The Popular Science Monthly 1893-12: Vol 44

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. DECEMBER, 1893. THE STORY OF BOB. By DAVID STARR JORDAN, PRESIDENT OF LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY. E called him Bob. We never knew his real name. That had been left in the jungles of Borneo. He was born in 1890, a prince of the tribe of Cercopithecus which inhabits the palm forests of the south sea islands. Stolen from his parents by a south sea trader, he was brought to San Francisco, ex- changed for a keg of beer, and page his “— last to a Kearny Street curiosity shop. Not long after, a student of oveiiliais saw im there, ransomed him by a subscription from his fellow-students, and Bob was transferred to a new home in the university. beside the Tall Tree. Here he was placed in the custody of a young naturalist from Japan. Otaki being likewise Asiatic by birth, understood the wants and feelings of Bob better than did any of the others by whom he was surrounded. We first knew Bob as a wild and suspicious creature, who leoked at all who came near him with fear or hatred. If any per- son touched him, Bob would look him straight in the eyes, with scowling face and lips rolled back, every muscle tense for action in case of any injury or indignity. Whenever he was lifted from the ground, all these expressions would be intensified; but he never ventured to bite any one who seemed beyond his size, or to escape from any one he thought able to hold him. Toward women he showed from the first great aversion, for they had poked him in the ribs with their parasols while he was in prison in Kearny Street. Furthermore, he seemed seriously to disap- prove the unseemly freedom allowed to women in or raped VOL, XLIv.—12 ' : 7 { P, 43 1

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146 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. In such matters, our manners and customs are very different from those which prevail in the tribe of Cercopithecus in Borneo. After a time, under protest, he let one young woman lead him about by his chain, and refrained from open enmity; but he never gave her either trust or affection. Children he held in utter abhorrence, for it was their delight to ridicule him and to vex his dignity with sticks and clods of earth. When any of them came near him, he would jump at them, hissing and scold- ing, and often only the strength of his chain saved them from in- jury. When Bob came from Kear- ny Street his hair was infested with the small, louse- like parasite(He- matopina quad- rumanus) which always abounds where those of his race are gath- ered together. Bob did not try ss eS to conceal this Bon anv tue Napa Sopa. fact ; he made it . the joy of his lei- sure. A large part of his time was spent in searching his arms and legs in quest of the insect. When he found or pretended to find one, he would eat it with much appearance of satisfaction, keeping up all the while a vigorous smacking of the lips. A young entomologist became interested in this, and sought to make for himself a collection of these insects from Bob’s hair. But while he made his explorations, putting his captures in a small vial, Bob conducted a similar search among the hairs on his friend’s hand. The bystanders laughed heartily, but Bob saw nothing funny about the affair. If one could judge by his movements and the smacking of his lips, he was more successful than the naturalist himself. But all this with Bob was simply an excess of politeness. In his tribe of Cercopithecus it is the height of courtesy for one individual to go over the head and a." 37 oP ae % * % oo abt

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a! / we Resist isl ote THE STORY OF BOB. 147 shoulders of his friends, taking hold of hair after hair, drawing them through his fingers, so that no parasite can escape. If a stranger in any way earns his good will, Bob will show it by de- voting himself to this search either on hand or coat sleeve. At these times Bob is the perfection of courtesy. He pretends to find numberless Hematopine on his friend’s hands, even though you can see with your own eyes that he finds nothing at all. And all the time he chuckles and smacks his lips as though each discovery were an object of personal satisfaction to him. Of snakes, large or smail, Bob has always stood in abject terror. If he is held firmly and the snake is placed near him, he looks piteously in the face of his keeper, and sometimes, more in sorrow than in anger, he will bite if he is not let go. At one time a snake in a paper bag was shown him. When the paper bag was afterward left near him, he would furtively approach and open it, to peep a moment shiveringly into its depths, and then retreat ignominiously, only to approach for another peep when he had summoned sufficient courage. A live salamander was placed on the table by his side. This he looked at with a great deal of interest, finally taking it in his hands, with many precautions. When he saw how inert it was, he laid it down and lost all interest in it. Toward a flat skin of a coyote and one of a wild cat, used as parlor rugs, Bob showed the same fear as in the presence of the snake. If one brought them near him he would jump wildly about or cower in terror behind a chair. This instinctive fear is apparently an inheritance from the experience of his fathers, whose kingdom was in the land where tigers and snakes were dominant and dangerous. A similar skin without hair and eyes he cared nothing for. At one time he climbed on the back of a chair to get away from the coyote skin. The chair was over- turned by his efforts. He saw at once that when the chair fell it would carry him backward to the coyote, so he let go of the chair and, seizing his chain, swung himself off out of the reach of the coyote, while the chair was allowed to go over. This was re- peated afterward with the same result. Bob grew very expert in the use of this chain, which he came at last to regard as a necessary part of his environment. In climbing chairs or trees he always took it into consideration. He never learned to untie knots in it, but would very deftly straighten it whenever it became tangled or kinked. Sometimes he would break fastenings, escaping to the top of the house, clanking his chain as he went. It was not easy to catch him then, for he delighted in freedom. At such times he would manage the chain most skillfully, going back to set it free if it caught on any projection. When very hungry, however, he:

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY. 148 would come down to the ground or sit patiently outside the kitchen window, waiting to be coaxed and caught. At one time, after we had been entreating him for an hour, he cani® down from the house in a rage to scare away _ some boys who were | mocking him from be- | low, and who fied in | terror at his approach. | When loose in the tall | grass, Bob would walk | on his hinder limbs, holding his head high, | and looking about for birds, in whom he seemed to take much interest. For some reason their calls at- | tracted him. His hands meanwhile were held with drooping wrists | like the wrists of per- | sons afflicted with the | Grecian bend. ‘Toward most animals and to- ward persons he could ~; not frighten he usual- | ly affected perfect in- difference, often not deigning to grant them even a glance. Toward horses and cows, and to other animals “big and un- pleasant ” to him, he held a great dislike. When Billy, the saddle horse, came near him, Bob would crouch like an angry cat, erecting his hair, humping his back, and scolding vehemently. When in his judgment he was safely out of Billy’s reach, he would advance boldly and scold loudly. When he thought Billy too near, he became as small and inconspicuous as possible, to avoid the horse’s notice. At one time he was placed on Billy’s back, where he went into spasms of fear. When taken into the house, he grew bolder, and, climbing on the back of a chair, he described his adventures volubly and with many gestures to his friend Otaki, who understood it all. To the big dog Rover he also had strong objections. Rover looked down on Bob with tolerant contempt, as a disagreeable being, not to be shaken like a rat because possibly human. But re pe Fb Se oS Saal a Arrer CLiaret—Katzensayvxver. Wy G a Se oe i

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¥ = ha - % B. a Py & THE STORY OF BOB. 149 when Bob would strike him in the face with the flat of his hand, Rover would snap at him, barking indignantly; but he never caught him, and Bob was careful to keep out of his reach. His discretion could be counted on to get the better of his courage. With the little terrier, Dandy, Bob’s relations were often friendly, although there was very little mutual trust. At one time Dandy was deep in the ivy in search of a rat, while Bob had also entered the ivy by another opening for other reasons. They met in the dark in a rat-hole through the ivy leaves, and a sharp conflict ensued, marked by much scolding on the one part and pulling of hair and barking on the other. When Dandy had dragged Bob to the light, both were very . ee . —— much surprised, and they parted with mutual apolo- gies and much shamefaced- ness, pps Se Being offered a glassof 7 milk, Bob looked at itfora "9 moment, then took the glass in both hands and drank from it. His mouth being small, much of the milk was spilled on the floor. Being then offered a glass partly full, he handled it more deftiy, seeming to understand how to use it. When offered a pewter cup with a handle, he took it in both hands and drank as from the glass, but, notic- ing the handle, he set the cup down and raised it again properly. Then he drank from it as a child of any other race would have done. He soon learned to drink water from bottles. If the bottle were large, he would use one of his hands to hold it, guiding it to his mouth by his hinder legs. At the first trial he understood the purpose of the cork, which he would draw with his teeth. Then he would look down into the neck of the bottle to see if the water were really there and no deception practiced on him. He also usually shook the bottle before drinking, apparently a custom in In Devorions. _

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150 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Borneo. Once a bottle of carbonated mineral water (“Napa soda”) was given him. He drew the cork, much surprised at the explosion, and the character of the water caused him equal sur- prise; still he drained the bottle and was apparently pleased with it. A bottle of claret being offered him, he drank eagerly and became much exhilarated, but at the same time much confused, After this he always refused claret, putting the bottle away with a gesture of disapproval. Of water colored by fruit juices he was very fond. _ Being left alone in a student’s room, he experimented on the bottles there. He drew the cork from bottles of ink and of bay rum; not relishing the contents of either, he poured both into the wash basin. When he was offered an empty egg shell, he raised it up and looked inte the crack from which the contents had been taken. Then he would use his fingers to pull the shell apart, licking the inside of the shell, but apparently disgusted with the small amount of food it contained. Being shown his refiection in the mirror, he advanced toward it scowling, but soon detecting the sham, he lost all interest in it. A hand glass was given him, but he paid very little attention to his reflection in it, laying it down and turning to other things. * The life of Bob was not without its tender passages. He was loved in turn by the vivacious Mimi and the gentle Nanette. The two stood in much the same relation as the “. . . ladies twain Who loved 0 well the tough old dean.” In Borneo, among the tribes of Cercopithecus, the male is easily the lord of creation. The female expects to be crowded aside and frequently punished, and takes rude treatment as a matter of course. A kind expression now and then, an occasional hour devoted to hunting Hematopine in her hair, or even a cessation of blows and bites, and she is thankful and satisfied. Mimi was of the tribe of Macacus, gentle in manner, excess- ively quick of foot, impatient of restraint or even touch from any hand except that of her chosen lord and master. She had large, projecting gray eyes—“ pop-eyes” her rivals might have called them—and a wrinkled face suggestive of an age she did not possess. Her face readily assumed an expression of most im- patient contempt if any one not of her race attempted to caress her or to take any liberty with her. Mimi had been brought as a child from the south sea islands, and had grown up in a May- field beer hall, where she had learned to drink beer with the rest of them, and in general “ knew the world,” as most of us who live outside the jungles of Borneo are compelled to know it.

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THE STORY OF BOB. TT Mimi pleased Bob from the first, though he was careful never to let her forget her proper station. If, for example, she had any food he wanted, or if others showed her special attention, he would seize her chain, draw her up to him, and bite her forcibly in the neck, which is the time-honored sign of domestic suprem- acy in Borneo. At this she would squeal lustily, but she never offered resistance or showed any kind of resentment. Masculine supremacy is acknowledged in the tribe of Macacus as in that of Cercopithecus. Of- ten Bob would draw Mimi to him to bite her in the neck, ap- parently to remind her of his superior- ity. At night they slept together in one box, each with a soft arm round the oth- er’s waist, Nanette, who came later, was also of the tribe of Ma- cacus, but she was of a different branch of the great family. She was much larger than Mimi, nearly as large as Bob him- self. She had lived in a French family, where she had ac- quired her name and hercalm,considerate manner. She was a gentle blonde, with _ * Cuca.” a pensive, averted face, as though the present was merely an object of toleration with her. Evidently Nanette had had a history, but what that history was no one now can tell. Perhaps there was no history, and her sadly patient expression came from the absence of one. Mimi was soon very jealous of Nanette, but without good rea- son, for Bob treated Nanette with uniform contempt, pushing her about and biting her in the neck whenever she came near him. In this Mimi would assist, often seizing Nanette’s chain and pulling her about till she was brought within Bob’s reach. After a time Mimi’s former master returned; she went back to her

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152 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. drinking of beer, grimacing at visitors, and Bob and this history see her no more. Meanwhile Nanette and Bob were left together. He remained contemptuous toward her, robbing her of her food and treating her with indignity. Often, when’ others were looking, Bob would show his authority over her by ‘ostentatiously drawing up her chain and nipping her in the neck; but at other times, when no one was watching, he would relax his dignity and the two would lie for hours in the sun- shine, each picking fleas from the other’s hair. However, roughly as she was treated, Nanette nev- er showed resentment, and seemed only too glad to be the slave of her royal Bob. At one time Bob had treated Nanette with pe- culiar severity, for which reason Lady Jane gave him a_ good beating. Nanette, the gentle, took his part, turned on the lady, and would have se- verely bitten her had she not been taken off. For two months after, when- ever the Lady Jane ap- proached Nanette, she would fly into a pas- sion, scolding, trying to bite, and showing every sign of hate possible to the race of Macacus. . But Bob had only con- Diinintaeie. tempt for feminine wrath and its manifestations. Whenever Nanette made any demonstration against the lady, Bob would seize her and bite her in the neck until she cried for pain. But all this time she would not look at him, but kept her wrathful eyes fixed on the lady, willing to suffer anything rather than have Bob’s feelings hurt. Nanette would often leap into the lap of her keeper, seeking the caresses she did not always secure from Bob. This she would do with the manners of a lapdog or a pampered cat. But Bob ; ie “ i, of at £ ame bree ee ak: ¥ ety Ke Neg: ee ™ eo ~* ing? roe Ne ge tie eu

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Oey tee os beg ea ee 2 etn Seg 5 ge 2-24) " Aietcation Bic. she ay bl impeieys? bande NG laaanibieti Satins es Ole tee og HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 153 never sought caresses. He was always serious, never in the least playful or sentimental. Any new proposition he always takes seriously. He expects the worst, and scowls and shows his teeth until the matter is thoroughly understood, when he usually be- comes indifferent. : One day the children vexed him overmuch, and breaking his chain he came out among them. They fled in consternation, all but the younger one, who was a brave little knight and who stood his ground, though at’the cost of a serious biting. And thus it came that after two years of freedom Bob has returned to the curiosity ghop in Kearny Street—not the one on the right as you go up Pine Street, but the other one, where the red-tailed parrots scold and swear, and among whose oaths you may hear all the varied languages of the south sea islands, And there in a little iron cage he remains cramped and unhappy. All day long he rolls back his sneering lips, shakes the cage by pulling against the bars, and swings himself to and fro, trying to overturn the cage and cast it on the floor. And here he waits till his ransom is paid again. Fifteen dollars, I believe, is the sum at which it is fixed. Whoever does this wili open for him the door to another series of adventures. HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? By Pror. WARREN UPHAM. = the memory of men now living, and especially dur- ing the last thirty years, the processes of the creation of the earth and its inhabitants, of the solar system, and of the starry heavens, have come to be understood in a very different way from that in which they were thought of by our fathers and forefathers. Instead of the former belief that divine fiats at suc- cessive times suddenly spoke into existence the forms of animal and plant life now occupying the earth, the earlier faunas and floras found fossil in the rocks, and at still earlier dates the earth itself, the sun, and the ertire astronomic universe, it is now recog- nized and confidently accepted on all sides that all animals and plants, the globe which we inhabit, and the sun and stars, have been created through slow processes of development, which are well denominated evolution—that is, an unrolling or unfolding. These changes have been in progress during unnumbered and in- conceivably long ages; they are still going forward; and they will probably continue as far into the unfathomable future as they have come to us through the dimly and in part somewhat clearly discerned past. To us whoare borne upon its bosom this current VOL, XLIV.—13

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154 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. seems like the lower Amazon, too broad for us to see its banks, coming from the high Andes and the lower plains, and going to its rest in the ocean. According to the well-approved nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace, the material of our earth and moon became sepa- rated from the condensing mass of the sun after the outer planets had been similarly produced, but before the birth of Venus and Mercury. At early stages in the condensation of the revolving nebula, it had thrown off successively the portions of matter ‘which were afterward gathered, by their independent condensa- tion and revolution, to form Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars; while another portion, which was probably never united like the other planets, made the many smell asteroids. The mat- ter which has been changed into our splendidly luminous sun was at one time very attenuated and occupied the whole space inclosed by the orbit of the outermost planet, which was developed from a comparatively very small cloud or ring of this matter, centrifu- gally detached from the revolving exceedingly tenuous mass. In like manner the material of each of the planets, including the earth, was shed from the whirling nebula at times during its decrease in volume when its circumference was approximately coincident with their orbits. Again, in their turn the planetary masses have undergone the same evolutionary process, taking a rotary motion and throw- ing off, as they condensed, the material which now circles about them in the shape of moons and rings. In the case of our own planet and its single large satellite, probably the far greater part of the original cloud or ring whence they were produced had assumed a somewhat globular or discoid form and taken a move- ment of revolution which still continues as the earth’s daily rota- tion, before the moon’s mass was separated from that of the earth. It seems to me, however, very improbable that the present contour of our globe should preserve, as suggested by Fisher, the scars of this loss in the depressions of the deep’ocean basins. Many relatively small portions of the ring of matter produc- ing the earth and moon may have become early separated from the chief condensing mass, and after its division in our globe and its satellite have been drawn by gravitation into them, marring the face of the moon, as Gilbert supposes, with its multitudes of both small and very large crateriform scars. On the earth, too, if this hypothesis be true, such falling asteroid-like bodies must - also have made similar small and huge blots by their violent im- pact; but they evidently were effaced by the slow processes of atmospheric and stream erosion, or in basin areas were deeply covered by sediments, before the formation of the oldest of our

