BE ~~ Berlin: Julius Springer. ory vv German Lit- is vs York: Henry Holt & Co. Pp. On Some Collections of Fishes po = The Fbcteten of Soxochelys Latiremis. Field Columbian Museum Publications. Zodlogi- cal Series. Vol.1. Nos. 4 and 5. eee Uniaaiy tk Gr of | Museum. Vol. I. » Prehis- | torle alas ot Copen, E Honduras. pra Ted rae TE Nate Rep ew Yor e Natio ubli- can utiye Committee. . he Peyehlc Pu M e, The (monthly). Chicago: es Fe lishing Co. 25 cents, $2.50 per 3 Academy of Science. Transactions of the ane ay — and Twenty-seventh Annual —— b bs of Department of. No. 5. July, 180k, Convict Labor. Pp. 120. Magpie, The (monthly). 10 cents, $1 per annum Munroe, John. The Story of Bygettety (The Library of Useful Settee. New York Ap- pleton & Co. Pp. 187. 40 cents. New York State Reformatory (Elmira) Year- book for 1895. - Reprints. Call, R. E.: A Revision and Syn- eugene of the = Group of Unionidex, etc. Proceedings of Indiana ‘Academy of Science for seer ak Hagia mainte he on le —fchnabel, E. Hospital Heredi yphilis of The ples of Sociology can Academy of Political and Soc —Walker, 8. T.: Clinical Mutes (Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic, July 4. 1806). settee te cent ee aneiro o Rio de Janeiro). b ae ¢ Geograph Leuzinger. Pp. 1 Smithsonian Pubileations: 1088. Catalogue of a Collection - Birds of Eastern Turkestan, Central Asia, etc.—1084. Description of Three Species of Sand Fleas at N R. L—12085. Remarks on the 8: of 80) orth Ameri- can Scolytid Beetles.—1 Fossil Jelly Fishes | from the Middle Cambrian Terrane.—1067. Pre- a MASAI 25 (Ge et Sao

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Ger gh le ssa id FRAGMENTS Relnesy Deseo of a New Genus and Three New Species of Crustaceans from an Artesian Well at San M Texas.—1088. Deseri tion of a New Genus and Species of Blind Tailed Batra- chian from the Subterranean Waters of Texas. —1089. Description of a New Stickleback from the bay # fs —— ge on of a New Species t Thrush te no Partial vit of an Bicde ~ 2.2 at Altamira by F. B. Armstrong.—1092. On —y- Parasitic Hymenopterous Insects from Ceylon.— 1093. An . é yi on Margarita Island and at Guanta Venezuela.—1094. List of Coleoptera colieneed on OF SCIENCE. 855 So Dumb Rive: anf en Go Sound Bag, ee Taber,C.A.M. The Pree Ice Age. Bos- ton: George H. Ellis. on an J. = Saket a Birth. Denver, : (Author). Pp. 314. a E. E. A School Algebra. New York: American Book Company. Pp. 834. $1. Wilson, Dr. Erastus. La Ensefianza Moderno (Modern Education). Artie 24. Summary of the in th of the Institute of Instruction of Havana. Havana: Military Print- ing Office. Pp. 14. Distributed. Fragments A New Classification of Elevation Areas.— Prof. Hermann Wagner, of Gottingen, one of the best-known geographers and statisticians of Germany, has recently published a new altitude classification of the of Science. surface, and has a mean depth of 1,300 metres (4,300 feet). The oceanic plateau, be- tween the depths of 2,300 and 5,000 metres, occupies no less than 57°38 per cent of the surface, and has a mean depth of 4,100 — earth’s surface, which he di- | metres (18,500 feet). Finally, the depressed of vides into five regions, as fol- | area, deeper than 5,000 metres, is assumed —— lows: The culminating area of | to occupy three per cent of the surface, with dae JR the earth’s crust, occupying | a mean depth of 6,000 metres (say 20,000 Pooo rE six per cent of the surface and | feet), The mean level of the surface of the 5000 F * lying altogether above 1,000 | earth’s crust is placed by these calculations qe metres, with a mean height of | at a depth of 2,800 metres, or 7,500 feet, be- -- 2,200 metres (or 7,200 feet) ' low actual sea level. The total area of land MESS eee DL Ae ccscaceten Manan, MOM TVEE GF TRE PUTIDA 62086 (LAND SUA) 200. ' o = , e SZ — EAN DEPTH gr Tue DekAN - 3S00m Sr THIEL Le PETITE. a Waener’s Hrpsocrapuio Crrvz. above the sea. The continental plateau, oc- cupying all the surface from the 1,000 metre contour line of elevation to the 200 metre contour line of depth—i. e., to the margin of the shallow sea border or continental shelf ; it comprises 26°38 per cent of the surface, and has a mean elevation of 250 metres (800 feet) above the sea. The continental slope, from a depth of 200 metres to 2,800 below sea level, covers nine per cent of the earth’s is worked out at 28°83 per cent and that of sea at 71°7 per cent of the earth’s surface ; the ratio of land to water surface is thus 1: 2°54, The accompanying chart is repro- duced from Nature of June 4th. Silk frem Wood.— According to the Lon- don Times, there is growing up in France s considerable industry, based on the manu- facture of a so-called silk from wood pulp.

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856 The works are at Besancon, and utilize a process devised by M. de Chardonnet, which is as follows: The pulp, thoroughly cleansed and looking very much like thick gun, is put into cylinders, from which it is forced through pipes into the spinning department. Here the machinery is very similar to that of the ordinary spinning shed, except that one of these pipes passes to each machine. The pipes are supplied with small taps, fixed close together, and each tap has a glass tube about the size of a gas burner, at the ex- treme point of which is a minute aperture, and through this the pulp is forced. These glass tubes are called the silkworms, and some twelve thousand of them are in use in the factory at Besancon. The pulp appears as a minute globule. This a girl touches with her thumb, to which it adheres, and she draws out an almost invisible filament, which she passes through the guides and onto the bobbin. Then, one by one, she takes eight, ten, or twelve other such fila- ments, according to the thickness of the thread to be made, and passes them through the same guides and onto the same bobbin. The subsequent details are practically those of ordinary natural silk spinning. The chief difference in appearance between the natural and the artificial silk is in the greater luster of the latter. The new product is said to take dye much more readily than the natural silk, but not to be quite so strong. It is stated that a factory for the manufacture of this material is to be erected near Manches- ter, England, which will cost $150,000. Old Madagasear War Customs.—Descrip- tions of curious war customs that prevailed in Madagascar are quoted by M. A. Gran- didier from Mayeur, who visited that country in 1785, or more than a hundred years ago. The hostile bands usually agreed on the day and place of the battle, and at the appointed time the opposing parties marched to the designated spot. When all was ready, some of the soldiers of one host advaneed, fired their guns, and ran back to the protection of their army. While these were reloading, the soldiers on the opposite side went through the same manceuvre; and this was continued till one of the hosts got so much the worse of the fight that it retired. Both armies would then go home and return to the occu- POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. pations of peace, to resume their odd hostili- ties at some future time. The first battle that Mayeur witnessed lasted from ten o’clock in the morning till four o’clock in the after- noon, with twelve thousand soldiers in line, without victory to either side, while there were twenty-two killed and wounded. Ten days afterward, one of the chiefs having ob- tained re-enforcements, the fight was resumed and hotly contested till, in the very thickest of it, a cloud of locusts suddenly darkened the sky and alighted on the neighboring rice fields, Firing was stopped at once, and all the combatants went pell-mell to picking the destructive insects, of which they were very fond as food. Women, children, and old men hurried out of the villages, where they had hidden themselves, and mingled with the soldiers; and in less than a quarter of an hour the plain was covered with more than twenty thousand people, squatting on all fours and capturing the insects. It was the custom, M. Grandidier observes, to sus- pend hostilities in the presence of a plague, which, as the king said to Mayeur, threatens a whole people, while war generally interests anly the chief who makes it. The Year's Polar Expeditions. — Dr. Frithiof Nansen, who started from Christiania, Norway, in June, 1893, in the little vessel Fram, to reach the north pole if possible, has returned, after having attained latitude 86° 14’ north, within about two hundred and fifty miles of the pole, the highest point yet reached, (An excursion twelve miles farther on ski is also mentioned.) Dr. Nansen started with the expectation of meeting a current in which his vessel would be borne along with the ice to the pole and past it, basing the expectation on information which has since been found to be false. The Fram was con- structed in a peculiar manner, so that when it met the heavy ice it should be lifted up and borne upon it instead of being crushed by it. In latitude 78° 50’ north, longitude 138° 37’ east, and in the latter part of September, 1898, the ship was allowed to be closed in by the ice, and was then drifted north and northwestward during the fall and winter months. A sudden increase in the depth of the water at latitude 70° to from sixteen hundred to nineteen hundred fathoms seems, according to Dr. Nansen, to upset the theories

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3 4 74 ne o Ny Sa ES ma we an . FRAGMENTS that are based upon a shallow polar basin. The sea bottom was remarkably devoid of organic matter. Under the surface of cold ice water covering the polar basin warmer and more saline water was found, probably from the Gulf Stream. No land and no open water, except narrow creeks, were seen, A few days after Christmas, 1894, the Fram was at latitude 83° 24’, the farthest north that had been reached. Dr. Nansen here left the ship, taking Lieutenant Johansen with him, to explore the sea farther north. He reached his highest point on April 7, 1895, and, find- ing the prospect of a further advance dis- couraging, started on his return journey the next day. He reached Franz-Josef Land June 7th of this year; was embarrassed to find Payer’s map all wrong; and, after sailing and paddling around for several weeks in the supposed direction of Spitzbergen, met the steamer Windward. Leaving Franz-Josef Land in this vessel, August 7th, he and his companion were brought by a short and very pleasant passage to Vardée, Norway. The Fram, which Dr. Nansen left in charge of its master, Captain Sverdrup, returned safely to Norway only a few days after Dr. Nansen’s arrival. Persons best informed in arctic research affirm that the expedition has made many and valuable discoveries. An expedition of eminent explorers, among whom are Sir W. Martin Conway and Mr. Trevor Battye, which started out to cross Spitzbergen and explore its interior, has successfully accomplished its purpose. M. Andrée, who went to the polar regions for the purpose of attempting to reach the pole by balloon, found himself constantly baffled by opposing winds, and has returned, having been obliged to give up the attempt for this year. Poisonous Spider Bites.—It has always been questioned whether the bites of the spiders of the temperate zone were ever fatal. Popular belief has it that they some- times are, but spider students generally scout the notion. A few cases have recently been cited, however, on testimony which can hardly be doubted, that point to an affirma- tive answer. An account is given in Dr. Riley’s Insect Life of a man in excellent health who died fourteen hours after having been bitten in the neck by the species Latro- OF SCIENCE. 857 dectus mactans. He instantly felt an intense pain, and picked off from the wound a spider of the species named. Four hours afterward the spot was marked by a circle of little white pimples about as large as a silver half dollar, but the wound itself was not seen; and, while there was no swelling, the neck and left arm were rigidly hard. Violent pains ensued, reaching the intestines, but the sufferer was able to go to the village for whisky and back, after which spasms set in. Six cases of spider bites, observed by M. Corson de Savannat, were followed by serious but not mortal effect. The identity of the conditions under which the bites were received and the similarity of the observed symptoms give the cases resemblance to real laboratory experiments. All suffered great pains in the abdomen and back and tetanic contractions lasting several hours, with dysp- noic respiration and rapid, strong pulse. The patients’ condition appeared desperate without its being possible to define any par- ticular local pain. The cases were treated with injections of chlorhydrate of morphine and internal stimulants. Similar nervous troubles and contractions were marked in 1838 by M. Graells, of Barcelona, as follow- ing bites by the Latrodectus mamigniatus. In some cases a rash is mentioned as break- ing out in a few hours either in the region around the bite or over the whole body. A spider whose bite is regarded as fatal is found on the seashore of New Zealand. The symptoms following the bites of these spiders are described by the New Zealand doctors as like those consequent upon the action of nar- cotics, while those produced by our northern spiders are rather convulsive, Alaska.—Mr. W. H. Dall, in his paper on Alaska as it Was and Is (1865-1895), de- scribes the region which includes the Aleu- tian chain and other islands west of Kadiak as presenting a striking contrast “to the densely wooded mountains and shining gla- ciers of the Sitkan region to the east and the rolling tundra, cut by myriad rivers, in the north. Approached by sea, the Aleu- tian Islands seem gloomy and inhospitable. Omnipresent fog wreaths hang about steep cliffs of dark volcanic rock. An angry surf vibrates to and fro amid outstanding pin- nacles, where innumerable sea birds wheel