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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 155 fossiliferous strata. The absence of either air or water on the moon has allowed the steep and jagged mountain rims of the deeply depressed lunar craters to remain nearly unchanged from the almost inconceivably remote time, according to this view, when the asteroid bombardment of the moon was completed. Geology, or the science of the earth’s changes and develop- ment, deals with the rocks forming the crust of our globe. From their stratigraphic sequence and the successive fossil faunas and floras found in them, the geologist gathers the history of the sedi- mentation or volcanic eruption of the rocks and the concurrent changes of animal and plant life. Moreover, by reasoning from the physical condition and structure of the rock formations, from volcanic action, earthquakes, and the upheaval of continents and mountain ranges, he conjectures what may be the condition of the deep interior of the earth, through its observed influence upon the crust. Both these phases of the science have yielded estimates of the age of the earth, the former based on the geologic processes of erosion and deposition, the latter on the earth’s loss of internal heat, the magnitude and the effects of the oceanic tides, and other conditions whose investigation belongs more specially to the physicist and astronomer. Each takes up the question for the later part of the earth’s planetary existence, after it was so far condensed and cooled that it had already attained approximately its present size and was enveloped by a crust which, through many stages of diverse changes, has continued to the present day. The estimates derived from these two directions of inquiry, however, differ considerably among themselves, and especially it is noticeable that in general the physical and astronomical inves- tigations of the question yield smaller estimates than those drawn from stratigraphic and paleontologic data. Sir William Thom- son (now Lord Kelvin) long ago estimated, from his study of the earth’s internal heat, its increase from the surface downward, and the rate of its loss by radiation into space, that the time since the consolidation of the surface of the globe has been somewhere between twenty million and four hundred million years, and that most probably this time and all the geologic record must be limited within one hundred million years. Mr. Clarence King, from very careful experiments on the volcanic rock diabase, sup- posed to represent the average constitution of the earth’s crust, when subjected to extremes of heat and pressure, applying his results in the same way as Lord Kelvin, has within the present year published his conclusion that the earth’s duration measures only about twenty-four million years. Prof. George H. Darwin computes, from the influence of tidal friction in retarding the earth’s rotation, that probably only fifty-seven million years have elapsed since the moon’s mass was shed from the revolving molten

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156 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. earth, long before the formation of its crust. From the same arguments and the rate at which the sun is losing its store of heat, Prof. Guthrie Tait affirms that apparently ten million years are as much as physical science can allow to the geologist. Prof. Newcomb writes: “If the sun had, in the beginning, filled all space, the amount of heat generated by his contraction to his present volume would have been sufficient to last eighteen million years at his present rate of radiation. . .. Ten million years... is, therefore, near the extreme limit of time that we can suppose water to have existed on the earth in the fluid state.” Not only the earth but even the whole solar system, according to Newcomb, “must have had a beginning within a certain number of years which we can not yet calculate with certainty, but which can not much exceed twenty million, and it must end.” The geologist demurs against these latter far too meager allot- ments of time for the wonderful, diversified, and surely vastly long history which he has patiently made out in his perusal of the volume of science disclosed by the rocks. He can apparently do very well with Lord Kelvin’s original estimate, but must respectfully dissent from the less liberal opinions noted. Some- where in the assumed premises which yield to mathematicians these narrow limits of time, there must be conditions which do not accord with the actual constitution of the sun and earth. It must be gratefully acknowledged, however, in the camp of the geologists, that we owe to these researches a beneficial check against the notion once prevalent that geologic time extends back practically without limit; and it is most becoming for us care- fully to inquire how closely the apparently conflicting testimonies of geology and physics may be brought into harmony by revision of each. Among all the means afforded by geology for direct estimates of the earth’s duration, doubtless the most reliable is through comparing the present measured rate of denudation of continental areas with the aggregate of the greatest determined thickness of the strata referable to the successive time divisions. The fac- tors of this method of estimate, however, are in considerable part uncertain, or dependent on the varying opinions of different geologists. According to Sir Archibald Geikie, in his presiden- tial address a year ago before the British Association, the time thus required for the formation of all the stratified rocks of the earth’s crust may range from a minimum of seventy-three million up to a maximum of six hundred and eighty million years. Prof. Samuel Haughton obtains in this way, “for the whole duration of geological time a minimum of two hundred million years,” On the other hand, smaller results are reached through the same method by Dana, who conjectures that the earth’s age may be

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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 157 about forty-eight million years since the formation of the oldest fossiliferous rocks; and by Alfred Russel Wallace, who concludes that this time has probably been only about twenty-eight million years. With these, rather than with the foregoing, we may also place Mr. T. Mellard Reade’s recent estimate of ninety-five million years, similarly derived. Again, Mr. C. D. Walcott, in his vice- presidential address before Section E of the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science, in its meeting last August, gave his opinion, from a study of the sedimentary rocks of the western Cordilleran area of the United States, that the duration of time since the Archean era has been probably some forty-five million years. Selecting the lowest of these various estimates as the nearest in accord with the conclusions of physical and astronomical science, let us scrutinize the processes of Wallace’s measurements and computations. It has been found that the rates at which rivers are lowering the altitudes of their basins by the transpor- tation of sediments to the sea vary from an average of one foot taken from the land surface of its hydrographic basin by the river Po in seven hundred and thirty years, to one foot by the Danube in six thousand eight hundred years. As a mean for all the rivers of the world, Wallace assumes that the erosion from all the land surface is one foot in three thousand years. The sedi- ments are laid down in the sea on an average within thirty miles from the coast, and all the coast lines of the earth have a total measured length, according to Dr. James Croll and Mr. Wallace, of about one hundred thousand miles, so that the deposition is almost wholly confined to an area of about three million square miles. This area is one nineteenth as large as the earth’s total land area; hence it will receive sediment nineteen times as fast as the land is denuded, or at the rate of about nineteen feet of strati- fied beds in three thousand years, which would give one foot in one hundred and fifty-eight years. With this Wallace compares the total maxima of all the sedimentary rocks of the series of geologic epochs, measured in whatever part of the earth they are found to have their greatest development. Prof. Haughton esti- mates their aggregate to be one hundred and seventy-seven thou- sand two hundred feet, which, multiplied by one hundred and fifty-eight, gives approximately twenty-eight million years as the time required for the deposition of the rock strata in the various districts where they are thickest and have most fully escaped erosion and redeposition. Most readers, following this argument, would infer that it must give too large rather than too scanty an estimate of geologic duration; but to many students of the earth’s stratigraphy it seems more probably deficient than excessive. All must confess

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158 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. that the argument rests upon many indeterminate premises, since the total extent of the land areas and the depths of the oceans have probably been increasing through the geologic eras, and the effects of tides have probably diminished. The imperfection of the geologic record, so impressively shown by Charles Darwin in respect to the sequence of plants and animals found fossil in the rocks, will also be appealed to as opposing the assumption that the one hundred and seventy-seven thousand two hundred feet, or thirty-three and a half miles, of strata represent the whole, or indeed any more than a small fraction, of the earth’s history. To myself, however, this last objection seems unfounded, since in many extensive and clearly conformable sections observed on a grand scale in crossing broad areas, there is seen to have been evidently continuous deposition during several or many successive geologic epochs; and by combining such sections from different regions a record of sedimentation is made well-nigh complete from the earliest Paleozoic morning of life to its present high noon. But perhaps we may do better to change somewhat the premises of our computation, in view of the extensive regions where the rock strata remain yet to be thoroughly explored, and because of cer- tain large inland tracts having little rain and therefore no drain- age into the sea. If we assume that the total maxima of strata amount to fifty miles, and that the mean rate of the land denuda- tion is only one foot in six thousand years,-we then obtain a result three times greater than before, or about eighty-four mil- lion years for the deposition of the stratified rocks. Another method of considering this problem is afforded by the determination of one term in a sequence of ratios, whereby the sum of the whole becomes known. Though geologists differ widely in their estimates of the earth’s age, up to the seven thou- sand million years claimed by McGee, in an address last year before the American Association, they are approximately in agreement as to the ratios of the several great divisions of geo- logic time. From the thicknesses of the strata and the changes in the animal and plant life, it is comparatively easy to determine the relative lengths of the successive eras, while yet it is very difficult to decide beyond doubt even the approximate length in years of any part of the record. The portions for which we have the best means of determining their lengths are the Glacial and recent periods, the latter extending from the Champlain epoch, or closing stage of the ice age to the present time, while these two divisions, the Glacial or Pleistocene period and the recent, make up the Quaternary era. If we can only ascertain somewhat nearly what has been the duration of this era, from the oncoming of the Ice age until now, it will serve as a known quantity to be used as the multiplier for giving us the approximate or probable meas-

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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 159 ures in years for the recedingly earlier and far longer Tertiary, Mesozoic or Secondary, Palswozoic or Primary, and Archzan or Beginning eras, which last takes us back almost or quite to the time when the cooling molten earth became first enveloped with a solid crust. Haughton has estimated time ratios from two series of data. His results deduced from the maximum thickness of the strata for the three grand divisions of Archean, Palzozoic, and subse- quent time, expressed in percentages, are 34°3 : 42°5 : 23°2; and from his computations as to the secular cooling of the earth, 33°0: 41°0 : 26°0. The ratios reached by Profs. J. D. Dana and Alexan- der Winchell from the thicknesses of the rock strata are closely harmonious, the durations of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic time being to each other as 12:3:1. The Tertiary and Quater- nary ages, the latter extending to the present day, which are here united as the Cenozoic era, Dana would rank approximately in the ratio of 3: 1, giving to the Quaternary a sixty-fourth part of all time since the beginning of the Cambrian period, to which our earliest well-preserved fossil faunas belong. For reasons to be stated later, I think that this estimate of the relative length of Quaternary time is greatly exaggerated; but this would not sen- sibly affect the general ratios. Prof. W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, without speaking definitely of the lapse of time. by years, has endeavored to give some conception of what these and like estimates of geologic ratios really mean, through a translation of them into terms of a linear scale. Starting with the representation of the postglacial or recent period, since the North American ice-sheet was melted away, as two inches, he estimates that the beginning of the Ter- tiary erosion of the Hudson River gorge through the Highlands would be expressed by a distance of ten feet; that the Triassic reptilian tracks in the sandstone of the Connecticut Valley would be probably fifty feet distant; that the formation of the coal beds of Pennsylvania would be eighty or one hundred feet back from the present time; and that the Middle Cambrian trilobites of Braintree, Mass., would be two hundred, three hundred, or four hundred feet from us. Having such somewhat definite and agreeing ratios, derived from various data by different investigators, can we secure the factor by which they should be multiplied to yield the approxi- mate duration of geologic epochs, periods, and eras, in years? If on the scale used by Prof. Davis we could substitute a certain time for the period since the departure of the ice-sheet, we should thereby at once determine, albeit with some vagueness and ac- knowledged latitude for probable error, how much time has passed since the Triassic tracks were made, the coal deposited, and the

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160 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. trilobites entombed in the Cambrian slates. Now, just this latest and present division of the geologic record, following the Ice age, is the only one for which geologists find sufficient data to permit direct measurements or estimates of its duration. “The glacial invasion from which New England and other northern countries have lately escaped,” remarks Davis, “ was prehistoric, and yet it should not be regarded as ancient.” In various localities we are able to measure the present rate of erosion of gorges below waterfalls, and the length of the post- glacial gorge divided by the rate of recession of the falls gives approximately the time since the Ice age. Such measurements of the gorge and Falls of St. Anthony by Prof. N. H. Winchell show the length of the postglacial or recent period to have been about eight thousand years; and from the surveys of Niagara Falls Mr. G. K. Gilbert believes it to have been seven thousand years, more or less. From the rates of wave-cutting along the sides of Lake Michigan and the consequent accumulation of sand around the south end of the lake, Dr. E. Andrews estimates that the land there became uncovered from its ice-sheet not more than sev- enty-five hundred years ago. Prof. G. Frederick Wright obtains a similar result from the rate of filling of kettle-holes among the gravel knolls and ridges called kames and eskers, and like- wise from the erosion of valleys by streams tributary to Lake Erie; and Prof. Benjamin K. Emerson, from the rate of deposition of modified drift in the Connecticut Valley at Northampton, Mass., thinks that the time since the Glacial period can not exceed ten thousand years. An equally small estimate is also indicated by the studies of Gilbert and Russell for the time since the last great rise of the Quaternary lakes Bonneville and Lahontan, lying in Utah and Nevada, within the arid Great Basin of interior drain- age, which are believed to have been contemporaneous with the great extension of ice-sheets upon the northern part of our con- tinent. Prof. James Geikie maintains that the use of paleolithic im- plements had ceased, and that early man in Europe made neolithic (polished) implements, before the recession of the ice-sheet from Scotland, Denmark, and the Scandinavian peninsula; and Prest- wich suggests that the dawn of civilization in Egypt, China, and India may have been coeval with the glaciation of northwestern Europe. In Wales and Yorkshire the amount of denudation of limestone rocks on which bowlders lie has been regarded by Mr. D. Mackintosh as proof that a period of not more than six thou- sand years has elapsed since the bowlders were left in their posi- tions. The vertical extent of this denudation, averaging. about six inches, is nearly the same with that observed in the southwest part of the province of Quebec by Sir William Logan and Dr.

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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 161 Robert Bell, where veins of quartz marked with glacial striz stand out to various heights not exceeding one foot above the weathered surface of the inclosing limestone. From this wide range of concurrent but independent testimo- nies we may accept it as practically demonstrated that the ice- sheets disappeared from North America and Europe some six to ten thousand years ago. But having thus found the value of one term in our ratios of geologic time divisions, we may know them all approximately by its substitution. The two inches assumed to represent the postglacial portion of the Quaternary era may be called eight thousand years; then, according to the proportional estimates by Davis, the Triassic period was probably two million four hundred thousand years ago; the time since the Carbonifer- ous period,in the closing part of the Paleozoic era, has been about four or five million years; and since the middle of the Cam- brian period, twice or perhaps four times as long. Continuing this series still further back, the earliest Cambrian fossils may be twenty or twenty-five million years old, and the beginning of life on our earth was not improbably twice as long ago. Seeking to substitute our measure of postglacial time in Dana’s ratios, we are met by the difficulty of ascertaining first its proportion to the preceding Glacial period, and then the ratio which these two together bear to the Tertiary era. It would fill a very large volume to rehearse all the diverse opinions current among glacialists concerning the history of the Ice age, its won- derful climatic vicissitudes, and the upward and downward move- ments of the lands which are covered with the glacial drift. Many eminent glacialists, as James Geikie, Wahnschaffe, Penck, De Geer, Chamberlin, Salisbury, Shaler, McGee, and others, be- lieve that the Ice age was complex, having two, three, or more epochs of glaciation, divided by long interglacial epochs of mild and temperate climate when the ice-sheets were entirely or mainly melted away. Prof. Geikie claims five distinct glacial epochs, as indicated by fossiliferous beds lying between deposits of till or unstratified glacial drift, and by other evidences of great climatic changes. In this country Mr. McGee recognizes at least three glacial epochs. The astronomic theory of Croll attributes the accumulation of ice-sheets to recurrent cycles which bring the winters of each polar hemisphere of the earth alternately into aphelion and perihelion each twenty-one thousand years during the periods of maximum eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. Its last period of this kind was from about two hundred and forty thou- sand to eighty thousand years ago, allowing room for seven or eight such cycles and alternations of glacial and interglacial con- ditions. The supposed evidence of interglacial epochs therefore gave to this theory a wide credence; but the recent determina- VOL, XLtv.—14

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162 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tions of the geologic brevity of the time since the ice-sheets dis- appeared from North America and Europe make it clear, in the opinions even of some of the geologists who believe in a duality or plurality of Quaternary Glacial epochs, that not astronomic but geographic causes produced the Ice age. Glacialists who reject Croll’s ingenious and brilliant theory mostly appeal to great preglacial altitude of the land as the chief cause of the ice accumulation, citing as proof of such altitude the fiords and submarine valleys which on the shores of Scandinavia, and the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific coasts of North America, descend from one thousand to three thousand and even four thou- sand feet below the sea level, testifying of former uplifts of these continental areas so much above their present heights. But beneath the enormous weights of their ice-sheets these lands sank, so that when the ice attained its maximum area and thickness and during its departure the areas on which it lay were depressed somewhat lower than now and have since been re-elevated. This view to account for the observed records of the Glacial period is held by Dana, Le Conte, Wright, Jamieson, and others, including the present writer. It is believed to be consistent either with the doctrine of two or more glacial epochs during the Quaternary era, or with the reference of all the glacial drift to a single glacial epoch, which is thought by Wright, Prestwich, Lamplugh, Fal- san, Holst, Nikitin, and others to be more probable. To myself, though formerly accepting two glacial epochs with a long warm interval between them, the essential continuity of the Ice age seems now the better provisional hypothesis, to be held with can- dor for weighing evidence on either side. The duration of the Ice age, if there was only one epoch of glaciation, with moderate temporary retreats and readvances of the ice border sufficient to allow stratified beds with the remains of animals and plants to be intercalated between accumulations of till, may only have comprised a few tens of thousands of years. On this point Prof. Prestwich has well written as follows: “For the reasons before given, I think it possible that the Glacial epoch —that is to say, the epoch of extreme cold—may not have lasted longer than from fifteen thousand to twenty-five thousand years, and I would for the same reasons limit the time of . . . the melt- ing away of the ice-sheet to from eight thousand to ten thousand years or less.” From these and foregoing estimates, which seem to me accept- able, we have the probable length of Glacial and postglacial time together thirty thousand or forty thousand years, more or less; but an equal or considerably longer preceding time, while the areas that became covered by ice were being uplifted to great altitudes, may perhaps with good reason be also included in the Quaternary

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HOW OLD IS THE EARTH? 163 era, which then would comprise some one hundred thousand years. Comparing the Tertiary era with the Quaternary, however, I can not agree with Prof. Dana’s estimate that the latter was a third as long as the former, and am quite at a loss to discern evidences justifying that view. The best means for learning their ratio I think to be found in the changes of faunas and floras since the beginning of the Tertiary era, using especially the marine mol- luscan faunas as most valuable for this comparison. Scarcely any species of marine mollusks have become extinct or undergone important changes during the Glacial and recent periods; but since the Eocene dawn of the Tertiary neurly all of these species have come into existence. Judged upon this basis, the Tertiary era seems probably fifty or a hundred times longer than the Ice age and subsequent time; in other words, it may well have lasted two million or even four million years. Taking the mean of these numbers, or three million years, for Cenozoic time, or the Quater- nary and Tertiary ages together, we have precisely the value of Prof. Dana’s ratios which he himself assumes for conjectural illustration, namely, forty-eight million years since the Cambrian period began. But the diversified types of animal life in the earliest Cambrian faunas surely imply a long antecedent time for their development, on the assumption that the Creator worked be- fore then as during the subsequent ages in the evolution of all living creatures. According to these ratios, therefore, the time needed for the deposition of the earth’s stratified rocks and the unfolding of its plant and animal life must be about a hundred million years. Reviewing the several results independently reached through the geologic estimates and ratios supplied by Wallace, Dana, and Davis, we are much impressed and convinced of their approximate truth by their somewhat good agreement among themselves, which seems as close as the nature of the problem would lead us to expect, and by their all coming within the limit of one hundred million years which Sir William Thomson estimated on physical grounds. This limit of probable geologic duration seems there- fore fully worthy to take the place of the once almost unlimited assumptions of geologists and writers on the evolution of life, that the time at their disposal has been practically infinite. No other more important conclusion in the natural sciences, directly and indirectly modifying our conceptions in a thousand ways, has been reached during this century.

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164 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. MODERN WAR VESSELS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY. By W. A. DOBSON, M.S.N. A. ILtustRATED BY CHARLES C. DODGE. T the close of the civil war the United States possessed a navy consisting in the main of monitors, double and single turreted, and a large fleet of wooden vessels of various types and classes; they were armed principally with smooth-bore guns and Parrott rifles, all of which were muzzle-loading ; but the four years of strife which developed the monitor, the fifteen-inch gun with its mammoth powder, and the destructive capabilities of the torpedo were destined to overthrow Old World ideas of battle- ship requirements, to turn the thoughts of naval men abroad in entirely new and novel directions, and to inaugurate a new sys- tem of design and construction. Among the forms of naval architecture developed by the exigencies of the war the most notable is the monitor type, and therein contained was the germ from which was to spring a new development of war vessels, for, although the nation was so worn with the long struggle that it was glad to turn the energies that had been devoted to the enter- prises of war to the pursuits of peace, and found itself too heavily burdened with debt to embody its naval experience in a new navy, the lessons given in naval construction and war- fare were eagerly seized upon by European naval architects, and from the monitor of Ericsson, combined with Timby’s re- volving fort and its successors, was evolved the battle-ship of to-day. The United States having thus laid down the broad lines along which was to be developed the present fighting machine, with its steel built-up rifled guns, the slow-burning smokeless powder, the automobile and dirigible torpedoes, contented itself for the next decade and a half with building a few vessels of iron, building and repairing its wooden vessels, and converting the smooth-bore guns into makeshift rifles. Abroad, the navies of France and England adopted the monitor idea of protection to hull and machinery by means of vertical side armor, extending from a few feet below to a few feet above the load line, sur- mounted by a flat armored deck, with the guns placed in re- volving forts or turrets, protected by walls of heavy armor; and in order to increase the habitability and sea-going qualities, light upper or false works were erected upon the armor deck, in which were placed the quarters and secondary armament. In order to obtain a hull structure sufficiently light and strong to allow a considerable amount of displacement to be devoted

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166 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. to purposes of protection, a style of construction now universally adopted and known as cellular was developed by Sir E. J. Reed, then chief constructor of the British Navy, in which the maxi- mum of strength with the minimum of weight was sought after and very fairly obtained. Then began, what has continued to this day, the race between armor and armament; the makers of armor striving to make plates that would effectually resist the largest guns, and the gun-makers using every means at their command to produce guns capable of breaking up or pene- trating the heaviest armor. The outcome is, on the side of armor, the solid steel plate with a face case-hardened by the Harvey process—a face so hard that no drill will in the slightest degree affect it, and this extreme hardness gradually shaded off to a soft back to prevent through cracks. On the other hand is the steel built-up breech-loading gun, with a length of from thirty-five to forty-five times its diameter of bore, using slow-burning powder, having low initial pressures and giving a muzzle velocity from two thousand to twenty-five hundred feet per second, and special steel armor-piercing projectiles for the purpose of racking or breaking up the armor and then piercing the hull. This competition has indi- rectly opened up a new material of some twenty per centum great- er strength when compared with wrought iron, known as mild steel, Fic. 2.—lowa. Section through Armor. which naval architects are em- ploying to enable them to produce lighter structures, and to use the weight saved in giving greater thickness to the armor, increased armament, or added power and speed, as the necessities of the design contemplated may demand. Shortly after the introduction of this material, or in 1882, the Congress of the United States appropriated for the construction of three cruisers and one dispatch boat, which are now familiar to us all under the names of the Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, and Dolphin ; fortunately for our Government, its corps of naval con- structors and engineers had by repeated visits to the ship-yards and gun factories abroad, and a close study of the principles in- volved in the new methods of construction, kept themselves fully

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MODERN WAR VESSELS OF THE UNITED STATES. 167 abreast of the progress being made in shipbuilding, marine engi- neering, and naval artillery, and were thus enabled when the opportunity was given by Congress to promptly take up the work of rehabilitating the navy, and carry it forward success- fully. Congress in its appropriation had stipulated that the new vessels were to be constructed of steel; this meant a consid- erable outlay in capital to the metal producers of the country, who, with the exception of some firms making a specialty of tool steel, had been en- gaged mainly in the manufacture of wrought iron. However, having full confidence in the determination of Congress to give the country a new navy, they did not hesitate to at once install plants capa- ble of manufactur- ing steel suitable for shipbuilding and boiler con- struction, of steel of a higher grade for the construc- tion of high-pow- ered built-up guns, and of producing steel for armor plates weighing from thirty to forty tons each. It is worthy of note that sesl2. Fic. 3.—lowa. Midship Section. C, ©, C, coal; P, P, P, passages. these industries, built up within a decade under the stimulus given by the rebuilding of the navy, to-day challenge the world to produce better material. So rapid has been the progress of our manufacturers, and so fully have all demands upon them been met, that one of our shipbuilding firms is now constructing two mammoth steamers for the Inman International Line, whose ves-

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168 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY. sels have, since its organization, been constructed on the other side of the Atlantic. The types of war vessels considered by naval authorities to be best suited to the needs of our service may be classed in general terms as battle-ships, armored cruisers, protected cruisers, har- bor-defense monitors, gunboats, torpedo-boats (surface and sub- marine), and rams. The uses and functions of each type differ greatly; some of the more prominent may be broadly stated here. Taking first the battle-ships, we find them to be, of all the types of war vessels, the most powerful in the feature of offense and de- fense ; they are intended to stand and fight, to give and take blows like giants in a prize ring ; and the reason can be plainly seen when we appreciate the fact that an enemy can bring his battle-ship within twelve miles of our large seaboard cities, and there tak- ing up a position of vantage, secure from any attack by land, shell the city; the only vessel, then, that can dispute posses- sion with him point by point is a ship of similar powers of do- ing battle, however successful an attack by torpedo-boat, either surface or submarine, may be when the conditions are suita- ble. The points, therefore, to be emphasized in the design are protection and armament, or the power to deliver heavy blows with the ability to withstand those of its antagonist; with ma ee these must be combined power Section through Coffer Dams, ete. to enable it to act on the offen- sive, such as speed, endurance, habitability, and form of hull that will insure seaworthiness. As a purely harbor-defense vessel the monitor stands pre-emi- nent, the entire hull and battery being protected by armor, and at the same time offering such a small target that it is extremely difficult to hit; but its military value is very seriously impaired when in a seaway, by the short distance of the guns above the water, it being impossible to use them in a heavy sea. Perhaps the vessels most useful for all-around work are the armored cruisers, as they are intended to have great speed, great endurance, guns capable of coping with vessels inferior only to battle-ships, with a very considerable amount of protection afforded to the hull and Na Sw“ SAN ANS 808 98 > SSANS Oras x . s SS ¢ ‘ ¢ ¢ 4 4 ¢ . 4 4 4 4 4 ¢ . Sd SAAN sts s

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170 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. armament; their function in war is to capture the commerce-de- stroyers of the enemy, to act as commerce-destroyers themselves, and to convoy and protect fleets of large and fast merchant ves- sels. To accomplish these purposes great speed is necessary, either to overtake or convoy swift merchantmen ; great endurance or coal supply, to enable them to keep the sea for long periods on the path usually frequented by merchant vessels; and offensive and defensive power sufficient to enable them to successfully re- sist the attacks of vessels of their own class. The type next in im- portance and general use- fulness is styled the pro- tected cruiser, or those whose only protection against injury consists of sloping armor decks of varying thickness, in combination with coffer dams filled with water- excluding material and closely divided compart- ments in the region of the line of flotation. The characteristics of this type are not capable of being so clearly defined as those already consid- ered, as they include such widely differing vessels as the triple-screw Co- lumbia of 7,350 tons dis- placement, the Olympia Fic. 6.—Brooxiyn. Midship Section. of 5,500 tons, down to Er ee ella eee cruisers of 2,000 and 3,000 sik tons displacement as rep- resented by the Cincinnati and Detroit. Their function is a varied though exceedingly useful one; some are designed particu- larly for preying upon the commerce of an enemy so as to cripple its resources, the most notable examples being the Columbia of our own and the Blake of the British Navy. Speed and endurance are the features emphasized, combined with guns of light caliber for dedling with unarmed vessels;

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ls. ld ie y= MODERN WAR VESSELS OF THE UNITED STATES. 173 others again, like the Chicago, Newark, Baltimore, and San Fran- cisco, are designed for purposes of general utility, such as protect- ing our mercantile interests abroad, the one feature emphasized being endurance, with those of speed, protection, and armament very fairly developed. Our gunboats of the Yorktown and Machias types are miniature cruisers, except that speed has been sacrificed to enable them to carry heavy batteries; at present they are con- structed entirely of steel, although many fruitless efforts have been made to adopt in this class the style of construction known as composite—that is, all the parts of steel as is customary, except the outer covering of the hull, which is formed of wood planking coppered instead of steel plating. This system has been most earnestly and ably advocated by Chief Naval Constructor Philip Hichborn, and has formed the subject of special reports by him to the Navy Department, but the wording of the congressional appropriations has been such as to preclude its adoption. The advantages to be gained are cheapness and ease of main- tenance, freedom from fouling and consequent ease of propulsion, with the ability to keep the sea for long periods without being docked. All vessels of war are in a certain sense compromises between speed, endurance, protection, and armament; no one fea- ture can be largely developed without corresponding sacrifices in the development of the others: for example,if great speed is re- quired, it entails machinery of great power and weight with a large supply of coal; the weights, therefore, of the other main features must necessarily be reduced in order to emphasize that of speed ; therefore, when Congress has appropriated for a certain type of vessel and fixed the limit of cost, a very careful study of all existing vessels of the desired type is made by the designing staff of the construction department, the particular requirements of the service are considered, the features to be emphasized deter- mined, and the results embodied in a carefully prepared design. It is a very usual custom, and perhaps a natural one, for the press, when the design is made public, to compare it with some similar vessel of a foreign navy whose conditions of service are very dissimilar, sometimes to the seeming disadvantage of the proposed vessel, especially when such criticism may have been suggested by private builders who desire greater latitude in certain directions, and the general public may receive the im- pression that the best has not been attained; but to those who know the care and study given to the preparation of the design in view of the service required, and are able to comprehend fully its military value, the conclusion is very different. Tak- ing, then, our battle-ships, we find the highest representative in the Iowa (Fig. 1), now building at the Messrs. Cramp’s, which has a displacement of 11,250 tons, and carries a battery of four

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174 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. 12-inch, eight 8-inch, and ten 4-inch breech-loading guns, be- sides twenty machine guns and six tubes for discharging 18-inch automobile torpedoes. It is one thing for a vessel to carry a large battery capable of firing a tremendous weight of metal when all the manipulating apparatus is in perfect order, but quite another in these days of high explosives to have that battery and appa- ratus securely protected from the guns of its antagonist, therefore the 12-inch forty-four-ton guns of the Iowa are mounted in pairs in turrets having walls of solid steel fifteen inches thick, and protected from the water-line up by steel of the same thickness, which effectually protects the loading, turning, and controlling mechanisms. In order that these guns may be fought in heavy weather the forward turret is placed on a forecastle deck with the axis of the guns some twenty-five feet above the load line, and has a train of three hundred degrees, or only sixty less than a complete circle; the after 12-inch guns are mounted in the same manner, but on a deck seven feet nearer the load line. Both for- ward and after turrets are placed in the mid line of the vessel, in order to have a great train and be as free as possible from the motion due to rolling; the turrets are revolved by steam power at the rate of one revolution per minute. Some idea of the power of these guns may be obtained from the following data: The weight of one powder charge is four hundred and twenty- five pounds; that of the projectile, eight hundred and fifty pounds; its muzzle velocity, 2,100 feet, or four tenths of a mile per second; the muzzle energy, 25,985 foot tons, or capable of raising that amount one foot in a minute, with a penetration in wrought iron of 27°6 inches. The 8-inch guns are also mounted in turrets, having great range, and are protected by armor vary- ing from ten inches to seven inches and a half in thickness; the ten 4-inch guns, each discharging projectiles of thirty-six pounds weight at the rate of ten rounds per minute, are protected by fixed segmental shields four inches thick. While so much has been done to develop the battery and its protection, the features of defense, stability, speed, and endurance have received most careful attention ; the magazines, boilers, en- gines, steering mechanism, etc., are all inclosed in a belt of steel, covering about sixty-five per cent of the load-line area, of a maxi- mum thickness of fourteen inches, and extending fr im three feet above to five feet below the load line; at the upper edge of this is worked from side to side of the vessel a horizontal deck three inches thick (see Figs. 2 and 3); above this, to protect the stability, a steel belt four inches in thickness is worked to the main deck, and at the unarmored ends double coffer dams six feet wide, the outer one filled with obturating and the inner one with water-excluding material, are provided as shown in Fig. 4.