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858 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, and cry. The angular bills and long slopes of talus are not softened by any arborescent veil. The infrequent villages nestle behind sheltering bluffs, and are rarely visible from without the harbors. In winter all the heights are wrapped in snow, and storms of terrific violence drive commerce from the sea about them. Once pass within the har- bors during summer and the repellent fea- tures of the landscape seem to vanish. The mountain sides are clothed with soft yet vivid green, and brilliant with many flowers. The perfume of the spring blossoms is often heavy on the air. The lowlands are shoul- der high with herbage, and the total absence of trees gives to the landscape an individu- ality all its own. No more fascinating pros- pect do I know than a view of the harbor of Unalashka from a hill top on a sunny day, with the curiously irregular, verdant islands set in a sea of celestial blue, the shore lines marked by creamy surf, the ravines by brooks and waterfalls, the occasional depres- sions by small lakes shining in the sun. The sea abounds with fish; the offshore rocks are the resort of sea lions, and formerly of sea otters; the streams afford the trout- fisher abundant sport, and about their mouths the red salmon leap and play. In October the hillsides offer store of berries, and in all this land there is not a poisonous reptile or dangerous wild animal of any sort. The inhabitants of this land are an interest- ing and peculiar race,” The Underground Houses of Techin, Ta- nisia.—The curious underground houses of Techin, and other places near Gabes, in Tunisia, are described by M. Albert Tissan- dier, in La Nature, as being easily cut out of the clay-limestone rock. A square pit, twenty or twenty-five feet deep, is generally dug first to form a central court, from the lower part of which are made the grottoes that serve as sleeping and store rooms. A gently sloping gallery rising from the level of the bottom to the level outside, and closed by a modern door, is the means of communication with the country without, or forms a path to other houses. Niches are cut in the walls of the entrance court for storage of the agri- cultural implements and things of minor value, and silos are provided for the grain crops and oil jars. The rooms are lighted only through the doorway from the entrance court. They are furnished with mats and carpets. A bed and a wooden pedestal for the lamp, rudely carved and whitewashed like the walls of the cavern, form the princi- pal ornaments, and a few primitive utensils of enameled earthenware are the principal articles of furniture. The size of the house and the number of rooms, etc., vary accord- ing to the wealth and station of the pro- prietor. A Measure for Odors.—Very interesting studies have been made by M. Eugéne Mes- nard of the perfumes of flowers, valuable to science and to the perfumer’s art. This art is still in a rather crude state because it has never found a practicable way cf measuring an odor or of determining the strength of the several odors which it may seek to combine. M. Mesnard has observed, however, that though the absolute intensity of an odor can not be measured, its comparative strength can be estimated. A perfumer who has five or six hundred kinds of fragrance in his shop can readily distinguish the differences between them, although he can not tell how strong any of them are. So it is possible to detect by the smell the existence of a large number of chemical substances, although it is impossible to guess how much, if any, of them may be present in the air. Suppose, now, the author says, we pass in a given re- ceiver air charged with a known perfume and air which has passed over a special essence— spirits of turpentine, for example. It is possible to obtain in this way a mixture of neutral odor, or such that a very slight vari- ation of its constituents on either side will cause the special odor of the perfume or the smell of the turpentine to prevail. We can in such case regard the two odors as equivalent, and have only to seek a means of determining the intensity of the turpentine odor to have a measure of that of the perfume. A meas- ure for the turpentine is obtained by means of the property which it has of extinguish- ing the phosphorescence of phosphorus. For that purpose a bit of common starch is em- ployed which has been dipped in a sulphide- of-carbon solution of phosphorus. The sul- phide evaporates and the starch remains, a homogeneous substance impregnated with phosphorus which shines in the air. The "ic gteshMibbeRelanc, 05% ss ab him atbea ee eee

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poty toon? eet Ne ie Mme pie DP i antinstit x Beare CME IAT S > piety S a ae a ea : FRAGMENTS shining may be extinguished, as M. Mesnard has shown, by the introduction of a quantity of air inversely proportioned to the strength with which it is charged with turpentine. Spirit of turpentine may thus be made a common standard for the different essences, and we may regard as the measure of the intensity of the perfume disengaged by a given weight of an essential oil the ratio be- tween the weight of the turpentine which will neutralize the perfume and the weight of the same substance which under corre- sponding conditions will act upon phosphor- escence with corresponding energy. M. Mes- nard has devised an ingenious apparatus for performing practical measurements by the application of this principle. Cordite.—According to the Industrial World, the manufacture of cordite is very simple. Nitroglycerin and dried gun cotton are mixed together in accurately weighed portions, the liquid nitroglycerin being poured over the gun cotton and mixed by hand until it is all taken up by the cotton, producing a dirty-white mass which looks much like sugar. This mass is then placed in kneading machines, which mix in the proper proportion of acetone, After several hours’ kneading some vaseline is added and mixed in by further kneading. The! mass finally becomes a stiff dough, which can be readily molded into any desired shape. The combination of nitroglycerin and gun cotton * with acetone produces a compound quite different in appearance and properties from either of its components. Cordite is a heavy substance which burns only on the surface, the violence of whose explosion can hence be readily regulated by varying the relation between surface area and volume. Both nitroglycerin and gun cotton are very un- stable. Cordite, on the other hand, is quite the reverse, Thus, a bonfire made around eight cases piled up against each other sim- ply burned up the boxes and then the cor- dite, no explosion occurring. Death of Prof, Ernst Curtius.—Dr. Ernst Curtius, Professor of History and the Fine Arts in the University of Berlin, who died July 12th, aged eighty-one years, was one of the most distinguished and most learned historians and archeologists of the century. OF SCIENCE, 859 He was born at Liibeck in 1814, of a family distinguished by love for literature and art; studied at Bonn, Géttingen, and Berlin ; went with Prof. Brandeis in 1887 to Greece on an errand for the furtherance of archwological research; afterward, with Ottfried Miiller, spent four years in Greece in historical and archwological studies, and began in 1864, but carried on with great activity after 1875, the excavations at Olympia which have been rewarded with the richest and most abundant treasures of classic art. From 1844 to 1849 he was extraordinary professor at the Uni- versity of Berlin and tutor to the crown prince. In 1856 he was elected professor at Géttingen, but returned to Berlin as pro- fessor in 1868. His History of Greece is rivaled in merit only by Grote’s, and is its fitting complement, supplying what Grote’s lacks as Grote’s supplies what it lacks, and is distinguished by the life it gives to the old legends and its appreciation of the artistic genius of the Greeks. He also published— works of equal merit in their respective fields—a book on the Acropolis of Athens (1844) and an account of the Discovery of Olympia (1882), besides many smaller works and monographs, Plant Breeding.—In a recent copy of Nature M. T. Masters -has an interesting arti- cle on Plant Breeding, from which the fol- lowing extracts are taken: The natural pro- cesses of variation in the plant world as con- trolled by the art of the gardener are well typified in the garden rose of to-day—quite a different flower from those roses of our forefathers, which have, with a few excep- tions, totally disappeared. It is the same with peas and potatoes and with most other plants that are grown on a large scale. The two methods made use of by gardeners for the improvement of plants are selection and cross-breeding, the latter, as far as results are concerned, only a modification of selec- tion. The natural capacity for variation of the plant furnishes the basis on which the breeder has to work, and this capacity varies greatly in degree in different plants, so that some are much more amenable and pliant than others. The trial grounds of our great seedsmen furnish object lessons of this kind on a vast scale. The two processes are an- tagonistic. On the one hand, every care is

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POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. taken to preserve the breed and to neutralize variation as far as possible, eo that the seed may “come true”; on the other hand, when the variation does occur, the observation of the grower marks the change, and he either rejects the plant, manifesting it as a “ rogue,” if the change is undesirable, or takes care of it for further trial if the variation holds out promise of novelty or improvement. Where the flowers lend themselves readily to cross- fertilization by means of insects, it is essen- tial, in order to maintain the purity of the offspring to, grow the several varieties at a very wide distance apart. Some apparently slight variations, which even to the trained botanist are hardly noticeable, may be of great value commercially; as, for instance, of two apparently almost identical varieties of wheat one may be much better able to resist mildew and diseases generally than another. Some, again, prove to be better adapted to certain soils or for some climates than others. Some are less liable to injury from predatory birds, and soon. So far we have been alluding to variations in the plant as grown from seed, but similar changes are observable in the ordinary buds, and garden- ers are not slow to take advantage of these variations. The field is one of great scien- tific as well as commercial interest, and a thoroughly equipped biologist would probably soon distance the ordinary gardener, who works by rule of hand, in producing and perpetuating valuable variations. Some African War Customs.— When war comes to the Bondei people in Africa, the Rev G. Dale, missionary, says, the first who hears it climbs up to the top of the house and beats the drum with one hand, calling the people to assemble there. A drum is beaten in every village as soon as another drum is heard. Everybody goes where the first drum was sounded, and the people cry war all over the country. All the women and children go into the forest with their property, taking especial pains to carry the basket containing the money and beads. The warriors take their weapons, put their amulets on their arms and neck and face, and adjust their ostrich plumes. Each one supposes that the charms will keep him safe, and have power, even if he is struck with a bullet, to prevent its entering him. Another charm consists in scarifying the man all down his arms and breast and back, after which, it is believed, no sword will cut into his body. The great doctors have a powder which they put into water, which the warriors drink. On approaching the seat of war the warriors assemble, when every one is smeared on the face with a cer- tain preparation and given medicine, and is licked by the fundi. Then they separate; each band goes in its special direction, and the battle takes place. If they conquer they return together singing songs signifying, “As the kishundu is a great bird and is accustomed to the mountains, so we are ac- customed to war” ; or, “‘ Come and live in our land. That yonder is glowing with the fire of burned villages. We are like the Masai” ; and entering the village they shout, “The land is at rest, tilland eat!” If a man has been killed, they return singing, “‘ My millet has a limit, who has eaten it?”—go to the house of the dead man, fire their guns, and take away the grass that slopes over the door—and so the wife knows that she is a widow. Then they go and tell the old folks. The man who has killed an enemy in battle performs a ceremony for seven days which includes climbing to the top of the house every morning, boasting, and naming the man he has killed. If the warriors are de- feated, they come back one by one, having hidden themselves, In case of victory the women greet the warriors with great joy, and shave, for the first time since their husbands went to war, . Paints for Iron.—A new study of paints for iron has led Herr Spennrath to the con- clusion that none of the metallic oxides en- tering into the composition of paints com- bines chemically with the oll. The drying of the paint is caused solely by the absorp- tion of oxygen by the oil, which is facilitated in a purely mechanical way by the presence of the oxide. The relative value of the oxides is very variable. Oxide of zinc, when used in outside work, swells rapidly to twice the original volume, in consequence of the ab- sorption of carbonic acid and the vapor of water. The red and white oxides of lead absorb sulphureted hydrogen and increase in volume. These substances are, however, good driers when they are pure. Carbon

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i “8a Saas eae — te we a + paints are very stable, but their protecting power is not great. Herr Spennrath has at- tempted to explain the duration of different paints by means of comparative experiments on sheets of zinc. The painted zinc was dis- solved in an acid, and films of paint were obtained and subjected to various tests. All were rapidly destroyed by the action of dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid, and of the va- pors of sulphuric and acetic acids. Alka- line vapors likewise destroyed them rapidly. Pure water acts more rapidly than salt water, which goes to prove that corrosion by sea water is rather an effect of mechanical wash- ing than of chemical action. Temperature, too, has a considerable influence on the re- sistance of paints. The films became brittle at a temperature of 95° C., and a percep- tible contraction of the layer took place. Similar effects were produced on paints ex- posed for a long time to a low temperature. August Kekulé.—August Kekulé, Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Bonn, who died July 13th, sixty-six years old, left his mark on the science of chem- istry in a distinct advance to which he gave the impulse. He was born at Darmstadt, in 1829, went to school there, and was then sent to Giessen, under the expectation that he would be educated to become an archi- tect. But Liebig was at Giessen, and Kekulé's attention was turned to chemistry. Returning to Darmstadt, he studied chem- istry under Moldenhauer, and then entered again as a student at Giessen under Liebig and Will. He afterward studied in Paris; sojourned for a short time in Switzerland as assistant to Von Plantu, at Reichenau; was engaged at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London ; established a laboratory, where he received pupils, at Heidelberg; and became professor, successively, at Ghent and Bonn. Kekulé’s services to chemistry were chiefly in the theoretical field. The twenty-fifth anniversary of his promulgation of the ben zene theory was celebrated at Berlin, in 1890, and the twenty-fifth anniversary of his professorship at Bonn, in that city, two years later. He took up Frankland’s theory of valency and elaborated it; laid the foundation of the study of constitutional chemistry; gave the start to the fruitful investigation of the carbon compounds ; and FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE. 861 pointed the way to thousands of important experiments and was the inspiration of hun- dreds of valuable discoveries. Drawing Upside Dewn.—Observations of children drawing upside down have been collected by Mr. Rina Scott, who says, in Nature, that a great many children draw in this way, while many from the first draw the right way up. He relates that a boy of four, when asked to draw a rook on a haystack, began at the bottom of the paper with the rook’s back, and gradually worked his way up to the haystack; then turned the drawing round and asked his observer to look at it— evidently realizing that it was inverted. Mr, Scott does not find the explanation of the peculiarity in any inversion of the retinal image; for, if a child who draws upside down when drawing on a horizontal table, is asked to draw on a blackboard placed verti- cally, he will draw everything the right way upward. He supposes that when the object seen on a vertical plane is to be represented on paper placed in a horizontal plane—in which there is already a considerable diver- gence from the real appearance—it is simply a matter of convenience to him at which end he begins—both being equally wrong from his point of view. So children sometimes look at picture books upside down, and small children are more ready to draw objects which they have been accustomed to see in « horizontal plane, than erect objects. Mr. Alfred W. Bennett relates that he has been able all his life to read easily a book upside down, so that it makes no difference to him which way the book is presented. This is because, as he has been told, he first learned to read, upside down, by standing in front of a brother and looking over the top of the beok from which he was being taught to read. The facility curiously extends to books in foreign languages, even those in which other alphabets—as Greek and He- brew—than the Roman are used, and to nearly the same extent to handwriting. In a similar connection Mr. Hiram M. Stanley speaks of a strong native tendency in some children—and he might have added adults, for we have seen sign-painting in which that style was present—to reverse right and left in drawing such letters as J and L. He compares this confusion, and probably is

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862 POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. right, with the confusion of right and left which one first feels on using a mirror for toilet purposes, Sehoel Conditions and Eyesight.—Dr. Brudenell Carter has taken up the question of the effect of school conditions on the eye- sight, particularly as to whether they develop and aggravate short-sightedness and the other defects of vision which have been charged to them. He examined 8,125 chil- dren in twenty-five elementary schools of London. In forty per cent of them the eyes were right. The others were subjected to further special examinations. The author reports, as the general result of his investiga- tion, that the proportion of cases of myopia was small, and that it bore ne relation what- ever to the lighting of the school; the two schools in which the greatest proportions of defective visions were found being respect- ively the best lighted and the worst lighted of the whole number. No evidence was found of progressive myopia. Some of the worst cases were found among children who had recently joined school, and there was nothing to show that it increased with the length of time the children had been at school. The proportion of cases of astigma- tism was less than the proportion discovered in Dr. Carter’s private practice among patients examined for every kind of optical. weakness. The vast majority of optical de- fects were due to hypermetropia. The most unexpected result of the investigation was the discovery that a very large proportion of the cases of defective vision were due, not to structural defects in the refractive combina- tions of the eye, but to imperfect practice in seeing. Comparing the vision of children at a country school with the cases in the town schools, the author found the country vision much better. It is inferred that vision is strengthened by the habit of looking at ob- jects at a distance, which are presented far more frequently in the expanses of rural landscapes than in the street-bounded sights of the town. Dr. Carter recommends that the vision be tested and trained systemat- ically; that it be included among the phys- ical faculties that are tested by competition and for proficiency in which prizes are given. MINOR PARAGRAPHS. Tue recent death of Lord Lilford, Thomas Lyttleton Powys, at the age of sixty-three, has removed one of the most devoted and conscientious of English ornithologists. He was interested in natural history from his earliest years, and was President for many years of the British Ornithologists’ Union. His collection of live animals at Lilford Hall was widely celebrated. At the time of his death—which occurred at Lilford Hall on the 17th of June—he was engaged on a large work on the Birds of the British Is- lands. Gzrotocy has sustained a severe loss in the death of Sir Joseph Prestwich, which occurred on June 23d. He was born at Clap- ham on March 12, 1812. He was engaged in business in London until sixty years of age, but during this time was able to gain such a reputation among geologists that upon the death of Prof. Phillips he was elected to the chair of Geology in the University of Ox- ford. His work as a pioneer in establishing the geological antiquity of man was recog- nized by the Royal Society in awarding to him a Royal medal in 1865. He continued to be a prolific writer up to the time of his death. Although he belonged to the old school of “ catastrophists” which Sir Charles Lyell opened war on in 1830, and which to- day is a rapidly decreasing minority, he did much valuable and lasting work. An ingenious method of destroying cattle ticks is described by Dr. M. Francis, a veter- inarian of the Texas experiment station. After several unsuccessful attempts to de- stroy the ticks by various other means, the dipping process was adopted, and after try- ing several carbolic and arsenical solutions with unsatisfactory results, the cattle were forced to swim through a large vat of five thousand gallons capacity, on the surface of the water in which was a layer of cotton-seed oil, from three quarters to one inch in thick- ness, so that when they emerged they were perfectly covered with oil. It is well known that grease or oil of almost any kind is fatal to insects, lice, etc., and the above treat- ae tal sue aye rales! ae ~e i is . | EL ed 2 ea a ie