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MODERN WAR VESSELS OF THE UNITED STATES. 177 Great care has been given the water-tight subdivision, both above and below the armor belt, in order to prevent a catas- trophe such as that which befell the Victoria; especially above the armor belt, where the subdivision of that unfortunate vessel was very weak, has the Iowa received most careful attention. The machinery is capable of developing 11,000 horse power, and will propel the vessel at a speed of seventeen knots per hour; the engines are of the triple-expansion type, being inverted, direct acting, and surface-condensing, driving twin screws. The coal supply is sufficient when steaming at ten knots to admit of cross- ing the Atlantic and back without recoaling. The United States steamship New York (Fig. 5), which lately created so much enthusiasm on account of her remarkable development of speed, is of the armored-cruiser type; but the Brooklyn, now being built under contract, is a very distinct advance upon the general design of the New York, and will here be taken as the exponent of her type. We find her to be provided with sufficient power to drive her at the rate of twenty-one knots or twenty-four miles per hour, and to have a coal supply of 1,800 tons, which will give her a very large radius of action. The main battery carried is eight 8-inch and twelve 5-inch breech-loading rifles; the 8-inch guns are mounted in pairs in turrets, protected by steel armor seven and a half and five inches in thickness; the 5-inch guns and the battery of machine guns, eighteen in number, are pro- tected by steel armor varying in thickness from four to two inches. The protection to the hull, machinery, and magazines is afforded by a steel deck of a maximum thickness of six inches, being five feet below the load line at its outboard edges, and sloping upward and inward to the height of the load line on the flat portions, as shown in Fig. 6. Beneath this deck are placed engines, boilers, magazines, steer- ing gear, and electrical generating plant, in fact all such parts as would be injured by and disable the vessel if exposed to the enemy’s fire. To protect the stability an armored belt four inches in thickness is worked from the sloping armor to four feet above the load line for the space occupied by the engines and boilers, the object being to provide resistance sufficient to cause high- explosive shells to explode before entering the sides of the vessel. Inside of this and extending the whole length of the vessel is a coffer dam of obturating material, as shown in the outline mid- ship section, Fig. 6, and the spaces both above and below the armor deck are closely subdivided by longitudinal and athwart- ship bulkheads into many compartments in which coal and stores are stowed, thus as far as possible, with the means now at the command of the naval architect, precluding the dies i of the vessel when injured. VOL, xLIV.—15

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178 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. A class of vessels of much interest, on account of their great destructive capabilities when the conditions are suitable, is the torpedo vessel, of which the Ericsson (Fig. 7), now building, is a representative; they are lightly constructed and provided with powerful machinery to enable them to attain great speed, reach- ing as high as twenty-eight to thirty-five miles per hour. They are armed principally with torpedo-launching tubes from which are éjected, by compressed air, automobile torpedoes, capable of traveling at-a rate of speed of twenty knots per hour at a pre- determined depth. The boat or launching tube is trained directly upon the target, and the torpedoes are expelled in a direct line toward it, certain automatic rudders being acted upon by hydro- static pressure to enable them to keep their course. The head is fitted with a torpedo net-cutting device to enable the torpedo to pass through the net protecting the ship’s side and to explode against the side by impact. The most noteworthy achievement by this class of vessels was the blowing up and sinking of the Blanco Encalada by the Almirante Lynch during the late Chilian struggle. In closing this article it seems eminently proper to acknowl- edge the distinguished services and untiring zeal of ex-Chief Constructor Theodore D. Wilson, who for eleven years, or during the period of rehabilitation, has most ably shaped the general design and construction of the hulls of our war vessels. EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. By Pror. THOMAS H. HUXLEY, F.R. 5. [Concluded. } ‘ET us now set our faces westward, toward Agia Minor and Greece and Italy, to view the rise and pro of another philosophy, apparently independent, but no less pervaded by the conception of evolution.* * In ancient times it was the fashion, even among the Greeks themselves, to derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources; not long ago it was as generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection with Oriental speculation ; it seems probable, however, that the truth lies between these extremes. The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone. It is only one of several spo- radic indications of the working of some powerful mental ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the gean and northern Hindustan during the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries before our era. In these three hundred years prophetism attained its apogee among the Semites of Palestine; Zoroasterism grew and became the creed of a conquering race, the Iranic Aryans; Buddhism rose and spread with marvelous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindustan ; while scientific naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia. MAUS. nome pepe m ;

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t Ce a eRe ee Hi * — y ee ee Re 4 4 App Set SApigdtincsn's Afar * 1 AOE ». oes , ARs 3 #® ae ch ee ~ Sissies : 2 4 EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 179 The sages of Miletus were pronounced evolutionists; and, however dark may be some of the sayings of Heracleitus of Ephesus, who was probably a contemporary of Gautama, no It would be difficult to find another three centuries which have given birth to four events of equal importance. All the principal existing religions of mankind have grown out of the first three, while the fourth is the little spring, now swollen into the great stream of positive science. So far as physical possibilities go, the prophet Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher might have met and conversed. If they had done so they would prob- ably have disagreed a good deal; and it is interesting to reflect that their discussions might have embraced questions which at the present day are still hotly controverted. The old Ionian philosophy, then, seems to be only one of many results of a stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the Semitic populations of western Asia. The conditions of this general awakening were doubtless manifold: but there is one which modern research has brought into great prominence. This is the existence of extremely ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and of the Nile. It is now known that more than a thousand—perhaps more than two thousand—yeara before the sixth century B. c., civilization had attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the Egyptians. Not only had painting, sculpture, architecture, and the industrial arts, reached a remarkable development, but in Chaldea, at any rate, a vast amount of knowledge had been accumulated and methodized in the departments of gram- mar, mathematics, astronomy, and natural history. Where such tracks of the scientific spirit are visible naturalistic speculation is rarely far off, though, so far as I know, no re- mains of an Accadian or Egyptian philosophy, properly so called, have yet been recovered. Geographically, Chaldea occupied a central position among the oldest seats of civiliza- tion. Commerce, largely aided by the intervention of those colossal peddlers, the Phosni- cians, had brought Chaldea into connection with all of them for a thousand years before the epoch at present under consideration. And in the ninth, eighth, and seventh centuries the Assyrian, the depository of Chaldean civilization, as the Macedonian and the Roman, at a later date, were the depositories of Greek culture, had added irresistible force to the other agencies for the wide distribution of Chaldean literature, art, and science. I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek immigrants—who stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians and the Egyptians as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of the Empire—should not have been immensely influenced by the new life with which they became acquainted. But there is abundant direct evidence of the magnitude of this influence in certain spheres. I suppose it is not doubted that the Greek went to school with the Oriental for his primary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and that Semitic theology supplied him with some of his mythological lore. Nor does there now seem to be any question about the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldea and that of Egypt. But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive. The obligation is clear, but its limits are no less definite. Nothing better exemplifies the indomitable originality of the Greeks than the relations of their art to that of the Orientals. Far from being subdued into mere imitators by the technical excellence of their teachers, they lost no time in better- ing the instruction they received, using their models as mere stepping-stones on the way to those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all their own. The shibboleth of Art is the human figure. The ancient Chaldeans and Egyptians, like the modern Japan- ese, did wonders in the representation of birds and quadrupeds ; they even attained to some- thing more than respectability in human portraiture. But their utmost efforts never brought them within range of the best Greek embodiments of the grace of womanhood, or of the’ severer beauty of manhood. It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas, social, political, and theological, which arose out of the conditions.

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180 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. better expressions of the essence of the modern doctrine of evo- lution can be found than are presented by some of his pithy aphorisms and striking metaphors.* Indeed, many of my present of life in the Asiatic colonies. The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of social and political changes, from patriarchal and occasionally oppressive kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobship—no doubt with infinitely eloquent and copious argu- mentation on both sides at every stage of their progress toward that arbitrament of force which settles most political questions. The marvelous speculative faculty, latent in the Ionian, had come in contact with Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Pheenician theologies and cos- mogonies ; with the illuminati of Orphism and the fanatics and dreamers of the Mysteries ; possibly with Buddhism and Zoroasterism ; possibly even with Judaism. _And it has been observed that the mutual contradictions of antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play a large part among the generative agencies of naturalism. Thus, various external influences may have contributed to the rise of philosophy among the Ionian Greeks of the sixth century. But the assimilative capacity of the Greek mind— its power of Hellenizing whatever it touched—has here worked so effectually that, so far as I can learn, no indubitable traces of such extraneous contributions are now allowed to exist by the most authoritative historians of philosophy. Nevertheless, I think it must be ad- mitted that the coincidences between the Heracleito-stoical doctrines and those of the older Hindu philosophy are extremely remarkable. In both the cosmos pursues an eternal suc- cession of cyclical changes. The great year, answering to the Kalpa, covers an entire cycle from the origin of the universe as a fluid to its dissolution in fire—‘ Humor initium, ignis exitus mundi,” as Seneca has it. In both systems there is immanent in the cosmos a source of energy, Brahma, or the Logos, which works according to fixed laws. The individual soul is an efflux of this world-spirit, and returns to it. Perfection is attainable only by in- dividual effort through ascetic discipline, anc is rather a state of painlessness than of hap- piness, if indeed it can be said to be a state of anything save the negation of perturbing emotion. The hatchment motto “In Colo Quies” would serve both Hindu and Stoic, and absolute quiet is not easily distinguishable from annihilation. Zoroasterism, which geographically occupies a position intermediate between Hellenism and Hinduism, agrees with the latter in recognizing the essential evil of the cosmos, but differs from both in its intensely anthropomorphic personification of the two antagonistic principles, to the one of which it ascribes all the good, and to the other all the evil. In fact, it assumes the existence of two worlds, one good and one bad; the latter created by the evil power for the purpose of damaging the former. The existing cosmos is a mere mixture of the two, and the “ last judgment” is a root and branch extirpation of the work of Abriman. * There is no snare in which the feet of a modern student of ancient lore are more easily entangled than that which is spread by the similarity of the language of antiquity to mod- ern modes of expression. Ido not presume to interpret the obscurest of Greek philoso- phers; all I wish is to point out that his words, in the sense accepted by competent inter- preters, fit modern ideas singularly well. So far as the general theory of evolution goes, there is no difficulty. The aphorism about the river; the figure of the child playing on the shore; the kingship and fatherhood of strife, seem decisive. The 68s &yw mdérw uly expresses with singular aptness the cyclical aspect of the one process of organic evolution in individual plants and animals; yet it may be a question whether the Heracleitean strife included any distinct conception of the strug- gle for existence. Again, it is tempting to compare the part played by the Heracleitean ““fire” with that ascribed by the moderns to heat, or rather to that cause of motion of which heat is one expression ; and a little ingenuity might find a foreshadowing of the doc- trine of the conservation of energy in the saying that all the things are changed into fire and fire into all things, as gold into goods and goods into gold. % ¢ - ‘ a dy) ty ow mm = . ie 2 ms od aCe ae e 5 Abels —_ ie ae igh, “ oe i meet BN 7 oy, TS ies ta elt pee * a! eo ee ee od $s i el ae a ameery. Broret, Mic aeag h ; Pore er meer s ese eere sO TS NE tents aber nave. ceil dat ph i Sg gree : eS nin 3d

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EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 181 auditors must have observed that more than once I have bor- rowed from him in the brief exposition of the theory of evolution with which this discourse commenced. 4 But when the focus of Greek intellectual activity shifted to Ps Athens, the leading minds concentrated their attention upon eth- 3 ical problems. For saking the study of themacrocosm for that of the microcosm, they lost the key to the thought of the great Ephesian, which I imagine is more intelligible to us than it was to Socrates or to Plato. Socrates more especially set the fashion of a kind of inverse agnosticism, by teaching that the problems of physics lie beyond the reach of the human intellect; that the %: attempt to solve them is essentially vain; that the one worthy 3 object of investigation is the problem of ethical life; and his ex- ‘ ample was followed by the Cynics and the later Stoics. Even the comprehensive knowledge and the penetrating intellect of Aris- totle failed to suggest to him that in holding the eternity of the world within its present range of mutation, he was making a retrogressive step, The scientific heritage of Heracleitus passed into the hands neither of Plato nor of Aristotle, but into those of Democritus. But the world was not yet ready. to receive the great conceptions of the philosopher of Abdera. It was reserved for the Stoics to return to the track marked out by the earlier philosophers, and, professing themselves disciples of Heracleitus, to develop the idea of evolution systematically. In doing this, they not only omitted some characteristic features of their mas- ter’s teaching, but they made additions altogether foreign to it. One of the most influential of these importations was the trans- cendental theism which had come into vogue. The restless, fiery energy, operating according to law, out of which all things emerge and into which they return, in the endless successive cycles of the great year; which creates and destroys worlds as a wanton child builds up and, anon, levels sand castles on the seashore, was meta- morphosed into a material world-soul, and decked out with all the attributes of ideal Divinity ;.not merely with infinite power and transcendent wisdom, but with absolute goodness. The consequences of this step were momentous; for, if the cosmos is the effect of an immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent cause, the existence in it of real evil, still less of neces- sarily inherent evil, is plainly inadmissible.* Yet the universal eu baat ent Pa i aeir, a aS, ‘ ¢ seme PoP 2 he ae i + & . : PO Se ee ey ED yee ee scents dnireaisio ils Hee Madan 2 SE cig (lm Set hie * Pope’s lines in the Essay on Man (Ep. i, 267, 268), ** All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul,” simply paraphrase Seneca’s “ quem in hoc mundo locum deus obtinet, hunc in homine ani- mus: quod est illic materia, id nobis corpus est” (Ep. Ixv, 24) [And what God is in the world, such is the mind or soul in man; what in the world is matter, in us is. body.—

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182 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. experience of mankind testified then as now that, whether we look within us or without us, evil stares us in the face on all i] sides; that if anything is real, pain and sorrow and wrong are 1 realities, It would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers b | were daunted by the factious opposition of experience, and the . Stoics were the last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere 4 facts. “Give mea doctrine and I will find the reasons for it,” said Chrysippus. So they perfected, if they did not invent, that ingenious and plausible form of pleading, the Theodicy, for the purpose of showing, firstly, that there is no such thing as evil; secondly, that if there is, it is the necessary correlate of good; and i moreover, that it is either due to our own fault or inflicted for hs our benefit. Theodicies have been very popular in their time, 4 and I believe that a numerous, though somewhat dwarfed, proge- PY ny of them still survives. So far as I know, they are all varia- : tions of the theme set forth in those famous six lines of the Essay on Man, in which Pope sums up Bolingbroke’s reminiscences of 2 stoical and other speculations of this kind: : ‘* All nature is but art, onknown to thee; All chance, direction which thou canst not see; All discord, harmony not understood ; a All partial evil, universal good ; & And spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite, One truth is clear: whatever is is right.” Yet surely, if there are few more important truths than those ‘ enunciated in the first triad, the second is open to very grave ob- -? jections. That there is a “soul of good in things evil” is unques- ] tionable; nor will any wise man deny the disciplinary value of pain and sorrow. But these considerations do not help us to see why the immense multitude of irresponsible sentient beings which can not profit by such discipline should suffer; nor why, among the endless possibilities open to omnipotence—that of sinless, happy existence among the rest—the actuality in which sin and misery abound should be that selected. Surely it is mere cheap rhetoric to call arguments which have never yet been answered Morell’s translation}, which again is a Latin version of the old Stoical doctrine, eis ray rod ndéopou pépos Bihxer 5 vous, xabdwrep ag’ judy h Wuxh. So far as testimony for the universality of what ordinary people call “evil” goes, there is nothing better than the writings of the Stoics themselves. They might serve as a store- house for the epigrams of the ultra-pessimists. Heracleitus (circa 500 B.c.) says just as hard things about ordinary humanity as his disciples centuries later; and there really seems no need to seek for the causes of this dark view of life in the circumstances of the time of Alexander's suctvessors or of the early emperors of Rome. To the man with an ethical ideal, the world, including himself, will always seem full of evil.