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Ma, “4 ‘ ¢ i o4) xe iis Galt pied aa Coenen '‘ FRAGMENTS ment was found to be exceedingly fatal to the cattle tick, while in no way injuring the cattle. Ir is reported that Dr. William W. Jacques, of Boston, an electrician and chem- ist, has succeeded in devising a practical commercial process for converting the en- ergy contained in coal directly into elec- tricity. His battery is constructed as fol- lows: In an iron pot is placed caustic soda and heat applied up to 300°, when fusion occurs ; into this fused mass is plunged a stick of carbon, and then air is forced through the solution. By the contact of the air with the carbon stick, in presence of the fused soda, oxidation is produced with no deterio- ration of the electrolyte, and upon connecting the carbon stick and the iron pot by means of a wire, an electric current is generated. Eecrric tanning is thus described in the Journal of the Franklin Institute: The tan- ning pit has a capacity of fifteen thousand litres and is about eighty inches broad and ten feet long. Electrodes of nickeled copper are fixed to the longer walls of the pit, and in the latter the hides are so suspended that the current has to pass right through them. A current of twelve ampéres with an E. M. F. of twelve volts is used. The tanning matter consists of oak extract, with a little hem- lock extract added, both of which are cleared and decolorized by a special electrolytic process. By these means Folsing states that . he has succeeded in obtaining good leather in seventy-two hours from light cowhides, in five days from heavy cowhides, and in six days from heavy oxhides. A Boox by M. Georges Viret, on Legisla- tion and Jurisprudence concerning useful and injurious insects and insectivorous birds, suggests some curious questions. In it are found the conditions under which bees are personal property, and others under which they are real. When bees are sent by mail, should they be classified as specimens or as letters? The French law says as letters, and our own postal laws have special provisions for packages of this sort. We learn from the book that when bees go astray on an- other man’s land they are not trespassers, unless they are peculiarly malicious, and go about stinging or do some harm to men and animals, A question is suggested by the OF SCIENCE. provision in French law which makes steal- ing bees in the daytime a smaller offense than stealing them in the night, the penalty being considerably more severe in the latter case than in the former. Possibly the law depends on the bees to do part of the pun- ishing of the daytime thief. The table of contents of M. Viret’s book shows that the law takes notice of nineteen kinds of insects, among which are bees, caterpillars, Colorado beetles, ants, wasps, beetles, cattle flies, olive flies, botflies, phylloxera, the woolly aphis, vine pyralis, grasshoppers, grubworms, and silkworms, Most attention is given to the phylloxera. Mr. F. W. Trvs, in the Proceedings of the National Museum, describes an armadillo of the genus Xenurus received from Hondu- ras. He says: “This is the first instance, so far as I am aware, in which any representa- tive of this genus has been found in Central America. . . . The head is short and blunt, and the extremity of the snout entirely naked for a distance of sixteen millimetres. The cephalic shield consists of about thirty-eight comparatively large plates. The ears are margined with a row of small, rounded scales, but otherwise entirely naked. The feet and outer side of the legs are covered with somewhat scattered flat, orbicular scales. The tail has similar flat scales about a milli- metre and a half in diameter, imbedded in the skin at regular intervals; from the pos- terior margin of each scale one hair is ex- sected. Total length, one foot five inches; tail, six and a half inches. I have little hesitancy in referring this Honduras speci- men to the Dasypus (Xenurus) hispidus of Burmeister.” Tue International Conference organized by the Royal Society to consider the preparation and publication of an International Catalogue of Scientific Literature was opened in London, July 14th. The efforts of the Royal Society to form a record and index of scientific lit- erature date from the middle of the century, when the great authors’ index was begun. A subject index to follow the authors’ index was decided upon about thirty years ago, but was not started till 1893. As it soon became evi- dent that the Royal Society alone was not competent to accomplish so large a work, the movement to secure international co-

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864 operation was begun about two years ago. It has happily secured the support of gov- ernments and scientific societies in all parts of the world, and the meeting is very widely representative. The United States is repre- sented by Dr. John 8. Billings and Prof. Simon Newcomb; Canada by the Hon. Sir Donald A. Smith; and Great Britain by a large number of its most distinguished sci- entific men. Sir John A. Gorst, the British Government representative, was chosen presi- dent. Prof. Newcomb is one of the vice- presidents. The proceedings of the confer- ence will be in English, French, and German, as the official languages. NOTES. Tr is stated that in Como, Italy, arrange- ments are being made for the holding in 1899 of an electrical exhibition and congress, to commemorate the centenary of the inven- tion of the voltaic battery. Alessandro Volta was born in Como in 1745, but it was while Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Uni- versity of Pavia that he made the discoveries that have immortalized his name. Tus result of an inquiry made by the di- rectors of the German telegraphs into the effect of the network of telephone wires in the large cities has been, according to Das Wetter, to show that the presence of the wires tends to reduce the violence of thun- der and to diminish the dangers from light- ning. ProsaBty the earliest known example of piece-molding among European bronze foundries is a mold for a spear head which was found at Thonon, France, among the relics of the lake dwellers. It is described by Mr. George Simonds as having been com- posed of two slabs of stone, on each of which a spear head was cut out to a proper depth. The two stones, being placed face to face and bound together, would form a very simple but close mold from which many casts could be taken without injury to the mold itself. Ir is stated by Mr. F. T. R. Carulla (Eng- land) that no effective remedy has yet been found for preventing the rusting of outdoor iron and steel work, and that in new railway lines iron and steel bridges are excluded wher- ever practicable. He stated, for instance, that over twenty tons of rust were taken from the Britannia Bridge during the first sixteen years after its completion. A raat for larceny is mentioned in the Green as having recently taken place in Ohio, in which the detective work of a dog was put in evidence, Some of the stolen property was found near the scene of the POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. theft and was shown to the dog; he was then shown footprints close to it. Then, being put on the trail, he followed it unhesitat- ingly about two hundred feet to a gate, then inside the gate up to two front outside doors, of which he chose the left-hand one, and inside to the prisoner’s door. He had - been trained to this business, and could trail a culprit thus even along a track twenty or forty hours’ old. The evidence was ad- mitted, Tue special commission appointed by the International Meteorological Congress in Mu- nich in 1891 for the organization of obser- vations on the direction of movement and the height of clouds having completed its work, observations were to be begun in all parts of the world on the Ist of May last, and are to be continued one year. The classification of clouds proposed by Hilde- brandsson and Abercromby will be nsed as far as possible, Tse death is announced, June 17th, of Lord Lilford (Thomas Lyttleton Puwys), an eminent English ornithologist, in the sixty- fourth year of his age. He had a famous collection of wild animals, particularly full in the group of cranes, at his estate of Lil- ford Hall, and in knowledge of the habits of wild creatures, especially of birds, “ had few equals.” He was President of the Brit- - ish Ornithologists’ Union, was a frequent contributor to The Zodlogist and The Ibis, was author of the Birds Northamptonshire, and had nearly completed a book of Colored Figures of the Birds of the British Islands. Dr. Heryricn Ernst Beraicn, Professor of Geology in the University and Director of the Natural History Museum in Berlin, recently died there, in his eighty-first year. He was a younger brother of the famous chemist, Ferdinand Beyrich, who died in 1869, and “ was a most inspiring academical teacher, and gave a lively impulse to geologi- cal research.” He published many papers on geology and paleontology, and was chief in making the geological map of Prussia and the Thuringian states. Six Witt1am Grove, an eminent lawyer, but most eminent as a man of science, died in London, August 1st. He was born at Swan- sea in 1811; was graduated from Oxford in 1880; was called to the bar in 1835, but, being in ill health, devoted himself to elec- trical researches, and in 1839 contrived the powerful battery that bears his name. By this and his researches on the conservation and transformation of energy he was best known. He was one of the original mem- bers of the Chemical Society, and was Presi- dent of the British Association at the Not- pe meeting in 1866, A sketch of him, with portrait, was given in the Popular Sci- ence Monthly for J uly, 1875 (vol. iii, p. 368),

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2 AM Rae 8's de ‘A 4 el ea u INDEX. ARTICLES MARKED WITH AN ASTERISK ARE ILLUSTRATED. PAGE Ramtec cc cccccccdstcccvcesvenncnscessous 140 - The New Illuminant. V. J. Youmans.................-+ 786 African Village Scene. (Brag.)....-+.2ccceceeeeeesveeeteceeeee eens 139 Agriculture, Science asa Help to. (Frag.)..............seeeeee- eres 426 Air, Compressed, Working in. (Frag.)...........:cseeeeeeeeessees 569 © Se. ME bbin v:ks cds ckbe obidhencndess t4kanteerwasecunnan 285 BR. TN Div. non di nec cccennkntcesdscccdhtneapemeeeieheee ae 857 Aluminum, Electro-Metallurgy of. (Frag.)..........-..-e+eeeeeeees 570 American Association, Early Years of the.* W.H. Hale........... 501 oa The Fourth Buffalo Meeting of the. moses 845 Americans, Native, The Potter's Art among.* A. D. Le sais 646 Animal Intelligence. PE Rin akndss cacanhuddceciscappemenraugaael 424 Antarctic Continent, Unapproachable. (Frag.).............-..+++++ 141 Antitoxine, Short Method for Producing. (Frag.)..............++-- 425 Appalachians, Northern. Badenoch, L. N. Social Insects * Baldwin, J. Mark. The Genius and bis Environment............ 312, 522 Banking System, On Our. L. G. McPherson........ ..........+--+: Banziris, The, of the Congo Basin. Birds, The, at Dinner.* Blake, I. W. Our Southern Mocker Books noticed A. I. C. P. Notes. Vol. I, No. 1, 710. Addickes, Erich. Kant-Studien, 136. A6Gronautical Annual. James Means, ediior, (Frag.)... ee ee ee ee ee a er ene A ee es. cone ce even tineaeanenen eee eee eee eee eee ee ee ee ee) Blair, Thomas §8. Haman Progress, 850. Bonney, T. G. Charles Lyell and Modern 708. Geology, 413. Aikman, C. M. Milk: its Nature and Com- Brittain, John. Teachers’ Manual of Na- position, 277. ture Lessons, 419. Allman, Alphonse. Statesman and Dema- Bryan, John. Fables and Essays, 566 gog, 420. Burnet, Margaretta. Zodlogy for High American Microscopical Society. Transac- tions. Vol. XVII, 708. Aurtin, L. W., and C. B. Thwing. Phys- ical Measurements, 566. Bailey, L. H. Plant-breeding, 274. Beaunis, H., and A. Binet. Année Psycho- logique for 1895, 858. Bergen, Mre. Fanny D. Current Super- stitions, 848. VOL, XLIx.—66 Schools and Academies, 133. Byars, William VY. The Glory of the Gar- den, 710. California Academy of Sciences. Proceed- ings. Vol. V, Part I, 278. Chamberlain. A. F. The Child and Child- hood in Folk-thought, 129. Chambers, George F. The Story of the Solar System, 563.

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866 INDEX. Books noticed : Chester, Albert H. A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals, 853. Chittendon, H. M. The Yellowstone Na- tional Park, 419. Comey, Arthur M. Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities, 851. Conant, Charles A. A History of Modern Banks of Issue, 847. Conant, Levi L. The Number Concept, 852. Cook, Lady Tennessee C. Essays, third series, 135. Cooke, M.C. Introduction to the Study of Fungi, 416. Cope, E. D. The Primary Factors of Or ganic Evolution, 707. Corrigan, Severinns J. The Constitution and Functions of Gases, etc., 279. Curtis, H. Holbrook. Voice Building and Tone Placing, 707. Davis, William M. The Physical Geog- raphy of Southern New England, 278. Davis, William T. Staten Island Names, 851. Eggleston, Edward. Stories of American Life and Adventure, 419. — Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans, 419. Eldridge, George H. A Geological Recon- noissance in Northwest Wyoming, 279. Ethnologisches Notizblatt, 135. Evans, Arthur J. Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Pheenician Script, 277. Ferri, Enrico. Criminal Sociology, 272. Fisher, J. H. Hypnotism and its Relation to Witchcraft, Ghostology, and Mind- cure, 851. Fletcher, W. I., and R. R. Bowker. Annual Literary Index for 1895, 853. Flower, Sydney. A Study in Hypnotism, 851. Foster, G. C., and E. Atkinson. Elemen- tary Treatise on Electricity and Magnet- ism, 565. Geology of Moriah and Westport Town- ships, 851. Giddings, Franklin Henry. The Principles of Sociology, 708. Glazebrook, R. T. James Clerk Maxwell and Modern Physics, 413. — Mechanics, 566. Green, M. E. Food Products of the World, 134. Griswold, W. M. A Descriptive List of Books for the Young, 279. Hadley, Arthur T. Economics, 850. Hall, Lyman. Algebra, 709. Hammel, William C. A. Observation Blanks in Physics, 278. Hart, Ernest. Hypnotism, Mesmeriem, and the New Witchcraft, 851. Harvard College Observatory, Annals, Vol. XXXIV, Vol. XL, Part IV, Vol. XLI, Part III, 418. Hayes, C.W. The Southern Appalachians, 278. The Heffley, Norman P. Manual of Phonog- raphy. 417. Hiorns, Arthur H. Principles of Metal- lurgy, 565. Holman, 8. W. Computation Rules and Logarithms, 419. Home Study, 854. Home Study Review, 708. Hornbrook, A. R. Concrete Geometry, 708. Hornby, J. Gas Manufacture, 708. Hudson, W. H. British Birds, 131. Illinois Board of Commissioners of Labor. Report on Coa] in Illinois, 420. — Bureau of Labor Statistics. Eighth Bien- nial Report, 420. Incorporated Society for Psychical Re- search. Proceedings. Part XXIX, 417. Jameson, Charles D. Portland Cement, 419. Keene, G. A. Hypnotism, 852. Keiser, Edward H. Laboratory Work in Chemistry, 565. Keller, I~ Bilder aus der deutschen Littera- tur, 420. King, Robert M. School Interests and Du- ties, 709. Kinsley, William W. Facts, 566. Knauff, Theodore C. A Dissatisfied farm- er, 852. Knobel, Edward. The Night Moths of New England, 278. Legislation by States in 1895, 853. Le Plongeon, Augustus. Queen Méo and the Egyptian Sphinx, 848. Light on Current Topics, 420. Lodeman, E. G. The Spraying of Plants, 275. Marcou, Jules. Life, Let‘ers, and Works of Louis Agassiz, 273. Marey, E.J. Movement, 130. Maryland State Weather Service. The Cli- matology and Physical Features of Mary- land, 278 Matthews, Brander. 709. Mercer, Henry C. The Hill Caves of Yuca- tan, 277. Michigan State Agricultural College. Farm- ers’ Institutes, 418. Mitford, A. B. Freeman. Garden, 854. Mosso, Angelo. Fear, 846. Needham, James G. Elementary Lessons in Zodlogy, 133. New Jersey. Report of the State Geologi- cal Survey for 1894, 135. New York Academy of Sciences. tions. 1894~-'95, 279. — — State Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion. Thirteenth Annual Report, 709. Ostwald, Wilhelm. The Scientific Founda- tions of Analytical Chemistry, 132. Pensiero Moderno, Il. No. 1, 125. Remsen, Ira, and Wyatt W. Randall. Chem- ical Experiments, 136. Old Faiths and New American Literature, The Bamboo Transac-

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Books noticed : Camphor. Carter, J. M.G. A Correction. Cell, Some Modern Views of the.* J. E. Humphrey...... SNONOD, . nino sudp codes Character-Building and the Environment. Clapp, Henry L. The Educative Value of Children’s Questioning... . Clozel, F. J. The Banziris of the Congo Basin Some Beginnings in Science.*...............0000s005 GEG ins Sc ww ein sn cdece ee Chamacocos. Cobb, Collier. Communion Cups, Individual. Revista della Beneficenza Publica delle Isti- tuzioni di Providenza e di Igiene Sociale. No. 1, 135. Risteen, A. D. The Molecular Theory of Matter, 419. Robb, Russell. Electric Wiring, 564. Romanes, Mrs. Ethel. The Life and Let- ters of George John Romanes, 415. Romanes, G. J. Examination of Weis- mannism, 852. Roth, Filibert. Timber, 417. Rusby, Henry H., and Smith E. Jelliffe. Essentials of Vegetable Pharmacognosy, 134, Schoenhof, J. A History of Money and Price , 705. Schultz, Frederick W. Politics and Pa- triotiem, 566. Schiitzenberger, P. Les Fermentations, 416. Secret of Mankind, The, 420. Sedgwick. The Cambridge Natural His- tory. Vol. V, 1338. —and Wilson. Introduction to General Biology, 134. Seeley, H. G. The Story of the Earth in Past Ages, 132. Simson, James. sies, 135. — Social Emancipation of the Gypsies, 135. Sizer, Nelson. How to Study Strangers, 280. Smith, George H. The Theory of the State, 565. Smith, Oberlin. Prees Working of Metals, 854. Spencerian Penmanship. Shorter Course in Vertical Writing, 709. Stanley, William Ford. Notes on the Nebu- lar Theory, 133. Stoddard, Charles A. Cruising among the Caribbees, 279. Sully, James. Studies of Childhood, 568. Taussig, F.W. Wages and Capital, 849. Terrestrial Magnetism. Vol. I, No. 1, 418. Discussions on the Gyp- Bostedo, L. G. Character-Building and the Environment. INDEX. Textor, Lucy E. Official Relations between the United States and the Sioux Indians, 709. Thompson, C.J. 8. The Chemist's Com- pendium, 418. Turpin, G. 8. Practical Inorganic Chemis- try, 417. Tyler, John M. The Whence and the Whither of Man, 564. Tyndall, John. The Glaciers of the Alps, 706. Union College Practical Lectures, 852. United States Commission to the Colum- bian Historical Exposition at Madrid, 421. — — Commissioner of Education. Report for 1892-"98, 418. — — Bulletin of the Department of Labor, No, 1, 185. — — Interstate Commerce Commission. Statistics of Railways in the United States, 420. University of Tokyo. The Journal of the College of Science. Vol. VIII, Part II, Vol. IX, Part I, 278. Vulté, H. T., and George M. 8S. Neustadt. Laboratory Manual! of Inorganic Prepara- tions, 278. Welch, Deshler. The Bachelor and the Chafing Dish, 418. White, Andrew D. History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 560. Whiteley, R. Lloyd. Organic Chemistry : the Fatty Compounds, 134. Williams, H. Slater. Geological Biology, 276. Williams, R. P. Chemical Experiments, 416. Wright, G. Frederick, and Warren Upham. Greenland Icefields and Life in the North Atlantic, 275. Wurtz, Adolphe. Elements of Modern Chemistry, 279. Zahm, J. A. Evolution and Dogma, 414. (Corr.).. Botanical Garden, Natural. (Frrag.)...........ccccecee. seeccccccces Business Depression, Present. (Frag.)...........sessece0 seveeeeees Cacao Cultivation in Mexico. (Brag.).........0.cccseceseccccsceses | Cambodian Primary School, A. A. Leclére............. 0.6.00 eeeees MLS «vi ah co.cen sy ndece CED So cc xv w'cecbcnlatwesuanueel bec eeeeeeee (Corr.) L. G. Bostedo... 407

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868 INDEX. Conspiracy of Silence, An Alleged. (Table) a. cee Ui nae shikai nb ehse ds cenccccebietoen sede Correction, A. (Corr.) J. M. G. Carter Crime, Immigration and. S. G. Fisher INE, CUED. ccc cess cccccccecoccscccccccecescees Cuba, Physical Characteristics of. (Frag.)..............00.eceeeeees Curtius, Prof. Ernst, Death of. (Frag.)...............cccecceccccees 859 Customs, Marriage, of the Shans. (Frag.).................-eeeeee 426 * ee I, CUED, 2 oon cecccccvccecvccceecss 856 m ee i: MLDS vs sce cons cecvdevcetvevteasds 860 Dana, Samuel Luther, Sketch of. (With Portrait) i cease te nbdeeechanesscoecetecteviccceceavens case De Graffenried, Clare. The “New Woman” and her Debts Decimal Computation. (Table) Disease, Preventing the Spread of. (Corr.) J. F. C. Lewis eG, CD, os scccccsccccsbocecee sees Dogbane and Milkweed. Maud Going Dragon-flies, Convention of. (Hrag.).............cccecccccccceccees 570 I, EDs sw wis Soa sipeckasesdccsectesesecsence 861 DM NNE, «CUI. 0. ccc ccencccccessccsceseccesees 137 Education, a Literary, Natural Science in. A. H. Tolman ” Competition Fetichin. (Frag.).....................0005: 713 “ Modern, The Aim of. C. H. Henderson Educational Institutions, Co-ordination of Our. FE. H. Magill Educative Value, The, of Chiidren’s Questioning. Elevation Areas, New Classification of.* (Frag.)............ ....... Ethical Education, Sociology in. B. C. Mathews Ethics, Scientific, Regeneration and. (Table) Evans, E. P. Sketch of Jacob Moleschott. (With Portrait) Evolution, Horticulture an Object Lesson in. (Frag.)............... Exaggeration as an Alsthetic Factor. F. Regnault Mixpert Witness. (Trag.)..........cccccsessccces OT eee: vo Ae ’ Ferri, Enrico, on Homicide. H. Zimmern Fisher, Sydney G. Immigration and Crime i i issn wan eins db ebied es 4nsneeestss Fbh0 nos0ce sod Flying, Recent Experiments in. (Frag.)....................00-0005 rr, Cts oo aia vn doce cs edpadenentebevsncvs Frogs and their Uses.* R. W. Schufeldt, M. D Geography in the Middle Ages. (Frag.)...............ccceeceeeeees 717 Genius, The, and his Environment. J. M. Baldwin 312, 522 I SE MOPED. ccc edeicencectc: cca ccecvenevestd 139 Ns 0 cide vadesccoe specs sechiussuseccbeanees 140 Grabam, Douglas, M. D. Massage in Sprains, Bruises, and Disloca- Hale, William Henry.. Early Years of the American Association *. . Hardinge, Miss E.M. Dogbane and Milkweed

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INDEX. eereee Harley, Lewis R. Science at the University of Pennsylvania* Heilprin, Angelo. The Stone Forest of Florissant*........... ooo 479 Henderson, C. Hanford. The Aim of Modern Education............ 485 Hirsch, William. Epidemics of Hysteria....................000000: 544 Hodge, C.F. The Vivisection Question.....................545. 614, 771 Holidays, Summer. (Table)...................... déenwe's Gtatnmabeue 408 Homicide, Enrico Ferri on. H. Zimmern....................05- 678, 828 Beameepaew, Cntata of: CORR.) « oncecs vcivedeievesses ce ctewatdbedses 717 Beeeen Gaetan th Beale. (vag. << 060s: cevnsndensd sc chides tnsedecke 718 Humphrey, James Ellis. Some Modern Views of the Cell*......... 603 Huxley, Professor, A Bishop on. (Table)....................00005- ‘699 Eipatesin, Gapennion of. ‘W.. Timah. onc ois cc ctecicivsctectndeddat 544

Ice Age, Causes, Stages, and Time of the.* W. Upham Identification, Finger-print Method of. (Frag.)... ................. 284 Iles, George. Why Progress is by Leaps..............00sceeeeeeeees 216 Illusions and Hallucinations. W.R. Newbold Insects, Social.* L. N. Badenoch eee eee ee ee eeee Se Jordan, David Starr. The Sympsychograph: a Study in Impressionist Physics *

Rape, Aaah, Cb d..« «xsi <vccccn vena ie ins nadebuackezeeseaeal 861 eevee, Rae ~ inn cnidicdicd oa cecnuseeseceeecene 701 Kraepelin, Emil. A Measure of Mental Capacity.................... Sate, Det . GI Dana's x send da ccvnge den bes O4A shaneascecibuabaaes 429 Lakes, the Great, How they were Built.* J. W. Spencer écqushyaetine 157 Leaves, The Significance of.* F. S. Mathews....................... 793 Leclére, Adhémard. A Cambodian Primary School................ 688 Le Plongeon, Alice D. The Potier’s Art among Native Americans*. 646 Lewis, Mrs. Julia F. Carvill. Preventing the Spread of Disease... ... 699 Light-bearing Cephalopods. (Frrag.)............0sceseeeeees ceeeees 572 Lightning, Sheet, Theory of. (Frag.)..............0.sseeeeeceeecees 572 Llano, Antonio. Professor Ostwald on the Mechanical Theory. Biss oc ccc cccgandwe inccea: cevupieabanissgeticbhanteeaeees 121 Lloyd, Charles Edward. Sketch of Henry Augustus Rowland.* CUE STR cide! 0 ovos'nd0s deaahs 6 ukbeeeeenbin reeeeenee 110 Luce, Grace A. Occupations, Privileges, and Duties of Women. GED 5c ckicctdkascvess .wosdsccnsdd & edabuiedes beeaeetn 698

Maciets, Tistnes Tl. Comnlley Paste. as ois o'6ns cacsck sve. sdeeeassace Macdougal, D. T. The Physiology of Color in Plants*.............. 71 McPherson, Logan G. On Our Banking System.......-............ 327 us The Development of the Monetary Problem.. 20 - as The Monetary Problem...................-. 202 Madagascar, Curious Verbal Customs in. (Frag.)............-+.s++- 285 Magill, Edward H. Co-ordination of our Educational Institutions... 176 Mankind, The Proposed Dual Organization of.. W.G. Sumner...... 433 Massage in Sprains, Bruises, and Dislocations.* D.Graham,M.D... 381 Mather, Fred. The Scallop* ee ee oe

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870 INDEX. Mather, William Williams, Sketch of. (With Portrait) Mathews, Byron C. Sociology in Ethical Education Mathews, F. Schuyler. The Significance of Leaves* re nD ie vccscvecccsebvctedenstsad cane Mechanical Theory, Professor Ostwald on the. (Corr.) A. Llano... Mendenhall, T. C. The Metric System Mental Capacity, A Measure of. E. Kraepelin Metric System, Mr. Spencer and the, again. (Table) se The. Micronesia. Mocker, Our Southern.* Moleschott, Jacob, Sketch of. (With Portrait.) Monetary Problem, The. L. G. McPherson = “ The Development of the. L. G. McPherson Murdoch, John. Dr. Nansen’s “Throwing Stick.”.............. .... Nansen’s, Dr., “Throwing Stick.” J, Murdoch Nevada Silver.* C. H. Shinn Newbold, William Romaine. Illusions and Hallucinations Posthypnotic and Criminal Suggestion e . “Spirit” Writing and “Speaking with Tongues ” ” Suggestion in Therapeutics ' The Self and its Derangements Niagara as a Timepiece.* J. W. Spencer Obituary Notes. Ludwig Riitimeyer John Russel Hind, Adalbert Krueger Cristoforo Negri Lord Lilford, Sir Joseph Prestwich Lord Lilford, Heinrich Ernst Beyrich, Sir William Grove i Mh aiccccs 66a Sees baevecbsodsceedetnes i ee nn Pin ckwevises Meas Oo ocneheasespsysesce ee NB. COMMER civ c wesc cc ccccccucescenccses Outerbridge, A. E., Jr. Pending Problems for Wage-Earners Me DRE eS 3. Frat z~* OE Sh Ae BOB Paints for Iron. (Frag.).. Parks, County. T. H. Macbride Patriotism and Militarism. (Table.).......... (6655 chat dbs sala Pearls and Mother-of-Pearl. C. 8S. Pratt.................... jo» Bits Peary Expedition, Scientific Acquisitions from the. (Frag.)...... Te Petroleum-lamp Accidents. (Frag.)..........6.-cesceeeeeeeeeeeeues Photographing Electrical Discharges.* W. E. Woodbury ec ody icudle dds iNeed eee evaes ees isass tam 859 Plants, Alpine, Characteristics of. (Frag.)............ccceceeeeeeees 570 “ The Physiology of Color in.* D. T. Macdougal 71 Polar Expeditions, The Year’s. (Frag.)...............ceeeeeeeeeeees 856 “ Exploration, Continuous, Proposed System of. (With Map.) ol te Spe