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¢ AS Sa at aa “So Peedi : BREN a icine conductor, * ™ - i." ie me pT ee tls San al agi PO ee Ee Ca ee RRR ey allay: lM it mi pe ws ; EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 183 by even the meekest and the least rational of optimists sugges- tions of the pride of reason. As to the concluding aphorism, its fittest place would be as an inscription in letters of mud over the portal of some “ stye of Epicurus”;* for that is where the logical application of it to practice would land men, with every aspira- tion stifled and every effort paralyzed. Why try to set right what is right already? Why strive to improve the best of all possible worlds ? Let us eat and drink, for as to-day all is right, so to-morrow all will be. But the attempt of the Stoics to blind themselves to the reality of evil, as a necessary concomitant of the cosmic process, had less success than that of the Indian philosophers to exclude the reality of good from their purview. Unfortunately, it is much easier to shut one’s eyes to good than to evil. Pain and sorrow knock at our doors more loudly than pleasure and happiness, and the prints of their heavy footsteps are less easily effaced. Before the grim realities of practical life the pleasant fictions of optimism van- ished. If this were the best of all possible worlds, it nevertheless proved itself a very inconvenient habitation for the ideal sage. The stoical summary of the whole duty of man, “ Live accord- ing to Nature,” would seem to imply that the cosmic process is an exemplar for human conduct, Ethics would thus become applied natural history. In fact, a confused employment of the maxim in this sense has done immeasurable mischief in later times. It has furnished an axiomatic foundation for the philosophy of philosophasters and for the moralizing of sentimentalists. But the Stoics were, at bottom, not merely noble but sane men; and if we look closely into what they really meant by this ill-used phrase, it will be found to present no justification for the mis- chievous conclusions that have been deduced from it. In the language of the Stoa, “ Nature” was a word of many meanings. There was the “Nature” of the cosmos and the “Nature” of man. In the latter, the animal “nature,” which man shares with a moiety of the living part of the cosmos, was distinguished from a higher “nature.” Even in this higher nature there were grades of rank. The logical faculty is an in- strument which may be turned to account for any purpose. The passions and the emotions are so closely tied to the lower nature that they may be considered to be pathological rather than nor- mal phenomena. The one supreme, hegemonic faculty which con- * I use the well-known phrase, but decline responsibility for the libel upon Epicurus, whose doctrines were far less compatible with existence in a stye than those of the Cynics. If it were steadily borne in mind that the conception of the “ flesh” as the source of evil, and that the great saying, “ Initium est salutis notitia peccati” [the beginning of salvation is the recognition of sin], are the property of Epicurus, fewer illusions about Epicureanism would pass muster for accepted truth, ‘

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184 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. stitutes the essential “nature” of man, is most nearly represented by that which, in the language of a later philosophy, has been called the pure reason. It is this “nature” which holds up the ideal of the supreme good and demands absolute submission of the will to its behests. It is this which commands all men to love one another, to return good for evil, to regard one another as fellow-citizens of one great state. Indeed, seeing that the progress toward perfection of a civilized state, or polity, depends on the obedience of its members to these commands, the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the “ political” nature. Unfortunately, the sense of the adjective has undergone so much modification that the application of it to that which commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now sound almost grotesque.* But what part is played by the theory of evolution in this view ofethics? So far as I can discern, the ethical system of the Stoics, which is essentially intuitive, and reverences the categorical im- perative as strongly as that of any later moralists, might have been just what it was if they had held any other theory—whether that of special creation, on the one side, or that of the eternal existence of the present order, on the other. To the Stoic, the * The Stoics said that man was a (Gov Acyudy woArrimdy piAdAAMAor, Or a rational, a political, and an altruistic or philanthropic animal. In their view, his higher nature tended to develop in these three directions as a plant tends to grow up into its typical form. Since, without the introduction of any consideration of pleasure or pain, whatever thwarted the realization of its type by the plant might be said to be bad, and whatever helped it good; 80 virtue, in the Stoical sense, as the conduct which tended to the attainment of the rational, political, and philanthropic ideal, was good in itself and irrespectively of its emotional con- comitants. Man is an “animal sociale communi bono genitum.” The safety of society depends upon practical recognition of the fact. “Salva autem esse societas nisi custodia et amore partium non possit,” says Seneca. (De Ira, ii, 31.) [The safety of society depends upon the love and care of its component parts. ] + The importance of the physical doctrine of the Stoics lies in its clear recognition of : Me ee the universality of the law of causation with its corollary, the order of Nature: the exact form of that order is an altogether secondary consideration. Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the incompatibility of pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt about the immortality of the soul, with religion and morality, is to be held as an axiomatic truth. I confess that I have a certain difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the Stoics were notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme character; and while no strict stoic believed in the eternal duration of the individual soul, some even denied its persistence after death. Yet it is equally certain that of all Gentile philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical development, is animated by the most religious spirit, and has exerted the profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the moderns down to our own day. Seneca was claimed as a Christian and placed among the saints by the fathers of the early Christian Church; and the genuineness of a correspondence between him and the apostle Paul has been hotly maintained in our own time by orthodox writers. That the oy My - z STpids ND 5s tal peti Get eps FH

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a ” ae el — : Mh. vie he sr satod ie re Sg Sr re ace ae = sigp rare cs eX ea a s t H EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 185 cosmos had no importance for the conscience, except in so far as he chose to think it a pedagogue to virtue. The pertinacious optimism of our philosophers hid from them the actual state of the case. It prevented them from seeing that cosmic nature is no school of virtue, but the headquarters of the enemy of ethical nature. The logic of facts was necessary to convince them that the cosmos works through the lower nature of man, not for right- eousness, but against it. And it finally drove them to confess that the existence of their ideal “wise man” was incompatible with the nature of things; that even a passable approximation to that ideal was to be attained only at the cost of renunciation of the world and mortification, not merely of the flesh, but of all human affections. The state of perfection was that “apatheia”* in which desire, though it may still be felt, is powerless to move the will, reduced to the sole function of executing the commands of pure reason. Even this residuum of activity was to be re- garded as a temporary loan—as an efflux of the divine, world- pervading spirit, chafing at its imprisonment in the flesh, until such time as death enabled it to return to its source in the all- pervading logos. I find it difficult to discover any very great difference between Apatheia and Nirvana, except that stoical speculation agrees with letters, as we possess them, are worthless forgeries is obvious, and writers as wide apart as Baur and Lightfoot agree that the whole story is devoid of foundation. The dissertation of the late Bishop of Durham (Lightfoot, Epistle to the Philippians) is particularly worthy of study, apart from this question, on account of the evidence which it supplies of the numerous similarities of thought between Seneca and the writer of the Pauline epistles. When it is remembered that the writer of the Acts puts a quotation from Aratus, or Cleanthes, into the mouth of the apostle, and that Tarsus was a great seat of philosophical and especially stoical learning (Chrysippus himself was a native of the adja- cent town of Sdli) there is no difficulty in understanding the origin of these resemblances. See, on this subject, Sir Alexander Grant’s dissertation in his edition of The Ethics of Aristotle (where there is an interesting reference to the stoical character of Bishop Butler’s ethics), the concluding pages of Dr. Weygoldt’s instructive little work, Die Philosophie der Stoa, and Aubertin’s Séndque et Saint Paul. It is surprising that a writer of Dr. Lightfoot’s stamp should speak of Stoicism as a philosophy of “despair.” Surely, rather, it was a philosophy of men who, having cast off all iliusions and the childishness of despair among them, were minded to endure in patience whatever conditions the cosmic process might create, so long as those conditions were com- patible with the progress toward virtue, which alone for them conferred a worthy object on existence. There is no note of despair in the stoical declaration that the perfected “wise man” is the equal of Zeus in everything but the duration of his existence. And in my judgment there is as little pride about it—often as it serves for the text of discourses on stoical arrogance. Grant the stoical postulate that there is no good except virtue; grant that the perfected wise man is altogether virtuous, in consequence of being guided in all things by the reason, which is an effluence of Zeus, and there seems no escape from the stoical conclusion. Mapai sen diterpenes e SetMCeM NRK op T have ventured on using the latter as a technical term.

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186 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. pre-Buddhistic philosophy, rather than with the teachings of Gautama, in so far as it postulates a permanent substance equiv- alent to “Brahma” and “ Atman”; and that, in stoical practice, the adoption of the life of the mendicant cynic was held to be more a counsel of perfection than an indispensable condition of the higher life. Thus the extremes touch. Greek thought and Indian thought set out from ground common to both, diverge widely, develop under very different physical and moral conditions, and finally converge to practicaliy the same end. The Vedas and the Homeric epos set before us a world of rich and vigorous life, full of joyous fighting men— ‘“* That ever with a frolic welcome took The thunder and the sunshine,” . . and who were ready to brave the very gods themselves when their blood was up. A few centuries pass away and, under the influence of civilization, the descendants of these men are “ sick- lied o’er with the pale cast of thought”—frank pessimists, or at best, make-believe optimists. The courage of the warlike stock may be as hardly tried as before, perhaps more hardly, but the enemy is self. The hero has become a monk. The man of action is replaced by the quietist, whose highest aspiration is to be the passive instrument of the divine Reason. By the Tiber,as by the Ganges, ethical man admits that the cosmos is too strong for him; and, destroying every bond which ties him to it by ascetic dis- cipline, he seeks salvation in absolute renunciation.* Modern thought is making a fresh start from the base whence Indian and Greek philosophy set out; and, the human mind being very much what it was six and twenty centuries ago, there is no ground for wonder if it presents indications of a tendency to move along the old lines to the same results. Weare more than sufficiently familiar with modern pessimism, at least as a speculation; for I can not call to mind that any of its present votaries have sealed their faith by assuming the rags and the bow] of the mendicant Bhikku, or the cloak and the wallet of the Cynic. The obstacles placed in the way of sturdy vagrancy by an unphilosophical police have, perhaps, proved too formidable for philosophical consistency. We also know modern speculative * Many of the stoical philosophers recommended their disciples to take an active share in public affairs, and in the Roman world, for several centuries, the best public men were strongly inclined to Stoicism. Nevertheless, the logical tendency of Stoiciam seems to1 me to be fulfilled only in such men as Diogenes and Epictetus. 3 | .

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eon «> » Z z > % CE AE IAS a eee ; Larrea: Mpa er a oe ae eee ve ier ey ees - 1 laa ari. ae Sab EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 187 optimism, with its perfectibility of the species, reign of peace, and lion and lamb transformation scenes; but one does not hear so much of it as one did forty years ago; indeed, I imagine it is to be met with more commonly at the tables of the healthy and wealthy than in the congregations of the wise. The majority of us, I apprehend, profess neither pessimism nor optimism. We hold that the world is neither so good nor so bad as it conceivably might be, and as most of us have reason, now and again, to dis- cover that it can be. Those who have failed to experience the joys that make life worth living are, probably, in as small a minority as those who have never known the griefs that rob existence of its savor and turn its richest fruits into mere dust and ashes, Further, I think I do not err in assuming that, however diverse their views on philosophical and religious matters, most men are agreed that the proportion of good and evil in life may be very sensibly affected by human action. I never heard anybody doubt that the evil may be thus increased or diminished, and it would seem to follow that good must be similarly susceptible of addition or subtraction. Finally, to my knowledge, nobody professes to doubt that, so far forth as we possess a power of bettering things, it is our paramount duty to use it and to train all our intellect and energy to this supreme service of our kind. Hence the pressing interest of the question, to what extent modern progress in natural knowledge and, more especially, the general outcome of that progress in the doctrine of evolu- tion, is competent to help us in the great work of helping one another. The propounders of what are called the “ethics of evolution,” when the “evolution of ethics” would usually better express the object of their speculations, adduce a number of more or less interesting facts and more or less sound urguments, in favor of the origin of the moral sentiments, in the same way as other natural phenomena, by a process of evolution. I have little doubt, for my own part, that they are on the right track; but as the im- moral sentiments have no less been evolved, there is so far as much natural sanction for the one as the other. The thief and the murderer follow Nature just as much as the philanthropist. Cosmic evolution may teach us how the good and the evil tenden- cies of man may have come about, but in itself it is incompetent | to furnish any better reason why what we call good is preferable | to what we call evil than we had before. Some day, I doubt not, we shall arrive at an understanding of the evolution of the ssthetic faculty; but all the understanding in the world will neither in- crease nor diminish the force of the intuition that this is taguliort and that is ugly.

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188 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so-called “ethics of evolution.” It is the notion that because, on the whole, animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by means of the struggle for existence and the con- sequent “survival of the fittest”; therefore men in society, men as ethical beings, must look to the same process to help them toward perfection. I suspect that this fallacy has arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the phrase “survival of the fittest.” “Fittest” has a connotation of “best,” and about “best” there hangs a moral flavor. In cosmic Nature, however, what is “ fit- test” depends upon the conditions. Long since, I ventured to point out that if our hemisphere were to cool again, the survival of the fittest might bring about, in the vegetable kingdom, a pop- ulation of more and more stunted and humbler and humbler or- ganisms, until the “ fittest” that survived might be nothing but lichens, diatoms, and such microscopic organisms as those which give red snow its color; while, if it became hotter, the pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might be uninhabitable by any animated beings save those that flourish in a tropical jungle. They, as the fittest, the best adapted to the changed conditions, would survive. Men in society are undoubtedly subject to the cosmic process. As among other animals, multiplication goes on without cessation and involves severe competition for the means of support. The struggle for existence tends to eliminate those less fitted to adapt themselves to the circumstances of their existence. The strongest, the most self-assertive, tend to tread down the weaker. But the influence of the cosmic process on the evolution of society is the greater the more rudimentary its civilization. Social progress means a checking of the cosmic process at every step and the sub- stitution for it of another, which may be called the ethical process ; the end of which is not the survival of those who may happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which exist, but of those who are ethically the best.*

* Of course, strictly speaking, social life and the ethical process, in virtue of which it advances toward perfection, are part and parcel of the general process of evolution, just as the gregarious habit of innumerable plants and animals, which has been of immense advan- tage to them, is so. A hive of bees is an organic polity—a society in which the part played by each member is determined by organic necessities. Queens, workers, and drones are, so to speak, castes, divided from one another by marked physical barriers. Among birds and mammals, socicties are formed, of which the bond in many cases seems to be purely psy- chological ; that is to say, it appears to depend upon the liking of the individuals for one another’s company. The tendency of individuals to over self-assertion is kept down by fight- ing. Even in these rudimentary forms of society, love and fear come into play and enforce a greater or less renunciation of self-will. To this extent the general cosmic process begins to be checked by a rudimentary ethical process, which is, strictly speaking, part of the former just as the “ governor” in a steam engine is part of the mechanism of the engine.

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ae Ba Rieke: “it pe io oR ete, te: . tt pa er a es . Se | ‘ A iy Ling oe tad San ‘ > oe w GROEN EN Pit ERE tot yt NS 4 Bi % EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 189 As I have already urged, the practice of that which is ethically best—what we call goodness or virtue—involves a course of con- duct which, in all respects, is opposed to that which leads to suc- cess in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it requires that the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows; its influence is directed, not so much to the survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repudiates the gladia- torial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his debt to those who have laboriously constructed it; and shall take heed that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been permitted to live. Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of curbing the cosmic process and reminding the indi- vidual of his duty to the community, to the protection and influ- ence of which he owes, if not existence itself, at least the life of something better than a brutal savage. It is from neglect of these plain considerations that the fanat- ical individualism of our time attempts to apply the analogy of cosmic Nature to society. Once more we have a misapplication of the stoical injunction to follow Nature; the duties of the indi- vidual to the state are forgotten’ and his tendencies to self-asser- tion are dignified by the name of rights. It is seriously debated whether the members of a community are justified in using their combined strength to constrain one of their number to contribute his share to the maintenance of it; or even to prevent him from doing his best to destroy it. The struggle for existence, which has done such admirable work in cosmic Nature, must, if appears, be equally beneficent in the ethical sphere. Yet, if that which I have insisted upon is true; if the cosmic process has no sort of relation to moral ends; if the imitation of it by man is inconsist- ent with the first principles of ethics; what becomes of this sur- prising theory ? Let us understand, once for all, that the ethical progress of society depends, not on imitating the cosmic process, still less in running away from it, but in combating it. It may seem an auda- cious proposal thus to pit the microcosm against the macrocosm and to set man tosubdue Nature to his higher ends; but, I venture to think that the great intellectual difference between the ancient times with which we have been occupied and our day, lies in the solid foundation we have acquired for the hope that such an enter- prise may meet with a certain measure of success. The history of civilization details the steps by which men have succeeded in building up an artificial world within the cosmos. Fragile reed as he may be, man, as Pascal says, is a thinking

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190 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. reed : * there lies within him a fund of energy, operating intelli- gently and so far akin to that which pervades the universe, that it is competent to influence and modify the cosmic process, In virtue of his intelligence, the dwarf bends the Titan to his will. In every family, in every polity that has been established, the cosmic process in man has been restrained and otherwise modified by law and custom ; in surrounding Nature, it has been similarly influenced by the art of the shepherd, the agriculturist, the artisan. As civilization has advanced, so has the extent of this interfer- ence increased; until the organized and highly developed sciences and arts of the present day have endowed man with a command over the course of non-human nature greater than that once at- tributed to the magicians. The most impressive, I might say startling, of these changes have been brought about in the course of the last two centuries; while a right comprehension of the process of life and of the means of influencing its manifestations is only just dawning upon us. We do not yet see our way beyond generalities; and we are befogged by the obtrusion of false analo- gies and crude anticipations. But Astronomy, Physics, Chemis- try, have all had to pass through similar phases, before they reached the stage at which their influence became an important factor in humanaffairs. Physiology, Psychology, Ethics, Political Science, must submit to the same ordeal. Yet it seems to me irra- tional to doubt that, at no distant period, they will work as great a revolution in the sphere of practice. The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipa- tions. If, for millions of years, our globe has taken the upward road, yet, some time, the summit will be reached and the down- ward route will be commenced. The most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the suggestion that the power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest the procession of the great year. Moreover, the cosmic nature born with us and, to a large ex- tent, necessary for our maintenance, is the outcome of millions of years of severe training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries will suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends. Ethical nature may count upon having to reckon * “L’homme n’est qu’un roseau, le plus faible de la nature, mais c’est un roseau pen- sant. Il ne faut pas que l’univers entier s’arme pour l’écraser. Une vapeur, une goutte d@eau, suffit pour le tuer. Mais quand lunivers l’écraserait, "homme serait encore plus noble que ce qui le tue, parce qu'il sait qu'il meurt; et l’avantage que l’univers a sur lui, Punivers n’en sait rien.”—Pensées de Pascal, chap. ii, x. [Man is but a reed, weakest in Nature, but a reed which thinks. It needs not that the whole Universe should arm to erush him. But were the Universe to crush him, man would still be more noble than that which has slain him, because he knows that he dies, and that the Universe has the better of him, The Universe knows nothing of this.—Bohn’s translation. | ay Meh aan oy eee peimaedealete Ree pa Se CO ee een ¢ cial. date ura bie 33 e spetenaitst A vistOaih