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INDEX. 871 PAGE Poor, Do the, hate the Rich? (Frag.)............cccccececceveserees 714 Pratt, Charles Stuart. Pearls and Mother-of-Pearl] Progress is by Leaps, Why. G. Iles Fupeneseny of Pageles.. Cime.). «06 ci cciviocnd Cends ited wleoeee Public Service, Intelligence in the. (Table) Pygmy, The, in the United States.* J. Weir, Jr., M. D Raymond, Paul. The Subterranean River Midroi* Regnault, F. Exaggeration as an A’sthetic Factor Rice, Japanese. (Frag.).. Richards, Harriet E. The Birds at Dinner* River Midroi, The Subterranean. P. Raymond Robinson Crusoe, Discoverer of. (Frag.)............00eeeeeeeeeeeees Rogers, James Blythe, Sketch of. (With Portrait) Rogers, Robert Empie, Sketch of. (With Portrait) MURR TE, Be CRDe es 6 occ ccc cuccwecpeesscbasbace®uasene een 125 Rowland, Henry Augustus, Sketch of.* (With Portrait) C. E. Scallop, The.* F. Mather School Conditions and Eyesight. (Frag.)..............-ceeeeecseees 862 Schools, Elementary, Another Bishop on Science Teaching in. (Table) 843 “Public, The Devil in the. (Table) Science at the University of Pennsylvania.* L. R. Harley “ Some Beginnings in.* C. Cobb = The Province of. (Table) Self, The, and its Derangements. W.R. Newbold Serum Therapy and Blood Brotherhood. (Frag.)..............-.«++: Shinn, Charles Howard. Nevada Silver* Shufeldt, R. W., M.D. Frogs and their Uses * Gs Reka WHORE: Ga din vic csnccicencpuserscnvcscwascotinltiatel inal, Ga. Gin TF POMEL, os. pin esicccer ve cosenndiceercesiananeon Sounding, Deepest, yet made. (Frag.)............00:eececeeeeeecees een, SP, PNUD bo cence ccccccescannghenssbeqpstaneasan 714 Spencer, Herbert. The Metric System Spencer, J. W. How the Great Lakes were Built * 4 Niagara as a Timepiece * Sider Diten, Patesmees. CPR) «onc sss caseccc ne cbnvns <cevecsoevne “Spirit ” Writing and “Speaking with Tongues.” W. R. Newbold... 508 Steel, Mysterious Fractures in. (Frag.)......-...scceesecceeeceeeees 422 Stein, Robert. Proposed System of Continuous Polar Exploration. CUP DS os vc sive ceive cd ans begbnbesccunyadkucksskeabetren 321 Stone Forest, The, of Florissant.* A. Heilprin. 479 Storage Battery, Evolution of the. (Frag.).......... Disk as iti bin ele al 715 Storms, Dust and Sand, in the West. J. A. Udden Suggestion in Therapeutics. W. R. Newbold - Posthypnotic and Criminal. W. R. Newbold Sumner, William G. The Proposed Dual Organization of Mankind. . Sympsychograph, The: a Study in Impressionist Physics.* D. 8.

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872 INDEX. Talbot, George F. The Political Rights and Duties of Women Taxation, Principles of. D. A. Wells 29, 145, 289, 464, 577 Temperature, Low, Apparatus, New. (Frag.).................20000- 283 Temperatures, Underground, Some New Observations on. (Frag.)... 281 Tolman, Albert H. Natural Science in a Literary Education 98 | Tuberculosis and Meat Inspection. (Frag.) ..................-00005 138 Tweedy, Mise Alice B. Woman and the Ballot 241 = Woman’s Claims to the Ballot. (Corr.)..... 842 Udden, J. A. Dust and Sand Storms in the West........... ....... 655 Underground Houses of Techin, Tunisia. (Frag.)................... 858 Upham, Warren. Causes, Stages, and Time of the Ice Age* 354 i nc. <i. eR pe ndheevevahadaneaddo es coeds secs 569 Vegetation, Relations of Moisture and. (Frag.)................ .... 716 Vivisection Question, The. C. F. Hodge Wage-Earners, Pending Problems for. A. E. Outerbridge, Jr Water, Infected Detmkkimg. (Prag.)..... 2.2... cc cccccccccceccccccces 283 “ Purification, Metallic Iron in. (Frag.)..................255. 141 Weir, James, Jr..M.D. The Pygmy in the United States * Wells, David A. Principles of Taxation. II. The Place of Taxation in Literature and History 29, 145, 289, 464, 577 ha Eo ls vnc bored a oh'vengim sso sepe vee 571 Woman and the Ballot. A. B. Tweedy 241 ¥ Occupations, Priviléges,and Duties of. (Corr.) @.A. Luce. 698 * The New, and her Debts. C. de Graffenried Woman’s Claims to the Ballot. (Corr.) A. B. Tweedy Women and Politics. (Table) “ The Political Rights and Duties of. G. F. Talbot i SDS. os seineciss posbasasesenecsneveses cvauaeye Woodbury, Walter E. Photographing Electrical Discharges * Woodpeckers, A Word in Favor of. (Frag.)..................2.05: 573 X Rays in Surgery. (Frag.) ........----.0.0-e2e ses ceee cece eeeeees “ Recent Work on the “ Youmans, V. J. Acetylene, the New Illuminant Zimmern, Helen. Enrico Ferri on Homicide

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* OUT-DOOR BOOKS %#% Frank Bolles. LAND OF THE LINGERING SNOW. Chronicles of a Stroller in New England from January to June. 16mo, $1.25. AT THE NORTH OF BEARCAMP WATER. Chronicles of a Stroller in New England from July to December. 16mo, $1.25. FROM BLOMIDON TO SMOKY, and Other Papers. 16mo, $1.25. He is a good observer and a = describer, and he has the feeling of the true lover of Nature; so that those who have a special liking for animate nature will find his vol- umes delightful in both their renderings and their sym- pathies.—7he Nation (New York). John Burroughs. WORKS. Riverside Edition. Illustrated. 9 vols, 12mo, cloth, gilt top, the set, $13.50, met ; uncut, paper labels, $13.50, net; half calf, gilt top, $27.00, net. THE SAME. Each volume, 16mo,_ gilt top, $1.25; the set, 9 vols., uniform, $11.25; half calf, $20.25. RIVERBY. WAKE-ROBIN. WINTER SUNSHINE. LOCUSTS AND WILD HONEY. FRESH FIELDS. INDOOR STUDIES. BIRDS AND POETS. PEPACTON. A Summer Voyage. SIGNS AND SEASONS. Pleasanter reading, to those who love the country, with all its enchanting sights and sounds, can not be imagined. —The Spectator (London). Mr. and Mrs. S. J. Barrows. THE SHAYBACKS IN CAMP. Ten Sum- mers under Canvas. With a map of Lake Mem- phremagog. 16mo, $1.00. A charming book.—W. D. Howells. Alexander Black. PHOTOGRAPHY INDOORS AND OUT. A Book for Amateur Photographers. With Illus- trations. 16mo, $1.25. One of the most interesting and instructive books we = a seen on photography.— Canadian Photographic Ournal. Florence A. Merriam. BIRDS THROUGH AN OPERA-GLASS. Illustrated. 16mo, 75 cents. Olive Thorne Miller. FOUR-HANDED FOLK. 16mo, $1.25. A book about such home pets as the kinkajou, “living balls,” the lemur, marmosets, chimpanzee, the ocelot, and various kinds of monkey. BIRD-WAYS. 16mo, $1.25. IN NESTING-TIME, 16mo, $1.2 Sigs BROTHERS OF THE AIR. 16mo, $1.2 A ‘BIRD-LOVER IN THE WEST. 16mo, $1.25. Among the many agreeable studies of bird life and bird character, none have been more charming than those from a of Olive Thorne Miller.—CAristian Union (New ork). Maria Louise Pool. ° TENTING AT STONY BEACH. 16mo, $1.00. Henry D. Thoreau. red new Riverside Edition of Thoreau’s Works. In 11 vols. Crown 8vo, $1.50 each; the set, $16.50; half calf, $30.25. A WEEK ON THE CONCORD AND MERRIMACK RIVERS. WALDEN: OR, LIFE IN THE WOODS. THE MAINE WOODS. CAPE COD. EARLY SPRING IN MASSACHUSETTS. SUMMER. From Thoreau’s Journal. AUTUMN. From Thoreau’s Journal. WINTER. From Thoreau’s Journal. EXCURSIONS. MISCELLANIES. With a Biographical Sketch by RALPH WaLpo Emerson, and General Index. LETTERS. Edited, with Notes, by F. B. SAn- BORN. There is no such comprehensive observation as his re- corded in literature, united with a style so racy, so incisive, so pictorial.— George William Curtis. Bradford Torrey. SPRING NOTES FROM TENNESSEE. 16mo, $1.2 A RAMBLER'S LEASE. 16mo, $1.25. BIRDS IN THE BUSH. 16mo, $1.25. THE FOOT-PATH WAY. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. A FLORIDA SKETCH-BOOK. 16mo, $1.25. He is not merely a philosopher and a sayer of happy thin He observes Nature keenly as well as sympa- thetically. —7he Auk. Edith M. Thomas. THE ROUND YEAR. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. No one but a poet could have been its author. . . . She is wonderfully in sympathy with the animal kingdom and its beautiful retreats. —7he A rt Interchange (New York). Charles Dudley Warner. MY SUMMER tN A GARDEN. Illustrated by DARLEY. Square 16mo, $1.50. Riverside Al- dine Edition. 16mo, $1.00. IN THE WILDERNESS. Adirondack Essays. 18mo, $1.00. “Mr. Warner’s delight in Nature is not less than his exquisite faculty in description.” Caroline Robbins. TH RESCUE OF AN OLD PLACE, 16mo, $1.25. Mrs. Robbins is entitled to the gratitude of every one who wishes to make a country place beautiful.—Lomise Chandler Moulton. Rowland E. Robinson. NEW ENGLAND FIELDS AND WOODS. 16mo, $1.25. We feel no hesitation in advising both those who love Nature and those who would learn how to love her, to ssess themselves of these charming sketches.—7he Nation (New York). Clarence M. Weed. TEN NEW ENGLAND BLOSSOMS AND THEIR INSECT VISITORS. With IIlustra- tions. Square r2mo, $1.25. A book of ten popular and delightful essays on certain blossoms and the visitors they attract. Sold by al! Booksellers. Seni, postpaid, by HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY, 4 ParRK STREET, BosToN; 11 EAST 17TH STREET, NEW YORK. co. put Chi mo; Fri

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LATEST PUBLICATIONS OF D. APPLETON & CO. NEW YORK, OCTOBER, 1896. NEW EDITION OF The History of Bimetallism in the United States. By J. LAURENCE LAUGHLIN, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Political Economy in Harvard Uni- versity ; Author of “ The Study of Political Economy,” etc. Third edition, with new Appendices; a Study on the Fall of Silver since 1885 ; Eighteen Charts and numerous Tables. 8vo. Cloth, $2.25. : ‘“* Prof. Laughlin’s excellent work is timely and valuable. It re-enforces the suggestions of political sagacity and business prudence by the warnings of scientific investigation and foresight."—New York 7imes. ‘‘ The book is not a treatise on the theory of bimetallism, but is a history of bimetallism, the theory being discussed only so far as the hard facts in the country’s experience have directly borne upon some part of the theory.”—Chicago Evening Fournail. ; The Statement of Stella Maberly. By F. ANsTEY, author of “ Vice Versa,” “The Giant’s Robe,” etc. 16mo. Special binding, $1.25. Mr. Anstey’s original and impressive story has called from the London Bookman the comment that Hawthorne or Poe might have chosen such a theme ; while the London 7imes, in speaking of this ‘‘ very noteworthy” novel, has said, ‘‘ There is something approaching genius in the hallucination which makes the fantastical impress us like the real.” What is Electricity ? By JOHN TROWBRIDGE, S. D., Rumford Professor and Lecturer on the Applications of Science to the Useful Arts, Harvard University. Vol. 76, International Scientific Series. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. ‘*T am often asked, ‘ Where can one find a popular account of the views of scientific men in regard to question, ‘‘ What is Electricity ?’’' and, from my inability to recommend any treatise which answers this question, I have endeavored to explain in a popular manner the electro-magnetic theory of light and heat ; and I have de- voted much attention to the subject of periodic currents and electric waves. The answer to the question, ‘ What is Electricity ?’ must be sought in the study of transformations of energy, and in a consideration of the various hypotheses of movements in the ether or medium surrounding us. The modern applications of electricity illus- trate in a neculiarly suggestive manner the great subject of the transformation of energy, and I have endeavored to ——- forms of apparatus and methods of exhibiting new phenomena so that the apparatus and the ‘ methods should be within the reach of the ordinary demonstrator. The reader of the treatise will perceive that t the attention of the scientific investigator in electricity is now being devoted more than ever to the medium sur- z rounding a wire carrying a current of electricity rather than to the wire.”—F rom a Note by the Author, : Fiat Money Inflation in France. How it Came, What it Brought, and How it Ended. By ANDREW DD. Wuirte, LL. D. (Yale); L. H. D. (Columbia), Ph. Dr. (Jena), late President and Professor of History at Cornell Uni- versity. To which is added an Extract from Macaulay showing the results of tampering with the currency in England. r2mo. Paper, 25 cents. Special discount for orders of 100 and over. ‘* There is perhaps a special reason for issuing this new edition, in the fact that the principle involved in the proposed unlimited coinage of silver is, at bottom, identical with the idea which led to that fearful wreck of public and private prosperity in France. And there is an added reason in the fact that the utterances of the Chicago nominee and of the Populist platform point clearly and unmistakably to unlimited issues of money hereafter. . . . I have taken all pains to be exact, giving the authority for every important statement.” — From the Author's Preface. Allan Dare and Robert le Diable. A Romance. By Admiral Davip D. Porter, author of “ Incidents and Anecdotes of the Civil War,” “ The Adventures of Harry Marline,” etc. New edition. One vol., 8vo. Cloth, $2.00. -