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5 PREC ies tam. pik ie, Bans ay NP sie Mh Ba) Se a . ee q mS 2 a EINE Ts a agi stag i ere isa — by nie i oe: EVOLUTION AND ETHICS. 191 with a tenacious and powerful enemy as long as the world lasts. But, on the other hand, I see no limit to the extent to which intel- ligence and will, guided by sound principles of investigation, and organized in common effort, may modify the conditions of exist- ence, for a period longer than that now covered by history. And much may be done to change the nature of man himself. The intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to do something toward curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized men. But if we may permit ourselves a larger hope of abatement of the essential evil of the world than was possible to those who, in the infancy of exact knowledge, faced the problem of existence more than a score of centuries ago, I deem it an essential condi- tion of the realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the escape from pain and sorrow is the proper object of life. We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our race, when good and evil could be met with the same “ frolic wel- come”; the attempts to escape from evil, whether Indian or Greek, have ended in flight from the battle-field; it remains to us to throw aside the youthful overconfidence and the no less youthful discouragement of nonage. We are grown men, and must play the man “ strong in will To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,” cherishing the good that falls in our way and bearing the evil, in and around us, with stout hearts set on diminishing it. Sv far, we all may strive in one faith toward one hope: ‘Tt may be that the gulfs will wash us down, It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, ‘+. . . but something ere the end, Some work of noble note may yet be done.” * ‘“‘ Tgaon, and let the examination take care of itself,” was the advice given by Mr. A. E. Hawkins, in his Notes on Science Teaching in the Public Schools, read in the British Association. In his experience he had found that a little knowl- edge went a long way in an examination. If necessary, the experiments of the lecture could be performed by one of the boys, the rest watching him; butitwas | better that all the boys should make experiments, preferably working in pairs. * A great proportion of poetry is addressed by the young to the young; only the great masters of the art are capable of divining, or think it worth while to enter into, the feelings of retrospective age. The two great poets whom we have so lately lost, Tennyson and Browning, have done this, each in his own inimitable way; the one in the Ulysses, from which I have borrowed ; the other in that wonderful fragment, Childe Roland to the dark Tower came. :

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. EVOLUTIONARY ETHICS. 5 Saya preceding article concludes Prof. Huxley’s famous Ro- manes Address, the first part of which was given in The Popular Science Monthly for November. As bearing on the author’s main contention that the ethical progress of society is opposed to the cosmic process of evolution, the following letter will be read with interest.—Ep. To the Editor of The Popular Science Monthly : Sir: He who crosses swords with Prof. Huxley in a dialectical encounter takes his life in both hands. I am not unaware, there- fore, of my temerity in entering the lists against a scholar so fully equipped on all subjects; and my timidity is greatly increased when I venture to question his interpretation of the law of the “survival of the fittest,” a subject upon which he is uni- versally recognized as an authority. Yet it is because of what I deem to be a misinterpretation of that law that goes to the very marrow of a recent discussion by him that I venture to differ with him. In his exceedingly thoughtful and suggestive Romanes Lec- ture on Evolution and Ethics, Prof. Huxley maintains that the cosmic process of evolution is directly opposed to the ethical de- velopment of mankind, “that the cosmic process has no sort of relation to moral ends” [see this number of the MonTHLY, p. 189], and that the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest can never help man toward ethical perfection. “ Social progress,” he says, “ means a checking of the cosmic process at every step, and the substitution for it of another, which may be called the ethical process; the end of which is not the survival of those who may happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which exist, but of those who are ethically the best. As [have already urged, the practice of that which is ethically best—what we call goodness or virtue—involves a course of con- duct which, in all [the Italics are mine] respects, is opposed to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside, or treading down, all competitors, it re- quires that the individual shall not merely respect, but shall help his fellows ; its influence is directed not so much to the sur- vival of the fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to sur- vive ” [pp. 188, 189]. Holding these views it is to be expected that Prof. Huxley should describe man’s development in the following words: “ Man, the animal, in fact, has worked his way to the headship of the sentient world,and has become the superb animal ote kbc eee 4

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+, ele ped iis ieds ‘aetinil ios aa. Mire eg i pif ; \ EVOLUTIONARY ETHICS. 193 which he is, in virtue of his success in the struggle for existence, The conditions having been of a certain order, man’s organiza- tion has adjusted itself to them better than that of his competi- tors in the cosmic strife. In the case of mankind the self-asser- tion, the unscrupulous seizing on all that can be grasped, the tenacious holding of all that can be kept, which constitute the essence of the struggle for existence, have answered ” [November MONTHLY, pp. 21, 22]. Are the qualities here emphasized the only essential ones ? Does this statement include all the facts or cover the whole truth? To me it seems to be far from doing this, although it states clearly and vigorously what all must admit to be partially true. The benefits of co-operation in the development of man are too well recognized to be denied. Physically weaker than many of the animals that surrounded him, he could not long have survived in a struggle for existence against them had he been forced to continue that struggle alone. Nor could he have at- tained the mental development upon which so much of his suc- cess has depended without contact with his fellows. The most important if not the necessary condition of man’s success in the struggle for existence is society. Social growth becomes possi- ble only through the survival of the socially fit. In an advancing society this process must ever tend toward the production and preservation of the “ethically best.” Recognition of the rights of others has been equally as important in the evolution of man as self-assertion. Indeed, it may be claimed that, under the con- ditions of social life, it is a necessary consequence of self-asser- tion. Men could not live long together unless they recognized the right of each to his own, and respected it. The survival of a society, like the survival of the individuals composing it, becomes possible only through adaptation to the necessary conditions of life, and it will not be denied by Prof. Huxley that morality is essential to social well-being. Indeed, he admits as much, for he says: “One of the oldest and most important elements in such systems is the conception of justice. Society is impossible unless those who are associated agree to observe certain rules of conduct toward one another; its stability depends on the steadiness with which they abide by that agreement; and so far as they waveg, that mutual trust which is the bond of society is weakened or de- stroyed ” [November MonrHLY, p. 24]. I am somewhat at a loss to reconcile this statement with the general teaching of the lecture. It seems to me that this moral development is just as much a part of the “cosmic process” as physical or mental development, neither of which are excluded by Prof. Huxley. Moral development comes, to be sure, in recogniz- able quantities, rather later in history than the others, and is of VOL. XLIV.—16

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194 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. greater consequence in a high civilization than in a low; is, in- deed, or ought to be, considered one of the principal signs of the existence of the former. While it was essential in even the low- set form of social organization, it was for a long period of less apparent importance. The earlier struggles for existence were chiefly intertribal or international, and in these the qualities em- phasized by Prof. Huxley as necessary for success were undoubt- edly predominant. While the struggle still goes on in this form, it no longer occupies the time and attention of mankind to the same extent as formerly. Among civilized societies at least the struggle for existence has also taken on another form, and the conditions of success have greatly changed. Industrial competi- tion has taken the place of war, and notwithstanding that the theories and the methods of international conflict are still some- what potent in this field, they are so mostly because our ethical, and, for that matter, even our intellectual, training has not gone far enough. It can not be denied that the reign of industrialism, or at least the absence of war, has softened the manners if it has not changed the character of men. Prof. Huxley himself bears witness to this, for he says, “The cosmic nature born with us and, to a large extent, necessary for our maintenance, is the out- come of millions of years of severe training, and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries will suffice to subdue its master- fulness to purely ethical ends” [p. 190]. It can, however, be shown, I think, that those societies will be- come the victors in the struggle for industrial supremacy, who are mentally and morally the most highly developed, or, in other words, socially the fittest. In an article on Ethics and Econom- ics, published in The Popular Science Monthly for October, 1888, I have discussed this proposition at some length, but the follow- ing quotation will, I think, answer my present purpose : “For the purpose in hand, we desire to call attention to the necessity of basing our political economy on moral rather than on selfish instincts. Powerful though the latter be, they are more or less anti-social in their nature, and therefore would not of themselves favor economic growth. That depends for its de- velopment on social growth, and it is only when the selfish in- estincts are held in due check and subordination to the higher im- pulses that the latter is possible. Strength, keenness, and shrewd- ness are important factors in determining the survival of the individual, and, in so far as they do this, they favor also the sur- vival of the race. But of more importance still are those traits which, by enabling men to live together in peace, render possible the organization of labor in such manner as to secure the great- est economic return. In a word, our political economy, which has been unmoral, must be made moral, if it is to be the science NS:

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: & " THE CREATION, 195 which shall direct men into the proper paths for the production and distribution of wealth ” (pp. 773, 774). If this be true, then even under existing conditions it may be said that “the stars in their courses” fight for righteousness. For it would appear that co-operation, which has been so essen- tial to man’s success in the struggle for existence, by cultivating the moral qualities upon which social fitness depends, has at length brought about conditions where moralization becomes a prime factor in the success and survival of society. At all events it can, I think, be maintained that the law of the survival of the fittest admits of another interpretation than that put upon it by Prof. Huxley. It is not of necessity, as he thinks, opposed to the ethical progress of the race, but under it and because of it men become better through the survival of the socially fit. RoBERT MATHEWS. Rocuester, N. Y., June 29, 1898. THE CREATION, A PENOBSCOT INDIAN MYTH TOLD BY ONE OF THE TRIBE TO ABBY L, ALGER, Le the beginning God made Adam out of the earth, but he did not make Glis-kabé (the Indian God). Glis-kibé made him- self out of the dirt that was kicked up in the creation of Adam. He rose and walked about, but he could not speak until the Lord opened his lips. God made the earth and the sea, and then he took counsel with Glis-kabé concerning them. He asked him if it would be better to have the rivers run up on one side of the earth and down on the other, but Glis-kabé said, “ No, they must all run down one way.” Then the Lord asked him about the ocean, whether it would do to have it always lie still. Glis-kaibé told him, “No!” It must rise and fall, or else it would grow thick and stagnant. “ How about fire ?” asked the Lord; “can it burn all the time and nobody put it out ?” Glis-kibé said: “That would not do, for if anybody got burned and fire could not be put out, they would die; but if it could be put out, then the burn would get well.” So he answered all the Lord’s questions. After this Glis-kibé was out on the ocean one day and the wind blew.so hard he could not manage his canoe. He had to go back to land, and he asked his old grandmother (among Indians this title is often only a mark of respect and does not always in-

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196 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. dicate any blood relationship), Mahli Moninkwess (the wood- chuck), what he could do. She told him to follow a certain road up a mountain. There he found an old man sitting on a rock flapping his wings (arms) violently. This was Wichowsen, the great wind-blower. He begged Glis-kabé to take him up higher where he would have space to flap his wings still harder. So Glis-kabé lifted him up and carried him a long way. When they were over a great lake he let Wichowsen drop into the water. In falling he broke his wings and lay there helpless. Gliis-kaibé went back to sea and found the ocean as smooth as glass. He enjoyed himself greatly for many days, paddling about, but. finally the water grew stagnant and thick, and a great smell arose. The fish died and Glis-kabé could bear it no longer. Again he consulted his grandmother and she told him that he must set Wiichowsen free. So he once more bore Wiichowsen back to his mountain, first making him promise not to flap his wings so constantly, but only now and then, so that the Indians might go out in their-canoes. Upon his consent to do this, Glis- ka&bé mended his broken wings, but they were never quite so strong as at first, and thus we do not now have such terrible winds as in the olden days. This story was told to me by an old man whom I had always thought dull and almost in his dotage; but one day, after I had told him some Indian legends, his whole face changed, he threw back his head, closed his eyes, and without the slightest warning or preliminary began to relate, almost to chant, this myth in a most extraordinary way, which so startled me that I could not at the time take any notes of it, and was obliged to have it repeated later. The account of Wichowsen was added to show the wisdom of Glis-kaibé’s advice in the earlier part of the tale, and is found among many tribes. —ee—_____ STATE INTERFERENCE IN SOCIAL AFFAIRS.* By JOSEPH SHIELD NICHOLSON, D.So., PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. E are confronted with the limited power of the state and 4 the infinite variety of individual enterprise. To the older $ economists the difference seemed so great that they considered 4 the presumption against state interference to be established. The $ rule, it is true, was never absolute and unqualified. Adam Smith i * From the presidential address before the Section of Economic Science and Statistics of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Nottingham meeting, Sep- tember, 1893 (London Times Report).

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STATE INTERFERENCE IN SOCIAL AFFAIRS. 197 himself indicated some of the most important of these exceptions, and the list has been extended by his successors. But these ex- ceptions were all based upon reasoned principles, such as the in- capacity of the persons concerned, e. g., children to make fair con- tracts; the lack of individual interest in public works, e. g., the maintenance of roads, and the importance of the highest security, as in the regulation of the issues of bank notes. And in spite of all these exceptions—strengthened and purified by these excep- tions—the presumption remained undisturbed. Recently, how- ever, some writers, under the influence of the ideal of maximum happiness and impressed by the power of the state, have sought to extend its interference far beyond these admitted principles- But, so far as this movement has any theoretical support, the re- action has already begun. The fundamental importance of free- dom of contract has become more apparent than ever through the application of the comparative and historical methods to juris- prudence; the proposition that the progress of society has been from status to contract has almost acquired the force of an axiom, The analysis, too, of modern industrial systems in which division ‘ of labor has become more and more intricate and interdependent has shown the hopelessness of the attempt to transfer the man- agement and control to the state. Changes in the methods of pro- duction, in the diffusion of knowledge, and in the transport of material commodities have been so rapid and so great that no executive government could have overtaken them. In the most advanced communities even that legislation which is necessary for the new conditions lags behind; even those elementary forms which simply aim at giving an interpretation to contracts in doubtful cases, or which are necessary for the adjustment of responsibility (as in bankruptcy and partnership), are behind the times. The growth of joint-stock enterprises has outstripped the development of the law of companies, and there is a crop of new frauds without corresponding penalties. Turning to the execu- tive and administrative functions of government, the analysis of existing conditions shows that we have not yet overtaken those exceptions admitted by the strongest supporters of laisser faire. The British Government has, it is true, wasted its energies in devising temporary expedients of various kinds, but it has not yet accomplished the programme of Adam Smith. Not only are there privileges and restrictions that ought to have been abol- ished long ago, but on the positive side the programme is not complete. We have just begun universal education on the lines laid down by Adam Smith, but his scheme for imperial federa- tion is not yet within the range of practical politics. We have effected great financial reforms, but we still fall far short of the full development of his principles. Even in matters of currency

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198 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and banking—in relation to which the function of the state has always been recognized—we are lamentably in need of reform. But if the state can not overtake those duties which are so neces- sary and persistent that they were forced on the attention of the strongest supporters of laisser faire, how can we possibly justify the assumption of new functions which rest upon no better prin- ciple than the vague idea that the state ought to do something ? Not only theoretically but practically signs of a reaction in favor of the old position are rapidly increasing. The experiments al- ready made at playing the réle of omnipotence and omniscience, against which governments were so emphatically warned by Adam Smith, have begun to bring forth thorns instead of figs, A government which lends its power and assistance to one set of people must be prepared to act in a similar manner in all similar cases, If once this principle is abandoned, governmental action becomes either a matter of chance or depends upon clamor and jobbery. It is wonderful how quickly the human mind discovers analogies in grievances, and how soon one cry leads to another. How can we justify the use of state credit for the purchase of lands in Ireland and fishing boats in Scotland if we are not pre- pared to give similar aid to the poor of England who are simi- larly situated ? If we grant judicial rents in the country, why not in the towns, and if we fix by law one set of prices why not all prices ? We must not be content with looking at the immediate effects of legislation; we must consider also the secondary and more remote consequences. The British Government is begin- ning to find that the camel is getting too far into the tent. The admission of a single ear is nothing to the admission of the hump and the knees and the rest of the beast. Now the ear may be interpreted to mean the grant of a few thousand pounds to Scot- tish fishers, the hump is universal old-age pensions at a cost of some fifteen or twenty millions a year, and for the knees you may take the nationalization of land at a cost of some two thousand mil- lions, and for the whole beast you have the complete socialist pro- gramme. The conclusion that when the beast was in the Arab was out needs no interpretation. We have not yet reached the limits of tolerable taxation, but at the present rate of growth of imperial and local expenditure we are rapidly approaching those limits. It has been firmly established in theory, and confirmed by the experience of many nations, that excessive taxation is ruin- ous to a country. It may be replied that those who demand a large increase of expenditure for public purposes do not propose to tax the poor, but only to take the superfiuities of the rich—to take, as is sometimes said, twenty shillings in the pound from that part of every income which extends above four hundred pounds a year. The certain effect of this kind of taxation would be that in a very Dt fp: NG : e 3 | i

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3 STATE INTERFERENCE IN SOCIAL AFFAIRS. 199 short time nobody would have more than four hundred pounds a year, and the sources of taxation would dry up just as people had become used to and dependent on governmental assistance, [Laughter.] The general argument may be summarized in the favorite phraseology of the day. The utility of every increment of governmental work rapidly diminishes, and the disutility of every increment of taxation rapidly increases. The classical economists maintain that even if the state could do something for individuals as cheaply and effectively as they could do it for themselves, it is in general better to trust to individual effort. The decisive consideration is the effect on the character and ener- gies of the people. Self-reliance, independence, liberty—these were the old watchwords—not state reliance, dependence, and obedience. In the matter of pauperism, for example, they teach us to distinguish between the immediate effects of relief which may be beneficial and the effects of reliance on that relief which may be disastrous. They are bold enough to maintain that the condition of life of the dependent pauper should not be made by aids and allowances better than that of the independent laborer. They insist on the great historical distinction between the sturdy rogues and vagabonds—who can work and will not— and the impotent poor, the poor in very deed, who can not sup- port themselves. They look upon the payment of poor rates as they look upon other forms of taxation—namely, as the lesser of two evils; they do not try to persuade themselves and other peo- ple that it is a duty which is essentially pleasant. If Christian charity realized a tithe of its ideal there would be no need for relief on the part of the state. It does not take ten ants to relieve another ant, and in this land of ours there are more than ten pro- fessed Christians to every pauper. To the student I would say, political economy has a vast literature, and you will not find all the good concentrated in the last marginal increment; you must master the old before you can appreciate the new; a portion of truth just rediscovered for the hundredth time by some amateur is not of such value as a body of doctrines that have been devel- oped for more than a century by economists of repute. And to the legislator I would say, vaster than the literature of political economy is the economic experience of nations; the lessons to be learned from the multitudinous experiments of the past can never become antiquated, for they have revealed certain broad features of human character that you can no more disregard than the vital functions of the human body. Just as Harvey did not in- vent but discovered the circulation of the blood, so Adam Smith did not invent but discovered the system of natural liberty. And nothing has been better established than the position that legisla- tion which neglects to take account of the liberties of individuals

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200 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, is foredoomed to failure. If they can not break through the law they will get behind the law. The first duty of the legislator is to take account of the natural forces with which he must contend, and the classical economists have made a survey and estimate of these forces which, based as it is on the facts of human nature and the experience of nations, it would be willful folly to overlook. THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. By CHARLES HOWARD SHINN. T seems to me that an account of the present condition of the fruit industry in California would be of economic value, pro- vided that it were entirely free from the advertising element. By the “advertising element ” I mean that very natural and almost irrepressible desire of a resident of any portion of this magnificent country to attract others to his particular district. There ought to be some way of presenting statistical and other facts relating to one department of horticulture in a given American State, in exactly the same spirit that an expert upon cotton manufacture would arrange the statistics of the mills of Massachusetts. A considerable area of California lands is planted to orchards and vineyards. Some of these, as with other human enterprises, are profitable, and some are unprofitable; but all are producing fruit, most of which finds its way in some shape to markets out- side the State. The range of these fruit products is very great, and many American producers, as well as those of Europe and other parts of the world, feel the competition of this food supply. An immense number of consumers, as well as this army of rival producers, must wish to obtain statistics of the California in- dustry under consideration. The following article is an attempt to present the facts of a great fruit-growing industry so plainly that all its departments can be understood by the reader. First, let us examine the best available statistics of the area planted, and the kinds of fruit used. These are much more com- plete now than when the officers of the last national census at- tempted to collect them from county officials, because competent agents of the State Board of Horticulture, themselves fruit- growers, spent the greater part of last year in making a “ house- to-house canvass.” They asked every man who owned an orchard to write down the number of acres he had in fruit trees, and classified the result, in many cases, by actual inspection of the orchard, The mass of details is of course too ponderous to be printed here, but the results can be analyzed so as to justify presentation in a series of tables. There are several ways of pos-

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THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA, 208 sible classification, but I can think of nothing better than to take the principal fruit-growing counties, give their areas and the acreage now planted, arranging the fruits reported upon in four divisions—the citrus and semitropic species, the nut-bearing trees, the ordinary deciduous fruits, and lastly the vines and small fruits. The principal citrus and semi- tropic fruits grown in California are the fig, olive, lemon, and orange. The citron of commerce flourishes, but has not been much planted, and the lime does well in some districts. The pomegran- ate is in many gardens, but few commercial orchards exist, and the same is true of the loquat and guava. Here and there in sheltered, frostless places are the beginnings of some small planta- tions of pineapples, bananas, and date palms, and a few specimens of cherimoya, granadilla, alliga- Cuusrer or Uvania Oxives, tor pear, jujube, melon shrub, (One half natural diameter.) chayota, the best species of opuntia, and other tropic and semi- tropic fruits that are being tested on a very small scale. Easily first, and type of the whole class, is the orange. It is commer- cially grown to the extent of a hundred acres or more in fifteen counties of California; eight counties contain over five hundred acres apiece. The acreage of the new county of Riverside, created by the last Legislature, is necessarily included in San Bernardino, and that of Kings County in Tulare. TaBLe L—Acreage of Semitropic Fruits. CountTyr. Oranges. | Olives. Lemons. Figs. Bsn cn «pd datndn ab adccatuctiel 2,664 | 755 50 259 Ea BRAT. cckdcccctayiny otsepuent 12,297 788 2,000 973 QO, V5 sab i 4 6H Red ogee cecewunees 5,412 270 681 82 OR Te 38,237 1,200 2,003 362 Gh ds pacnoess cccgsevesnnekans 1,500 1,063 4,790 291 GU SO s'o' v.60 pose ck cuvsktasden 540 871 1,276 950 TOA de bs h cdsden Vedeurubeeeeeis 604 320 63 182 VQGMIIN 605 shbé ine ven cdaKabewebean 548 613 443 62 Total (8 counties)... .............+. 61,802 5,880 11,806 8,161 The forty-five remaining counties of the State contain acreages as follows: Oranges, 1,559; olives, 3,394; lemons, 1,090; figs, 2,119. VOL. XLIv.—17

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202 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. Adding these totals, we obtain the area of the semitropic orchards of California, according to the latest and most reliable data. There are 64,361 acres of oranges, 9,274 acres of olives, 12,396 acres of lemons, and 5,280 acres of figs. The entire acreage devoted to the semitropic fruits above classified is 91,311. No reasonable allow- ance for small orchards overlooked would be likely to bring this total to much more than 95,000 acres. Studying the table, we Yocne Fic Tres. Tejon Ranch, observe that the leading orange-growing counties are San Ber- nardino and Los Angeles; the leading fig county is Los Angeles, with Santa Barbara very close, but both still under the thousand- acre mark; the leading olive counties are San Diego and Santa Barbara, and the leading lemon counties are San Diego and Los Angeles. Placer, Butte, Sacramento, and Yuba are the only coun- ties in the Sacramento Valley and northern Sierra foothills that.

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} : : - THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA, 203 have a hundred acres’of oranges; Fresno, Stanislaus, and Tulare, in the San Joaquin Valley, have also barely commenced the cul- ture of semitropic fruits. But the industry is more at home in the Coast Range valleys from Santa Barbara south and southeast. There, also, it is of longer growth, three out of four trees being in bearing, while in the counties that have but lately begun to plant semitropic fruits more than half the orchards have not yet fruited to any extent. The beginnings of fig and olive orchards are more generally distributed throughout the State than are lemon and orange orchards. Classified from this standpoint, the lemon is represented by one or more acres in thirty counties, the orange in thirty-eight, the fig in forty-two, and the olive in forty-four. Deciduous fruits cover a very wide range, both in variety and distribution. The apple, apricot, cherry, peach, prune, and pear are the principal deciduous fruits grown in California. There are some nectarine and quince orchards, and the Japanese persimmon is planted to some extent. Many other deciduous fruit trees find place in family orchards and experimental grounds, but those named comprise all that are of commercial value at the present time. A complete table of the deciduous fruit acreage by counties would include every one of the fifty-three. The apple, for in- stance, is grown everywhere. The peach and prune better repre- sent the deciduous fruits. A unit of one hundred acres would force us to classify some forty-five counties. Even five hundred acres as a unit would list twenty-nine counties; but, by raising it to a thousand acres, we include all, or nearly all, of the famous deciduous fruit districts. TaB_e Il.— Acreage of Deciduous Fruits. County. Apples. | Apricots. | Cherries. | Peaches. | Pears. ee Alena. ss o2a.ceccons 505 3,310 | 2,171 1,375 | 1,701 4,236 as ceo vaksaacs sone 307 540 165 3,286 | 913 1,144 Se seh ree 225 29 39 1,338 | 200 279 i, A eee eer 185 556 q 2,058 634 1,601 | ES gr ee) Ca Sa 338 320 25 1,079 | 315 946 Los Angeles.............. 1,511 2,899 18 4,059 | 1,661 3;748 CUB ncc soy sone ce esices 128 1,492 10 1,203 | 900 905 WEEE, pena. cansdi cba 332 280 | 272 8,621 | 1,070 615 Sacramento............+. 139 535 160 2,870 | 2,900 1,770 San Bernardino........... 222 1,554 15 | 2,090; 402 1,468 Santa Clara.............. 750 | 4350 | 1,250 | 5,570} 900] 8900 A. . gcc cketesinkaia 153 | 3,733| 486 | 4915 3,050| 2870 Pr Te eres 4,121 229 317 2,507 1,407 2,600 SR. 65 sats 0k sige Soh c sae 86 574 100 3,182 520 1,828 ete ee 147 724 10 8,800 | 642 5,270 WOR fyi ntidscec. cacao’ 15 824 50 | 1,040 621 1,522 Total (16 counties)....| 9,224 | 21,949 | 5,045 | 48,993 | 17,886 | 39,197 _

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“SLOOTEdY FHL ONIAUC ecg Rieger

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THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA, 205 The remaining thirty-seven counties of the State contain acre- ages as follows: Apples, 10,753; apricots, 8,176; cherries, 1,883; peaches, 11,007; pears, 5,906; prunes and plums, 15,445. Adding these totals, we obtain the area of the deciduous orchards. There are 19,977 acres of apples, 30,125 acres of apricots, 6,928 acres of cherries, 55,000 acres of peaches, 23,742 acres of pears, and 54,642 acres of prunes and plums. The deciduous fruits lead in acreage and value of products all other branches of California horticulture; and as the above table Atmonp Tres in Fesrvary. Rancho Chico. $ : plainly shows, the same concentration of each separate variety of fruit in some particular district is manifest everywhere. There are apple counties, peach counties, prune counties, and always will be, although some changes will take place in a decade or two. Peaches, prunes, and apricots occupy nearly three fourths of the acreage. The cherry orchards, although covering the smallest

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206 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. area, are more profitable, and give employment to more laborers, in proportion to acreage, than any others of the class. The greater part of the apple crop is consumed at home, but all the other fruits must find their chief market outside the State. In addition to the acreage already tabulated, there are 1,080 acres of nectarines, 300 acres of quinces, and about 100 acres of Japan persimmons. This makes a grand total of 191,894 acres devoted to this class of fruits. Statistics are somewhat incom- plete for some.of the mountain counties, but it will not be safe to add more than five per cent, and we can then say in round num- bers that 200,000 acres are planted with the deciduous fruits. The leading apple counties of the State are Sonoma, Los Ange- les, Siskiyou, Santa Cruz, San Diego, and Humboldt. Nothing could better illustrate the extent to which the climate of Califor- nia is modified by local conditions. San Diego is the most south- ern county, Siskiyou is the most northern, and they are sepa- rated from each other by more than seven hundred miles, but both contain great apple-growing districts. The leading apricot coun- ties are Solano, Alameda, and Los Angeles. The cherry is chiefly grown in Alameda and Santa Clara. The peach industry has been most completely developed in Santa Clara, Solano, Los Ange- les, Tulare, Butte, and Tehama. Nectarines are mostly planted in Sonomaand Alameda. Plums and prunes seem to belong chief- ly to Santa Clara, Tulare, Alameda, and Solano. Lastly, the great pear districts are in Sacramento, Solano, Alameda, and Los Ange- les. The Coast Range lowlands and foothills, together with a few districts in the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys, produce the bulk of all the deciduous fruits. Third among the horticultural divisions that I have thought it desirable to tabulate are the nut-bearing trees, comparatively small in present acreage, but likely to become more and more important industries. The nuts grown on a commercial scale are only two, the almond and the walnut. The chestnut, pistachio, filbert, pecan, and a few others have been planted to some extent. The following table shows the counties that have 1,000 acres and upward of either almonds or walnuts: Tasix IIl.—Acreage of Nut-bearing Trees.

CounrrY. Almonds. | Walnuts. i ee be ae 1,237 36 a a A rot cui ramee ciecele 1,588 12 END. 055 05 tS tiv w a wen eaae hs Lokcectweds ss 107 1,789 EL dd 6.¢4.045ben avy y sie 340 1,203 La, 5 aL SG Cede cveae Slt de bapemeseee 1,470 70 a. a la dig a. 30 Si ae hebe vuls «eked erbee 150 6,310 bib hah ate Daas la Bd ep 4984 | 11,022

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THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. 207

The remaining forty-nine counties only bring the total of al- mond trees in the State to 9,400 acres and that of walnuts to 14,912 acres. One can easily see how limited are the districts as yet devoted to these products. Three almond counties—Butte, Solano, and Alameda—contain nearly one half of the total acreage of the State; four walnut counties—Ventura, Orange, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara—contain more than four fifths of all the trees planted. The almond, however, is grown to some extent in forty- six counties and the walnut in forty-five. Italian chestnuts, pe- cans, and filberts have been planted to the extent of perhaps 100 acres. This makes the total acreage of nut-bearing trees in the State 24,412. It is not likely that more than 100 or 200 acres were overlooked. In round numbers there may possibly be 25,000 acres in this class of trees. The last division contains the grapes and small fruits. Wine and raisin grapes have been very carefully tabulated each year, but table grapes with less attention to details, and small fruits not at all until recently. The grape industry is mostly carried on in the fourteen counties represented by the following table : Taste IV.—Acreage of Grapes. CounryY. | Wine grapes. Raisin grapes. | Table grapes.

Men bR oink <6 wicatndieasdeahaeenal | 6,396 | 194 | 236 DUMOE, foo deie sos dccnkgetucdieb bert | 647% | 48,998 | 100 EGO RRMIING 65 obs oc iwcdge nbs cis cs vamecne 4,632 671 1,182 ick niin np evi<ccss stich bide raed eee 18,177 10 | 52 POs oi fics bask abeceubenns coop 354 500 | 1,421 DOOUINUNOR, 5 ois di occ vad ocveedaenee’ 3,181 885 | 2,550 Geen TRITID. ... «sn os v'n.caconscueccueniien 1,024 2.591 | 274 GMS fcidkewsceccasnqoretaabeeel 132 4,455 | 510 Seer rete pe | 10,294 200 | 1,200 ith GUE, ov vias dnsacecusesensdeasstanee | 1,865 108 | 1,253 "RS AE LOK PRS SE hE! 1928 | 1,39 | 1,167 NOE iin nc acbia cine tn edd vas aeee | 92.351 Boor | 427 TENOR ca. ckhs cn cangkdaleualiaedcnianien 70 | 10,264 | 100 WN a bi cats s oveeveie Sale cowdoaielal | __ 1,875 | 5,500 | 1,800 Total (14 counties)...........2.++2s0e- 96,903 | 70,077 | 11,978 The total acreage of wine grapes is 91,428 ; that of raisin grapes is 81,773; and that of table grapes is.18,732. Besides, the area devoted to small fruits, as far as can be ascertained, is 5,081 acres. Alameda, Sacramento, and San Joaquin contain over three fifths of the small-fruit area of the State. Returning to grapes, the results are obtained from the statis- tics of the State Viticultural Commissioners’ Report of 1891, with the figures for a few missing counties filled in from other reliable sources. As in previous tables, the chief centers of each depart- ment of the industry are easily recognized. Table grapes are of SS ie Pat eee a