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D. Appleton & Co.’s Publications. The Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. Containing the Chapters on Perception, Emotion, Memory, Imagination, and Consciousness. By D GABRIEL CoMPAYRE. Translated from the French by MARy E. WILson, B. L. Smith College, Member of the Graduate Seminary in Child Study, University of California. Vol. 35, Inter- national Education Series. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. The object of the present work is to es together in a meng pedagogical form what is known regard- ing the development of infant children, so far as the facts have any bearing upon early education. It contains the chapters on Perception, Emotion, , Memory, Imagination, and Consciousness. Another volume will follow, — ing the work, and discussing the subjects of Judgment, Learning to Talk, Activity, Mora! Sense, Charac- f orbid Tendencies, Selfhood, and Personality. ‘ March Hares. By HAROLD FREDERIC, author of “The Damnation of Theron Ware,” “In the Valley,” etc. ~ 16mo. Cloth, special binding, $1.25. ‘ In ** March Hares” Mr. Frederic has written an original, witty, and delightful story which will increase the number of his readers and prove one of the most = novels of the season. hy oy of the ae ee oye Fay: have be ny es m for many a day. It _ much of the a — wor a smartly written farce, with a pervading ess a smartly written farce rarely possesses. . book decidedly worth reading. "London Saturday Review. The Story of Electricity. By Joun Munro, author of “ Electricity and its Uses,” “ Pioneers of Electricity,” etc. A new volume in the Library of Useful Stories. 16mo. Cloth, 40 cents. This convenient little book summarizes the information of which the average reader stands most in need. ~ It is clearly written and copiously illustrgted, and it takes special cognizance of the requirements of American A Journey in Other Worlds. (Sixth edition.) A Romance of the Future. By JouN JAcos Astor. With Nine full-page Illustrations by DAN BEARD. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents. “* The story merits favor for its ingenious conception and its readability. Mr. Astor takes full advantage of the many opportunities for wedging in appropriate little astronomical lectures, and his fascinating story can be heartily commended for its substantially interesting and entertaining qualities. ”__London Literary World. ** An interesting and cleverly devised book. No lack of imagination. . . . Shows a skillful and wide acquaintance with scientific texte "—New York Herald. Herbart’s A B C of Sense-Perception and Introductory Works. ; By Wit.iam J. Ecxorr, Ph. D., Pd. D., Professor of Pedagogy in the University of Illinois ; Author of “ Kant’s Inaugural Dissertation.” Vol. 36, International Education Series. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. This volume comprises a graded series of pedagogical essays of Herbart. The A BC of Sense-Perception is completed by Herbart for immediate application in the schoolroom, and has been tested by actual use in Amer- ican public schools under the author's direction. The other works are graded and connected by prefaces and ey remarks so as to aid in the thorough comprehension of the ABC. The whole conaliaten a course before students preparing for service in the public schools. The Monetary and Banking Problem. (Second edition.) By Locan G. MtPuerson. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00. ‘*T regard McPherson’s ‘Monetary and Banking Problem’ as a most excellent book, and a valuble addition — to our recent educational literature on the nature, origin, and function of money, which one must ye a we correctly understand before he can be able to reason correctly about the silver problem.”—Hon Z Familiar Trees and their Leaves. 3 By F. SCHUYLER MATHEWS, author of “ Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden,” “ The Beauti- | ful Flower Garden,” etc. Illustrated with over 200 Drawings from Nature by the Author. 12mo, 7 Cloth, $1.75. A book for the summer months, of great interest to those who love our familiar trees and wish to become acquainted with them. Over 200 are accurately described in simple language. . The drawings, taken” directly from Nature, preserve the life and character of every leaf —- axe accuracy. All types are presented, ~ - whether common or exceptional, and full explanations gt ye carn Rd he book is characterized by a careful avoid. | ance of technical terms, and an independent princi ion only at times t with that ¢ the botanist. Not only is the botanical name and habitat of the tree given according to ighest au but the character and coloring of its leafage are recorded precisely as the observer is likely to be impressed i aon

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D. Appleton & Co.'s Publications, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. (Fourth edition.) By STEPHEN CRANE, author of “ The Red Badge of Courage,” etc. t2mo. Cloth, uniform with “The Red Badge of Courage,” 75 cents. “ By writing ‘M ’ Mr, Crane has made for himself a permanent place in literature. . . . Zola himself has scarcely su its tremendous portrayal of throbbing, breathing, moving life.”—V. Y. Mail and Express. The Red Badge of Courage. (7 welfth edition.) An Episode of the American Civil War. By STEPHEN CRANE. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00. ** Never before have we had the seamy side of glorious war so well depicted. . . . The rank and file has its historian at last, and we have had nothing finer.”—Chicago Evening Post. Yekl. (Second edition.) A Tale of the New York Ghetto, By A. CAHAN. Uniform with ‘‘ The Red Badge of Courage.” t2mo. Cloth, $1.00. ‘The tale is well told, with spirit and with fd deep. I an not help think whose sense of character is as broad as his sense of human nature is subtle and deep. I can not help that we have in him a writer of foreign birth who will do honor to American letters Mr. Cahan, without g less serious, is essentially humorous. ‘ Yekl’ is, in fact, a charming book, and is not on delightful in itself, but in its promise of future work, The author who could imagine Mrs. Kavarsky, the me, amiable neighbor of poor Git], Jake’s wife, and Mamie, ‘the Polish snope,’ and Fanny, ‘the Preacher,’ with the scenes in the sweat-shop, at the dancing academy, and, above all, in the Rabbi’s parlor at the time of the divorce, has bound himself the very excellence of what he has done to do much more that is better still.”— William Dean Howells, in t. Sunday World. With the Fathers. _ With Chapters on the Monroe Doctrine, and other Studies in American History. By Prof. J. B. McMaster, author of ‘* A History of the People of the United States.” 12mo, Cloth, $1.50, In addition to his Ra he and important elucidation of the Monroe Doctrine, Prof. McMaster treats of the Third Term from the histori am pets view, and discusses other political and financial subjects of grave im- portance as illustrated by the light of history. Wages and Capital. (Second edition.) An Examination of the Wages Fund Doctrine. By F. W. Tavussic,. Professor of Political Economy in Harvard University ; Author of “ Tariff History of the United States” and “ The Silver Situation in the United Scates.” 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. Prof. Taussig examines the relations of ital to wages, and concludes that not from a predetermined fund of | e laborer’s own product. The bearing of this unions, and on general economic theory, is then pea oman of the wages fund doctrine and of the discussion of wages searching contribution to economic theory will have a wide-reaching effect on the development economy in the future, and will be indispensable for all who teach or investigate general economic theory. The Dawn of Civilization. : (EcypT AND CHALDA&A.) New edition. By Prof.G. Maspero. Edited by Rev. Prof. A. H. Sayce. Translated by M. L. McCiure. Revised and brought up to date by the Author. With Map and over 470 Illustrations. Quarto. Cloth, $7.50. ‘* For a general comprehension of the dawn of civilization we know of no stronger work.”—New York Times. ~ Yeu .ne sooner soce & ot sundemp Shan pes Siar Eee every is alluring and instructive. You hope to read it through, even in a dozen si but you can not give a glance at any one of its pages without having your attention specially challenged.”— New York Herald. bak ceahs Gh tundnd eck tn clon @nmeaa tae mee t. Maspero's great book will remain the standard work for a long time to come,"—London Dail, = The Reds of the Midi. (7hird edition.) An Episode of the French Revolution. By F&.tx Gras. Translated from the Provencal by Mrs. CATHARINE A. JANVIER. With an Introduction by THomas A. JANvieR. With Frontis- piece. 16mo. Cloth, $1.50. ‘* As we read this fascinating, marvelously intense book, it seems as though whole story of tion So the Francs Reneen weet eee et The art with which this tory fe told fe exquisite. A wonderful book.” —Buffalo Ci A The Seats of the Mighty. (/ourth edition.) Being the Memoirs of Captain ROBERT MORAY, sometime an Officer in the Virginia Regiment and afterwards of Amherst’s Regiment. By GILBERT PARKER, author of “ Pierre and his People,” “The Trail of the Sword,” “‘ The Trespasser,” etc. 1gmo. Cloth, illustrated, $1.50.

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D. Appleton & Co.’s Publications. LATEST ISSUES IN Appletons’ Town and Country Library. No. 202. The Idol-Maker. By ADELINE SERGEANT, author of “Out of Due Season,” “The Mistress of Quest,” etc. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. In this strong story, one of the best that the popular author has given us, she presents a character new to most readers of fiction, who provides the title for a book distinguished throughout by sustained force and interest. No. 201. A Court Intrigue. By Basi. THOMPSON. I2mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. In this striking and original story there are adventures as strange as those which happened at Zenda, arid there is a constant maintenance of lively interest until the unexpected dénouement is reached. No. 200. Denounced. By J. BLOUNDELLE-BuRToN, author of “In the Day of Adversity,” “ The Hispaniola Plate,” etc. 1I2mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1 00. This stirring historical romance opens in the days which followed the Jacobite uprising of 1745. The scene changes to France, and a vivid picture is given of the inner life of the Bastile, The author strengthens his repu- tation as an accurate student and also a singularly picturesque and engrossing writer of romances of the past. No. 199. The King’s Revenge. By CLAUDE Bray, author of “ The Last of the Dynmokes,” “‘ To Save Himself,” etc. In this tale of an adventurous career at the time of the ‘ War of the Roses’ there are incidents and perils and vivid historical pictures which will hold the reader s interest until the last page is reached. No. 198. An Outcast of the Islands. By JosEPH CONRAD, author of “ Almayer’s Folly,” etc. ‘** Unquestionably one of the strongest and most original novels of the year.”"—London Atheneum. “A work of extraordi force and charm. . . . Once more we breathe the languorous air of those mys- terious islands set amid the far Eastern seas. Here is an old world indeed made new by the romancer’s magic.” —London Daily Chronicle. No. 197. Dr. Nikola. By Guy Boornsy, author of “A Bid for Fortune,” “The Marriage of Esther,” etc. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00. Mr. Boothby’s imagination and humor are at their best in this new and stirring tale of romantic adventure and unexpected happenings. No. 196. A Humble Enterprise. By ADA CAMBRIDGE, author of “‘ Fidelis,” “A Marriage Ceremony,” “ The Three Miss Kings,” etc. r2mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. “ A delightful , refreshingly original, singularly well told, and absorbingly interesting from beginning toend. . . . A restful, sympathetic, domestic story, full of tender pathos, excellent character-drawing, and gen- uine lovable human nature—a story to be read not once, but again and again.”"—Zondon Mail. No. 195. The Riddle Ring. By Justin McCarty, author of “ Red Diamonds,” “‘ A Fair Saxon,” etc. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00. “« The story is of a thoroughly healthy and pleasant flavor ; full of touches of gentle satire and of pictures of men, women, and places that are graceful and natural.”— 7he Scotsman. No. 194. The Madonna of a Day. By L. DovuGALL, author of “ The Zeit-Geist,” ‘“‘The Mermaid,” etc. r2mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. 2 “The brightest and cleverest novel the author has yet written. The idea is original and interesting, the characterization is firm and convincing, and the style is undeniably effective.”"—London Daily Telegraph. 7 a” This Bulletin of new publications is issued on the first of each month, and will be regularly mailed to any address, gratis, upon request, . Address D. APPLETON & Co., 72 Fifth Avenue, New York,

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A FEW OF Dodd, Mead & Co.’s New Books. KATE CARNEGIE. illustrations by F. C. Gordon. Ian Maclaren’s first lon: Brier Bush” and “‘ In the love. 12mo, $1.50. novel. By IAN MACLAREN, author of “ Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush.” With 50 The scene is ‘‘ Drumtochty,” and many of the characters in “ Beside the Bonnie ays of Auld Lang Syne” reappear im its pages. It furnishes material for a story full of delightful situations, in which the author’s power to move the reader’s sym- It tells the story of a strong and simple pathies and to appeal to his sense of humor is as great as ever. The Brontes and their Circle. Edited by CLEMENT K. SHORTER and Dr. W. ROBERTSON NICOLL. With portraits. Large 12mo, cloth, about 500 pages, probably $2.50. Mr. Clement K. Shorter is probably to-day the greatest living authority on the Brontés. It will contain a great deal of new matter and many heretofore unpublished letters referring to the Brontés and their friends. Since Mrs. Gaskell’s ** Life of Charlotte Bronté,” there has been no book written about the Brontés that can com in interest with this work. It will also contain a number of hitherto unpublished portraits. Memoirs of Signor Arditi. With portraits and fac-similes of autographs. 12mo, $3.50. Signor Arditi is to-day perhaps the best known con- ductor or impresario of Italian opera. The book is full of interesting and amusing anecdotes concerning well-known singers and performers. ParTiAL Contents : Henriette Sontag—Grisi— Mario —Viardot—Piccolomini—Patti : Her Childhood—“ I Hear her Sing for the First Time” —Her Début at Covent Gar- den—Verdi—I -Meet Rossini—Production of Nicolai’s “* Merry Wives of Windsor ”—The Grisi-Mario Tournée— Neilsson— Death of Grisi—Ole Bull—Lilli Lehman, etc. Travel and Talk. [ly 100,000 [iiles of Travel. By Rev. H. R. HAWElIs, author of ‘‘ Music and Morals,” etc. Small 8vo, with 2 portraits. 2 vols., $5.00 net. This particular work is full of anecdotes, incidents, and 4 gathered during his various trips to the United | tates, and reférs to many noteworthy places and people in America. The book is chiefly interesting as showing the impression made upon an astute and traveled Englishman » by Americans and American institutions. The Story of my Life. By A. J. C. HARE. This autobiography of the author of ** Walks in Rome,” fora number of years. He has, during a long life, come in contact with a great many people in England and elsewhere who are not only worth knowing, but who have now come to be looked upon as celebrities. When Worst Comes to Worst. By Dr. W. ROBERTSON NICOLL. cents. A new book by Dr. W. Robertson Nicoll is sure of a large audience on this side of the water, his “‘ Literary Anecdotes of the Nineteenth Century” having earned for | him a place among the foremost critics of the day. The Old Testament and Modern Life. By the Rev. STOPFORD A. BROOKE. Crown 8vo, $1.50. | story of endeavor to bring about reform. Illustrated with 145 woodcuts | and 18 photogravures. 8vo, cloth, 2 vols., $7.50. | | By KATHARINE PEARSON Woops, and many other well-known books, bas been in preparation | 16mo, cloth, 50 | | By Mrs. RoBERT C. MorRIs. A Knight of the Nets. By AMELIA E. BaRR. Cloth, 12mo, $1.25. _ In this story Mrs. Barr returns to sailors and sailor life om she is so much at home. It is a story of the North Captain Shannon. By COULSON KERNAHAN, author of ‘“‘A Dead Man’s Diary,” ‘‘ A Book of Strange Sins,” ‘‘ God and the Ant,” etc, 12mo, cloth, $1.25. A detective story of absorbing interest, but having | withal a fine literary quality, which is unusual in works of this character. Old Country Idylls. By JOHN STAFFORD, 12mo, cloth, $1.25. These stories by a youne and promising English author rs. are dedicated to ynn Linton, who is an enthusiastic admirer of Mr. Stafford’s work. Story of Hannah. By W. J. 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No one making the acquaintance of ** Candace” in the first chapter will fail to become inter- ested in her charming and complex personality. A NEW WORK OF TRAVEL. Dragons and Cherry Blossoms. With numerous il- lustrations by Thomas F. Moessner. 12mo, cloth, about $1.50. This is a particularly interesting account of an Ameri- can’s sojourn in the land of cherry blossoms, telling of the everyday home life of the Japanese. The varied incidents and events are descri in a vivacious manrer, while the numerous illustrations are full of life and color. *,.* Send for complete descriptive list of our new and forthcoming books. DODD, MEAD & CO., sth Avenue and 21st Street, New York.

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Vacation Travelers are poorly equipped -for the enjoyments of an outing who are not provided with a potent remedy for irritations of the skin, common in summer, caused by dust, perspiration, chafing, prickly heat, bites and stings, sunburn, ivy poisoning, foot blisters, etc. Packer’s Tar Soap Is pure, antiseptic, soothing, and healing. Used for bath- ing and shampooing, it makes one delightfully clean and refreshed, and is a protection against contagion. Take it with you! A NEW REVISED EDITION. GENERAL HISTORY OF : IVILIZATION IN EUROPE. By FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME GUIZOT. Edited, with Critical and Supplementary Notes, by Georce Wetts Kyicut, Ph. D., Professor of History and Political Science in Ohio State University. 12mo, cloth, 445 pages. Price - - $1.50. HIS work has been a source of inspiration to historical students, teachers, and writers for more than half a century. It is to-day as inspiring to the student as when the lectures were first delivered, The object in the preparation of this edition has been, without changing the original form of the lectures, to adapt the work more exactly to the needs of college and university classes to-day. The principal features of the edition are : 1. The correction of several errors of translation in the former edition. 2. The careful annotation of the entire work, The notes are of two kinds: (a) Historical, giving briefly such data as will be helpful in recalling to the student the essential facts on which the generalizations of the lectures are based ; (6) critical and supplementary, setting forth the re- sults of later researches, and the opinions of modern scholars where they seem to supplement or to controvert the statements of the author. . A short biographical sketch of M. Guizot. . A brief bibliography of general works on the history of the period, and in the notes many indi- vidual references to the best and latest special treatises, easily accessible, on the different sub- jects touched by the author. 5. A carefully prepared subject-index. The editor has been for a number of years Professor of History and Political Science, in Ohio State University, and is Secretary of the Political Science Association of the Central States. D. APPLETON & CO., PuBLisHers, 72 FirtH AveENUE, NeW York.

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j Hills, Valleys, and Plains of the U.S. THE IVES ALTITUDE MAP Is a novel device by the inventor of the “‘Strata Map,” differing from any elevation map previously pub- lished, the surface being carefully embossed to represent the River Systems and Mountain Prominences, while successive altitudes are emphasized by strongly contrasted colors. The Map is beautifully gotten up, framed in oak, and varnished. Size, 33 <X 23 inches. Price, $9.50. Aid in the Study of Geology. THE IVES STRATA MAP Graphically exhibits Superposition, denudation, and outcrop of strata, with the phenomena of escarp- | ments, outliers, inliers, dip, strike, conformability, etc., and the Cards may be bent to show syn<linal =~ or anticlinal folds.

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Size, 30 x 24 inches. Price, $17.50. JAMES T. B. IVES, F.G.S., ' Is the Inventor of the Method of Construction, and the Scientific Data have been derived by him from Government Sources of Information. Diploma and Medal Awarded to each - of these Maps at the World’s Columbian Exposition. OPINIONS OF EMINENT AUTHORITIES. Professor E. D. Core, of the University of Pennsylvania, writes: ‘‘ Useful to the student of topogra= | pry and geology. The map indicating elevations in relief is an important aid to the stratigraphic map— 7 th together elucidate the structure to the eye of the student.” President D. C. Giman, of Johns Hopkins University, writes in reference to the Strata Map: ‘‘ Wher- PS ever American geology is taught your map should be part of the apparatus.” E Further particulars and testimonials on application to : JAMES T. B. IVES, Care of Advertising Department, Appletons’ Popular Science Monthly, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York. ~

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“4 E ae Pe : a ae & : t * _’ _ Leh, Me | wre THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. New and Forthcoming Books. CHRISTIANSEN.—Theoretical Physics. By Prof. C. CurisriAnsen, Ph. D., Leipzig. Translated by W. F. MAciE, Ph. D., Professor of Physics in Princeton University. ‘Nearly ready.’ This translation of Die Elemente der theorischen Physik is made with the cordial co-opera- tion of the author, and is receiving such revision as in the course of the translation seems de- sirable to the translator with the author’s sanction. ¥ ZIEGLER.—A Text-Book of Special Pathological Anatomy. By Exnsr Z1EGLER, Professor of Pathology in the University of Freiburg. A thoroughly revised and com- pletely reset edition of the standard text-book. In its revision the latest (eighth) German edi- tion was followed throughout, and the book is practically a new translation. A valuable Index, etc., has been added by the translators, DONALD MACALLISTER, M. A., M. D., Cambridge, and :) Henry W. CATTELL, A. M., M. D., Demonstrator of Morbid Anatomy, University of Pennsyl- vania. Vol. I. Shortly, WEBSTER.—The Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism. By Prof. ARTHUR G. WEBSTER, of Clark University. Shortly. RATZEL.—History of Mankind. By Prof. Frmpricn RatzeL. Translated from the second German edition by A. J. BUTLER, M. A., with Preface by E. B. TYLER, D.C. L, With 30 Colored Plates, Maps, and numerous Illustrations in the text. In 3 volumes, 8vo. Cloth, Vol. I., $4.00. ae oe CAJORI.—A History of Elementary Mathematics. By Frorran Cayjort, Pro- fessor of Physics in Colorado College, Colorado Springs ; formerly Professor of Applied Mathe- matics in the Tulane University of Louisiana; Author of “A History of Mathematics.” ‘ * 4%) pet Ol Nearly ready, : FOSTER.—Text-Book of Physiology. By Micuaer Fosrer, M.A.,M. D., LL.D. on. F.R.S. Revised and abridged from the Author’s Text-Book of Physiology in five volumes. New edition, with Appendix on the Chemical Basis of the Animal Body, by A. SHERIDAN LEA. With Illustrations. 1 vol,, 8vo, cloth, $5.00 ; in sheep, $5.50. JACKSON.— Alternating Currents and Alternating Current Machinery. By DuGa.Lp C. Jackson, B. S.C. E., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of Wisconsin ; Author of “ A Text-Book on Electro-Magnetism and the Construction of Dynamos.” Nearly ready. Sa? - (aye Ete PLEHN.—An Introduction to Public Finance. By Cart C. Puenn, Ph. D., } , Assistant Professor of History and Political Science in the University of California. 12mo, 5 cloth, $1.60. BAILEY.—The Nursery Book. A Complete Guide to the Multiplication of Plants. By : L. H. BatLey, Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University ; Editor of 7he Rural Science | Series, etc. New edition, thoroughly revised and extended. Garden Craft Series. 16mo, , - 5 cloth, $1.00. =| The book comprises full practical directions for seed-sowing, the making of all kinds of, | P 4 g g _ layers ; stools, cuttings, propagation by bulbs and tubers, and very complete accounts of all the l- leading kinds of budding, grafting, and inarching. Aside from this, “ The Nursery List” is. an alphabetical catalogue of about 1,500 plants—of fruit, kitchen-garden, ornamental, and green- house species, with directions for their multiplication. The book is the most complete treatise of its kind in the language. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 Fifth Avenue, New York City.

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with New Features. THE Livine AGE, Founded by E. Littell in 1844. An Old Favorite In. 1896 the subscription price of THe Livine AGE, which had been Eight Dol- i lars a year, was reduced to Six Dollars. The effect of this change was to add * hundreds of new names to the subscription lists. 4 Encouraged by this response to their efforts to enlarge the constituency and increase the usefulness of the magazine, the publishers now take pleasure in announ- cing to their readers several new features of interest which they propose to intro- ‘ duce. These include ' 4 First, the publication of occasional translations of noteworthy articles from the French, German, Spanish and Italian reviews and magazines. Second, the addition of a Monthly Supplement containing three departments, namely : READINGS FROM AFERICAN MAGAZINES. READINGS FROSI NEW BOOKS. - A LIST OF BOOKS OF THE lONTH. The proposed Supplement will add about three hundred pages annually to the magazine, without any added cost to the subscribers, and without diminishing in the least the space given to the features which have made ‘I'HE LiviING AGE for fifty- three years a household word among intelligent and cultivated readers. It will be noticed that the new features are entirely in harmony with the z original purpose of the magazine to bring to its readers the very best of current lit- erature. Its scope will simply be broadened to include American and European periodicals, and the most important of new books. The weekly numbers of THE LivING AGE will contain choice fiction; essays; i sketches of discovery and travel; papers in the departments of biography, history, ; science, and politics in the broadest sense; poetry and general information: in a & Nam word, whatever is best and most important in current periodical literature. ‘I'he 4 wide range of subjects and the high standard of literary excellence which have % characterized the magazine from the beginning will be preserved. g When it is remembered that the numbers of THE LIvING AGE make each year be four large volumes, containing altogether more than thirty-five hundred clearly : printed pages of carefully selected and widely varied material, it will be seen that at Six Dollars a year it is one of the cheapest of American periodicals of the first class. The first Monthly Supplement will be printed in November. To New Subscribers remitting before November Ist (in which month the first of these new features will be introduced) will be sent gratis the intervening weekly issues from date of payment. >i a Rates for clubbing THE LIvING AGE with other periodicals will be sent upon application. . Address, THE LIVING AGE COPIPANY, P. O.. Box 5206, Boston. ay ee os Ta oe *.4)% Se grid PP

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b y z a 5 x J 5 * 3 + te ge ter eo eee > poke ond Tg et eae es (Walnut Lodge HOSPITAL, HARTFORD, CONN. Organized in 1880 Alcohol for the and special Medical Opium Treat: t of e atm Lor Inebriates. LEGANTLY situated in the suburbs of the city, with every np and appliance for the treatment of this class of cases, including 7'urkish, Russian, Roman, Saline, and Medicated Baths. h case comes under the direct personal care of the physician. Experience shows that a large proportion of these cases are curable, and all are benefited from the —— of exact hygienic and scientific measures. This institution is foun on the a fact that Inebriety is a disease and curable, -~_ all cases require rest, change of thought and ng, etc. At Murray Hill Hotel, New York city, the second Tues- day of each month, from 12 to 4 Pp. m. Applications and all inquiries should be addressed T. D, CROTHERS, M.D., Sup’t Wainut Lodge, Hartford, Conn. PPLETONS’ General Guide to the United States. With numerous Maps and Illustrations. New edition, revised to date. 12mo. Flexible mo- rocco, with Tuck, $2.50. (Part I, separately, New Ena- LAND AND Mippi= STATES AND CaNnaDa, cloth, $1.25. Part II, SourHERN AND WESTERN States, cloth, $1.25.) At all Bookstores. 6 GREY TOWERS” DR. KINDRED’S PRIVATE HOME For the Modern Care and Treatment Exclusively of ALCOHOLICS, MORPHINE and NARCOTIC Habitues. of the State of Con- (Duly incorporated the Legislature necticut oe the DARIEN HOME.) Fifty minutes from Grand Central Station, New York City. Stamford, Conn., President, Hon. C. W. Lounssury, Medical § ntendent, J. Jos. Kinprep, M. D. Consulting Physicians from New York City and Stamford. Assistant Physicians, W. Eimer Licutie, M.D., UNTER A. Bonn, M. D. The buildings are modern (with electric lights and other improvements), and beautifully situated in cious and attractive grounds, commanding fine views of g Island Sound and the surrounding hill country. It is purposed to conduct the institution on a liberal scale, and the accom- modations, table, attendance, nursing, and all appointments will be suited to first-class patients. Patients can, by simply applying to the Medical intendent at the “Home,” commit themeelves for any iod of time not exceeding twelve months; or, if pre- erred, they can be committed by age prsoess. No insane or other objectionable cases received at this department. The department for Mental Diseases is located at Darien, Conn., and is well equipped. For terms and information, apply to the Medical Super- intendent at the Home, or at the New York City Office, 152 W. 34th Street, 3 to 4.20 p. m., daily, or at Brookiyn Office, 29 Lafayette Avenue, Thuredays, 11.80 a. m. to 12.30 P. m, Long-distance telephone, Stamford, Conn. Appletons’ Dictionary of New York and its Vicinity. With Maps. Revised edition, 1896. 16mo. 284 pages. Paper, 30 cents; flexi cloth, 60 cents. Appletons’ Town and Country Library. _ Hach, 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. LATEST ISSUES. Denounced. By J. BLOUNDELLE-BURTON, author of ‘‘In the Day of Adversity,” ‘‘ The Hispaniola Plate,” etc. The King’s Revenge. By CLAUDE Bray, au- thor of ‘‘ The Last of the Dynmokes,” “To Save Himself,” etc. An Outcast of the Islands. By JosepH Con- RAD, author of ‘**‘ Almayer’s Folly,” etc. Dr. Nikola. By Guy Boorusy, author of “A Bid for Fortune,” ‘‘ The Marriage of Esther,” etc. A Humble Enterprise. By Apa CamBrince, author of ‘‘ Fidelis,” ‘‘ The Three Miss Kings,” ** A Little Minx,” etc. The Riddle Ring. By Justin McCarTHy, au- The Madonna of a Day. thor of ‘* The Zeit-Geist,” ‘‘ The Mermaid,” ete. A Winning Hazard, By Mrs. ALEXANDER, au- thor of “The Wooing o’t,” ‘‘ Her Dearest Foe,” etc, Chronicles of Martin Hewitt. By ArtTHuR MoRRISON, author of ‘‘ Tales of Mean Streets,” etc. The Dancer in Yellow. By W. E. Norris, au- thor of “‘ A Victim of Good Luck,” ‘* Mademoiselle de Mersac,” etc. A Flash of Summer. By Mrs. W. K. CLirrorp, author of “ Love Letters of a Worldly Woman,” -** Aunt Anne,” etc. thor of ‘‘ Red Diamonds,” ‘‘ A Fair Saxon,” etc. Mistress Dorothy Marvin. By J. C. SNarrn, ‘* This series is one of most remarkable excellence, and its reputation has become such that it is by no means an easy matter to find just the work to keep it up to its standard.”— Boston Traveller. reading. In the series a poor has not yet been published.” “ The red-brown covers of Appletons’ Town and Country Lrez bane cone to be an almost infallible sign of a story worth fea —7 lo Bee. For sale by all booksellers ; or will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers, D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Ave., New York. 13 ny L. DOUGALL, au-_ ‘

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BUFFALO LITHIAWATER A SOLVENT OF STONE IN THE BLADDER. Dr. C. H. Davis, of Meriden, Conn., reports in New England Medical Monthly, July, 1890: ‘‘ Mr. R, L. Roys, of this city, consulted me about two years ago for Stone in the Bladder, from which he had been suffer- ing for years. On my suggestion, he commenced the use of Buffalo Lithia Water, as he was very much opposed to operative interference. After using the water for a short time, disintegration to a certain extent took place and large quantities of stone were passed. For several days in succession he as much as a teaspoonful of the débris, and at intervals for a considerable i he passed quantities, and under the continued use of the Water there was a constant passage of calculi until he was entirely relieved.” ‘oy. * The photogravh herewith is a correct representation, and exact size, of some of the largest specimens of caiculi discharged by Mr. Roys. A chemical and microscopical analysis showed that they are Uric Acid, with a trace of Oxalate of Lime.” This Water ts for sale by druggists. Pamphlet free. Proprietor, BUFFALO LITHIA SPRINGS, VIRGINIA. A New Medical Journal, begun January, 1896. F THE JOURNAL OF | |. EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE. - “# A QUARTERLY PERIODICAL DEVOTED TO ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS IN PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY, PHARMA- COLOGY, PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, HYGIENE, AND PRACTICAL MEDICINE. EDITED BY WILLIAM H. WELCH, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., WITH A CORPS OF TWELVE ASSOCIATE EDITORS. Subscription price, $5.00 per annum. Circular sent on application. New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue.

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EDWARD L. YOUMANS, . . . » « » Unterpreter of Science for the People. A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE, | WITH SELECTIONS FROM HIS PUBLISHED WRITINGS, AND EXTRACTS FROM HIS CORRESPONDENCE WITH SPENCER, HUXLEY, TYNDALL, AND OTHERS, BY JOHN FISKE. With Two Portraits. a ek - t2mo. Cloth, $2.00. ‘* Whether as a memorial of a noteworthy man, or as a record of a most important phase of intellectual life in our own time, the volume is entirely admirable, and must be given a high place in the honorable list of recent biography.’'"—PAiladelphia Times. “* His life was at once inspiring and interesting. His career gave to manhood in America an ornament as well as a potent example. While he lived, he helped to enrich thousands of lives. Now that he is gone, Prof. Fiske’s beautiful biography not only shows us how noble the man himself was, but how great was the public loss, and how precious must remain the possession of such a memory.”—New York Times. ‘*It was eminently proper that the biography of Mr. Youmans should be written, and cer- tainly there could not have been chosen a fitter man than Mr. Fiske to write it. An acquaint- ance dating back thirty years is itself a qualification, and when to this are added Mr. Fiske’s 5 ability and the lucid method which characterizes his work, the elements fora satisfactory memoir ¥ are all present.”"—Philadelphia Bulletin. ** To enumerate Youmans's achievements in the dissemination and interpretation of scientific truth is to sum up the record of an epoch from the view-point of the gradual enlightenment of the American people. When Mr. Fiske reminds us that the discovery and propagation of truth are functions seldom united in one person, and that science, like religion, must have its apostles, he speaks as one having experience and authority, and no one will dispute his competence to define and applaud the services which his friend rendered in the capacity of a breaker of the bread of science to the multitude."—New York Sun. ‘* The selection of Prof. John Fiske as the biographer of the late Prof. Youmans was the best thing that could be made. Prof. Youmans has done more for the dissemination of scientific information, and the cultivation of a taste for such knowledge, than any other American of his fi day.”—Cleveland Plaindealer. ‘“*We shall not be misunderstood as agreeing with all the views recorded here by Prof. Youmans, from whom we were often compelled to differ while he lived, when we say that we have read the book with great interest, and are thankful that one who truly and unselfishly ; labored in the cause of popular science has so worthy a memorial."—New York Observer. 4 ‘* He had the broad democratic spirit, and the absolute unselfishness which it reveals at 4 every moment and in every act of his life; and Mr. Fiske has written a biography which is : tender and true, and rich and strong. To it are appended some of his writings which have a 3 fitting place here, and fully illustrate his mental gifts and convictions.”-—Boston Herald. ‘“« Prof. John Fiske has performed a labor of love for the friend whose name is its title, and one of whose closest intimates he was. The volume is a good example of friendly but not unwholesomely laudatory biography.” —Boston Congregationalist. For sale by all booksellers; or will be sent by mail on receipt of price by the publishers, , D. APPLETON & CO., 972 FIFTH AVENUE, NEw YorK. 15

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D. APPLETON & CO.’S PUBLICATIONS. THE CRIMINOLOGY SERIES. Edited by W. DOUGLAS MORRISON. RIMINAL SOCIOLOGY. Cloth, $1.50. “A most valuable book. It is suggestive of reforms and remedies, it is reasonable and temperate, and it contains a world of information and well-arranged facts for those interested in or merely observant of one of the great questions of the day.”— Philadelphia Public Ledger. * The scientist, the humanitarian, and the student will find much to indorse and to adopt, while the layman will wonder why such a book was not written years ago.”— Newark Advertiser. By Professor E. FERRI. 12mo. J FEMALE OFFENDER. By Professor Lomsroso. Illus- ) trated. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. ¥ “** The Female Offender’ must be considered as a very valuable addition to scien- tific literature. . . . It is not alone to the scientist that the work will recommend itself. The humanitarian, anxious for the reform of the habitual criminal, will find in its pages many valuable suggestions.” —PAiladelphia /tem. “‘ This work will undoubtedly be a valuable addition to the works on criminology, and may also prove of inestimable help in the prevention of crime.”—Detroit Free ' Press. 4 “The book is a very valuable one, and admirably adapted for general reading.”— Boston Home Journail. “ This book will probably constitute one of the most valuable contributions in aid of a nineteenth-century sign of advanced civilization known as prison reform.”— Cincinnati Times-Star. “There is no book of recent issue that bears such important relation to the great subject of criminology as this book.” —New Haven Leader. IN PREPARATION. (QQUR JUVENILE OFFENDERS. By W. D. Morrison. ’ Sonate A SOCIAL STUDY. By Professor Jory. The study of criminal tendencies is occupying advanced students throughout the world, but the science has been carried further by the Italian school of criminologists than by any other scientists. This series embodies the most interesting and suggestive results of extended investigations. The subject is dealt with from the scientific, not from the purely philanthropic, point of view, but the conclusions must necessarily form the basis for humanitarian endeavor. New York: D. APPLETON &°CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. 8

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The Warfare of Science with Theology. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom By ANDREW D. WHITE, LL. D., Late President and Professor of History at Cornell University. In two volumes. 8vo. Cloth, $5.00. ‘ The story of the struggle of searchers after truth with the organized forces of ignorance, bigotry, and superstition is the most inspiring chapter in the whole history of mankind, That story has never been better told than by the ex-President of Cornell University in these two volumes. . . . A wonderful story it is that he tells."—-London Daily Chronicle, ‘** The two noble volumes, ed with rare historical data and printed and clothed in the best style of modern typographical art, more than realize the promise of the earlier essays, The book is an invaluable record of the difficulties that biblical superstition has interposed to the advance of physical knowledge ; a treasury of information concerning the progress of modern science, gathered with the most assiduous and patient research during a quarter of a century in the libraries not only of this country, but of Europe also. The painstaking in- vestigations and rare erudition it embodies, the broad field it has so diligently delved and gleaned, and the reverent Christian spirit it manifests, make it a monumental work, destined to become a classic authority on the subjects it has made its own henceforth. The previous works in this field, such as Dr. Draper’s ‘ Conflict of Religion and Science,’ and Professor Shields's ‘ Final Philosophy,’ must yield pre-eminence to President White's admirable history. The new book is far fuller and more accurate in its narrative, clearer in its tredtment, and more judicious in its judgments.”— 7hke New World, London. ‘** It is a complete survey of the whole field of battle. . . . The chapters are full of striki interest. The author of these volumes shows that the’warfare of science has never been wi religion but only with old errors that were confounded with it, and that the Eternal Verities become the more clear and sure as the ancient guesses which have been confounded with them are cleared finally away."—London Daily News. ‘*Such an honest and thorough treatment of the subject in all its bearings that it will carry weight and be accepted as an authority in tracing the process by which the scientific method has come to be supreme in modern thought and life.”—ZBoston Herald. ‘* It is graphic, lucid, even-tempered—never bitter nor vindictive. No student of human progress should fail to read these volumes. While they have about them the fascination of a well-told tale, they are also crowded with the facts of history that have had a tremendous bearing upon the development of the race. "Breeton Eagle. ‘* A conscientious summary of the body of learning to which it relates, accumulated during long years of research. . . . A monument of industry.”—New York Evening Fost. ‘* So interesting as to enchain the attention at once and keep it enchained. Concise as a history of the universe could be made, tabulated so that instant reference to a particular bit of history, theory, or biography may be had, it will be valuable as a lexicon relating to religious controversy.” —Chicago Times-Herald. : ‘* Dr. White knows much of science and he knows much of theology. But his point of view is that of a historian. It is this fact which gives the greatest value to his book. We have whole libraries of controversial works dealing with the relations between science and theology, but they have been written either by scientists or theologians. President White occupies the impartial position of the historic scholar, who has no prejudices against the truth of science and no hostility toward the truth of religion.”—. Y. Review of Reviews. ‘*The work is a masterpiece of a mind as devoid of wanton iconoclasm as of moral cowardice. It is a definite statement of where the best thinkers of the world now stand in the religio-scientific conflict. It is clear, honest, brave, and must be given a place among the great books of the year."—Chicago Tribune. ‘This is and will continue to be one of the great books of the world, like Thucydides’s ‘ History of the Peloponnesian War.’ So long as Science and Theology retain their place in human interest, this history of the conflict of ages between them will exert its attraction and read its lesson. It is a great book.”— Zhe Outlook. New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 72 FirtH Avenue. 17

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THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. A STUDY OF THE AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH, ITS NATURAL RESOURCES, PEOPLE, INDUSTRIES, MANUFACTURES, COMMERCE, R AND ITS WORK IN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, é AND SELF-GOVERNMENT.

Edited by NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER, S.D., Professor of Geology in Harvard University, and Dean of Lawrence Scientific School.

In Two Volumes, royal 8vo, about 700 pages each. With Maps, and 150 full-page Illustrations. Price, $5.00 per volume,

SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION.

In this work the publishers offer something which is not furnished by his- tories or encyclopedias, namely, a succinct but comprehensive expert account of our country at the present day. The very extent of America and American industries renders it difficult to appreciate the true meaning of the United States of America. In this work the American citizen can survey the land upon which he lives, and the industrial, social, political, and other environments of himself and his fellow-citizens. The best knowledge and the best efforts of experts, editor, and publishers have gone to the preparation of a standard book dedi- Ay cated to the America of the present day; and the publishers believe that these x efforts will be appreciated by those who desire to inform themselves regarding the America of the end of the century.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. Hon. WILLIAM L. WILSON, Chairman of the ; Jupocz THOMAS M. COOLEY, formerly Chair. Ways and Means Committee, Fifty-third Con- man of the Interstate Commerce Commission. oom. 3 CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. Pe ee en i SARGENT, M. D., Director of the Hemen. . way Gymnasium, Narvar niversity. EDWARD ATKINSON, LL.D., Px. D. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY. 08 A a2 po Rady he Jr . E. KENNELLY, Assistant to Thomas Edison. J. B McMASTER, Professor of History in the , yr me age , President of Johns Hop- ‘ POE A amy agra gan . G. PROUT, Editor of the Railroad Gazette. 4 Majox J. W, POWELL, Director of the U. S. | F: ASS, Sree Teetudins ff te Geological Survey and the Bureau of Ethnology. : y gx WILLIAM T. HARRIS, LL. D., U. S. Commis. | F- W- eed ie of Political Economy sioner ucation. . LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D. HENRY VAN BRUNT. . 3 Pacific Const’ pits ROE net ¥ fastial: © meu’ M.D., S of th e Pacific Coast.” A , M.D., Secretary e HARRY PRATT JUDSON, Head Dean of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts. 2, Colleges, University of Chicago. N. S. SHALER.

so osm UP

New York: D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 72 Fifth Avenue. 18

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