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208 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. especial importance in Sacramento, Yolo, Placer, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, Solano, and Los Angeles, in which counties more than half the table grapes are found. Two counties of the San Joaquin Valley, Fresno and Tulare, have planted five eighths of the total raisin-grape area of the State. Three wine counties— Sonoma, Napa, and Santa Clara—contain five ninths of the total wine-grape area. In round numbers, then, the fruit and vine acreage of Cali- fornia in October, 1893, is as follows: cca cuah ses ae et ones cone w ad balsas one 95,000 EE. 1, 3.43 bet oGs se bad 6 chaenewEbeeeta dies 200,000 IE 5 26 va 3 onc nSba Sas 66 0s dues se ebnkeeese sae 25,000 Nos cncgntGhdnlcnceca soba gprarsyovek 191,938 ita na) oe sauldectgloies 5,081 EE te bec OUS Clin ee vacanakesieestcsbeapbla 517,014 Having ascertained the total acreage, the approximate number of fruit-bearing plants of the kinds tabulated can be readily found. Orchardists set trees at different distances apart according to the soil and the variety: 12’ 12’, 15’x15’, 18’X 18’, and 20’ 20’ can be found within a mile of each other. Walnuts and other strong growing trees are often set 30’ x30’, with cultivated crops planted between for a few years. The above systems of planting give. respectively the following number of trees to the acre:, 302, 193, 134, 108, and 48. Of course, there are many other planting dis- tances in general use. The ordinary rule of multiplying the acreage by 100 has never seemed to me sufficiently accurate, and I should choose 150 as more nearly representative of the orchards of to-day. Grapevines are planted 4'x6’ in the case of some varieties, and 4’Xx8’, 6’x6’, and 8’X8' in ordinary vine- yards. These distances give the following numbers of plants to the acre: 1,815, 1,361, 1,210, and 680; about 1,200 is probably a fair average. Tabulated, with a fair allowance for the acreage planted in the spring of 1893, the sum of the whole matter is as follows: Number of trees on 320,000 acres... ..........2..20.00- 48,000,000 Number of vines, etc., on 200,000 acres................. 240,000,000 Trees and vines of the plant of 1893 (about)............. 7,500,000 Total number of plants (about). ................+.. 295,500,000 The reader must remember that every one of these plants, excepting vines grown from cuttings, has been propagated in a nursery,set out by hand with more or less carefulness, and pruned and cultivated. About sixty per cent of the fruit trees are now in partial or full bearing; in the vineyards the proportion is probably somewhat greater. te tec enlenliacaete

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“MOULD SOLINY “SATU], GNV GANIA adis1Tiff

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“210 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. What is the gross yield from these trees? Like wheat, or any other staple crop, the average per acre is very much less than one would expect. There are often such heavy losses from late frosts, drought, insect pests, and fungoid diseases that only a person of more than ordinary intelligence can successfully manage large orchard in- terests. The average orchard, like the average farm, just about makes a fair living for an industrious man. That this is true can be easily shown by the following figures, and deductions from them : Orchard and Vineyard Products in 1891. : CLass. Pounds. ancl etn tk ns Mig adore PAsiah ae ak bE Own aes 64,790,120 SRE Ee aR SAR ARO ts bale eA 66,743,134 Soe ol koe a ca ctyic oboe cutee abe 101,097,940 ee a ee tn swt hand ens me euhmels 10,220,700 SE cen tetGhdsa bank osc bee kbs bh es kind kee OG0dS 45,558,370 ie ca aa is San dimen acasannn 88,194,560 aU act ecnh cobs 6 ckbah + nesmasondtamandesae 6 50,000 NO aa cath ei hints b8h v4 ba.0 6005s 4K ¢ ORR Tks EHe0b0 0 10,318,060 Total shipment, in pounds... ............00ceccceees 386,972,884 It requires not less than 600,000,000 pounds of fresh fruits, be- sides the nuts, to produce the above results. In round figures, then, 600,000,000 pounds represent the fruit surplus of the State, in the departments of deciduous fruits, citrus fruits, raisins, and table grapes. In addition there was a surplus of as oan sb bec ksceade Vibe ke eRedenAd ext 11,114,029 ER he be 66oSe seat idbnhnds Lae aeks oe 799,614 ai oh) 89-56 vo ae Ceansadess Same pees obs 12,088 Now, there are in California about 500,000 acres of the trees and vines which produce these 600,000,000 pounds of fresh fruit. That is 1,200 pounds to the acre, worth in the orchard from twelve to forty dollars, the average gross value of the crop from an acre of fruit. Of course, many of the trees are not yet in bearing, and some fruit-growers will always have far better returns than this. ; But the above average is very significant. It shows plainly that the industry can not exist upon a lower average price than one of cent a pound for fruit in the orchard. But if the present orchards 3 were in full bearing there might come an especially favorable sea- ‘ son which would give a total, even without further planting, of ry fully 1,500,000,000 pounds. If there are 50,000 acres planted every i year, and the old orchards are kept up, the present acreage will ee be doubled by 1901. But, to show what has been done under favorable circum- stances, I give the following statement of the yield of a 700-acre San Joaquin Valley irrigated orchard in 1890:

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THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. Yield of 700. Acre Orchard. Pounds. Dea 5 i occa eesbek lk Ea ee cane Se PRIN e. « 6'ndito cp nd deeuedsewerds bbc Unde eke Cease kere 2,115,314 NOES oc. 0 otnicbas wkde caso dtvdhabnetighiealsahe 210,518 PRD 50.» ch: 0i en LN Nabe abe mene bes db 5a eiatakeeuh ee 280,124 BB. 5 o 050.6 acc abvadonse bdvucs s6padabenkabates ieee 4,705 BUR. op kccccccnsVopbes b044 end beeen ee onb aren camer 22,283 LEME p ey rs Geers ee ree A Pe Tt 2,972,335 This is a well-authenticated yield of nearly 3,000,000 pounds from the orchard, or, to be more exact, within a fraction of 4,246 pounds to the acre. This fruit was sold for $84,365.61, or $120 per acre, gross receipts. The annual product of the 1,200 acres of vines and trees upon this ranch is confidently expected to be 10,000,000 pounds of fresh fruit when every acre comes into bearing, and that is practicable under first-class management. Ignorance or neglect would ruin both orchard and vineyard, however, in less than three years. The average yield per acre, as previously shown, is only 1,200 pounds, but here is a tract of 700 acres, not in full bearing, that gives three and a half times as much. By obtaining the highest possible price, the estimated possible sale of about $45 per acre (when the yield was 1,500 pounds) has been raised in this case to $120 per acre. Should the whole 1,200 acres ultimately yield 10,000,000. pounds, the average per acre will be more than four tons of green fruit, the increase being largely in the item of grapes. Four tons per acre, at a uniform price of one cent a pound, would yield $80, as against the average value of the State crop at that price, $12 per acre. If the 200,000 acres of deciduous fruits in the State could be made to yield at the rate of this irrigated San Joaquin Valley orchard, the product would now be about 850,000,000 pounds of fresh fruit. The same acreage in full bearing at the expected average would reach the enormous yield of 1,660,000,000 pounds. If the semitropic fruits and vineyards could be depended upon to yield in like proportion, it is safe to say that the fruit supply of the world would be more than provided for, and the transpor- tation facilities of the great railroad lines would be overburdened. But horticulture, like agriculture, is subject to drawbacks and limitations. Orchards and vineyards, exactly the same as corn fields and wheat fields, give only a low general average. The in- dustry of fruit-growing is established upon a solid foundation and is very prosperous, but the whole yield of the State can never be made proportionate to the yield obtained under exceptional cir- cumstances, The acreage and yield of the orchards and vineyards have now been ascertained. The cash value of the total output can not be AT PY tyne pnt,

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: 212 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. as closely calculated. Floating estimates vary even more than the floating estimates of the acreage. Healthy, well-managed orchards probably average gross sales of $100 per acre, taking all classes of fruit together, and one season with another, but there are no reliable statistics of this side of the industry. Returning to an estimate of a present surplus of 600,000,000 pounds of fresh fruit, this at two cents (the average value in the orchards one year pg eo gee i » ¥ “wee be 5 3 se RAS : : # I : , ‘ apes _ Vacavit_te Pear TREE. with another) would yield the growers $12,000,000 and would prob- ably cost the consumer $36,000,000. This does not include the value of the product of the wine grapes. It only represents the output of the gold mine of the orchards. Commercially, of course, the volume of business created is represented by the cost to the consumer. Studies of the future of an industry are seldom useful. Plant- ing of trees and vines continues steadily, and if there is a demand

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Tied Se. e ae THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. 213 the present output can be indefinitely increased. It is believed by the best horticultural authorities that fruit, in various forms, will become more and morea great food staple, used by the masses of the people, and that new markets for the enormous output can be developed from time to time in the United States and in Europe. Like wheat, a staple, fruit in the future will not make fortunes nor “ pay for a ranch in one year,” but will give safe, steady re- turns upon the labor and capital invested. The extensive area that might be devoted to fruit culture, if the demand justified such a use, can be seen by the following figures: San Bernardino, Riverside, San Diego, and Los Angeles Counties, all noted for their semitropic fruits, contain 26,913,000 acres, or in round numbers one fourth the area of the State. Fresno, Kern, and Tulare, the great irrigated counties of the San Joaquin Valley, famous for their vineyards and deciduous fruit orchards, contain 14,737,000 acres. The rich and beautiful fruit counties of Alameda, Butte, Placer, Sacramento, Santa Olara, Solano, Sonoma, and Ventura, added to the above, bring the total area to nearly 50,000,000 acres. It need not be supposed that all these immense districts can be cultivated. There are deserts and barren mountains, as well as fertile valleys, plains, and hillsides. But if only one third of the area of these counties is capable of being cultivated, and if only one third of the cultivated acreage is used for fruits, these counties alone can produce, when their orchards are in full bearing, twenty times as much fruit as the present entire yield of the State. The future of the fruit indus- try of California depends upon the growth of the demand for fruit products. All the other conditions are favorable for the development of the business, but the problem of the possible demand can only be solved by continuing to plant trees, gather fruit, and send it to the markets of the world. The picturesque side of California fruit-growing is very attract- ive and must long remain so. Just now everything is in the creative stage: vineyards and orchards are being extended along the valleys and up the slopes; the cabins of pioneers are giving place to modern cottages and stately dwellings; villages are fast becoming towns; and towns are rising to the rank of cities. Only about the old missions can one find orchards that deserve to be called venerable, as measured by European standards, Take out a few old trees of olive, fig, orange, and. pear, and all that is left are less than forty years old. Blossoming springtime in these great orchards is charming, as almonds, apricots, peaches, and all the rest of the deciduous fruit trees come into flower over square miles. The very road- sides are sometimes covered with drifts of petals blown from the overhanging boughs. Loquats ripen and are fit to market almost

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214 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. before the last apple blossoms are gone in the orchards; cherries come next, then the early apricots and plums; the procession goes on month after month, even after the leaves fall. Late apples, pears, and Japanese persimmons mark the California December, mingling as they do with the ripening oranges and lemons and a few figs hanging on the leafless trees. Although the details of the orchard work vary considerably in different parts of California, the more important elements are much the same everywhere. The winter work of pruning is suc- ceeded by the spring work of cultivation and the summer work of harvest. A highly organized system has been developed; labor- saving machinery is used to a great and increasing extent; and the actual cost of producing a pound of fruit can be proved to have lessened every year. One hesitates to say how cheaply fruit can be grown under favorable circumstances by intelligent Amer- icans who know the business. Men are becoming rich at prices that ten years ago would have seemed ruinous. Of course, there is a limit to the process of cheapening production, but the end is still far off. The planting and culture of orchards; the thinning of green fruit; the gathering, handling, packing, shipping, and marketing of ripe fruit ; the canning, drying, preserving, and other methods of utilizing fruit products—all these are in a process of continuous evolution. The foregoing glimpses of the subject indicate more than the beginnings of a great industry. Whoever visits California will see surprisingly vast and imposing results in concrete forms. Valley after valley, town after town live by the toil of the or- chardist and vineyardist. The sight is a cheering one, because successful fruit culture requires a high dégree of skill and intel- ligence, a thickly settled rural community, and especial facilities for communication with all that these things imply. The road- improvement societies are little needed in California fruit colo- nies. Sometimes the macadamized and sprinkled highways extend six or eight miles out of the town to the very edge of the orchards ; then, as the wheat fields are reached, they degenerate into very ordinary country roads. But the educational requirements of this specialized industry extend into new departments of science, and are continually de- veloping so rapidly that only a few trained observers can take note of the advance. Horticulture, applied to the daily needs of such industries as I have described, leaves its servants no time to dream dreams about possibilities of orchard life a century or even a decade hence. Multitudes of perplexing problems of cul- ture and management arise, but two great tasks are always with the educated orchardist or vineyardist. One, briefly stated, is, “Can I produce new and vastly superior varieties by cross-fertili- git oe sath Gite:

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z 4q % THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. 215 zation and scientific study of the laws of heredity and variation applied to plants?” The answer is, “ Yes; there is no assignable limit to the capacity of our cultivated fruits, and of fruits still wild, to improve and develop new characteristics.” The second great task relates to the ceaseless struggle with the lower forms of animal and vegetable life which prey upon useful forms in immeasurable and innumerable hosts. Gophers and jack-rabbits are now only pests of minor importance in thickly settled orchard-districts, but the warfare of the horticulturist Femicatine Tent. Hydrocyanic-acid gas process for destroying scale. Chino Valley. with fungoid diseases and parasitic insects long ago passed its amusing stage. It is a serious business of importance to the whole human race, because whatever threatens the food supply threatens the life of man. The practical applications of skill and capital in the field of preventive and remedial agencies have been remarkable. Every successful Californian fruit-grower has now_learned that he must as regularly treat his trees for scale and other inflictions as he must plow his land, thin the fruit, or gather the crop. At the spraying season in the fruit districts

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. 216 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. it is literally true that the odor of the various preparations used to destroy insect life is universal for miles and for days at a time. Nine tenths of the discussions in the innumerable local clubs of fruit-growers that are doing so much for the practical advance of the industry in California are discussions upon meth- ods for the destruction of these pests. Sometimes one sees hundreds of acres of orchard, in February, snow-white over every inch of twig, with “salt and lime wash,” or other acres are brown with sulphite of soda or oil and alkali. Now and then comes an orchard where the remedies have been used in too great strength, and the buds and tender bark seem blighted and blackened. The prevailing enemy of the orchards is the insect fam- ily Coccide. The species that do most harm are the oyster- shell scale (Mytilaspis pomo- rum), the pernicious scale (As- pidiotus perniciosus), the yel- low orange scale (Aspidiotus citrinus), the red orange scale (Aonidia aurantii), and the apricot scale (Lecanium ar- meniacum). The Florida red scale (Aspidiotus ficus) and the mining scale (Chionaspis biclavis), a very dangerous species from Tahiti, are being quarantined against by the horticultural commissioners. <A cargo of 325,000 orange trees infested with the Tahiti species was once destroyed by Mr. Craw, the quarantine officer of the State Board. Another group of scale insects known as “cottony scales” (Icerya and Dactylopius) are among the worst enemies of the orchardist. Aphides, canker worms, caterpillars, and fungoid diseases are as yet of much less immediate danger to the fruit-growers than the various Coccide of which I have named only the prominent species, Many valuable formulas for summer and winter washes, for kerosene emulsions, and other preparations were first used in Cali- fornia. The hydrocyanic-acid-gas method is also a Californian

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Fo ee eee fester, THE FRUIT INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA, 217 invention. Derricks and tents are used in this gas treatment, and it solves many difficulties in the way of using washes and the spray system on the citrus fruit trees. The city of Riverside owns sev- eral complete sets of the necessary apparatus, and rents at a nom- inal rate to fruit-growers, who hire operators and furnish the neces- sary chemicals. Since this is not a technical treatise, however, I must refer students of the perpetual struggle going on in Cali- fornia between the orchardist and his insect enemies to the pub- lications of the Agricultural Department of the State University and of the State Board of Horticulture. Here, in thousands of” pages, the story is told in every detail. There is not only an active warfare going on against insect foes, but various predaceous and parasitic insects that destroy dangerous species have been called to the aid of the horticulturist. In conclusion, one must ask,“ How goes the fight?” The sta- tistics of the fruit industry answer this question. The cost of destroying insect pests has become a permanent item of expense, the results of which are increased profits, Care and manage- ment of orchards now include preparation of the soil; selection of varieties adapted to the place; planting and culture of the trees; pruning, according to different systems for different spe- cies and localities ; the use of special fertilizers, and the destruc- tion of noxious insect life. The various coccids that infest the California orchard valleys are only to be found in dangerous numbers upon the orcliards of the careless or the ignorant fruit- growers. Their multiplication is readily and safely checked on as large a scale as desired, and at a cost paid many times over by the increased crop. Sometimes, for several seasons and over large districts, the coccids disappear, but they return, and re- newed expenditures of time and skill are necessary to conquer them again. The expense lessens, however, and the certainty of success increases, year after year as the fruit-grower becomes a specialist. Does this appear too difficult? It is the same old demand for intellect, inherent in the order of things. Horti- culture in every division is a science as well as an art, and it more and more amply rewards the eanneness skill of the well- equipped specialist, Durive the discussion in the British Association on anthropometric measure- ments, Dr. Garson expressed the opinion that there could be no better syetem than that adopted in the United States, where an enormous number of observa- tions were made on a uniform plan in many schools. If the American plan could be adopted in Great Britain we should be able to compare children on both sides _ of the Atlantic, and have full details of the growth of the English race. The dif- ferent methods of anthropometric observation now adopted rendered the seoalts absolutely useless, VOL, XLIv.—18

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. CRIMINAL WOMAN. Br Miss HELEN ZIMMERN. 6: hog school of criminal anthropologists is making great strides in Italy. New works are continually pouring from the press which record the observations of students of this modern science, all of them striving to establish the data on which to base the phenomena of crime and degeneration. The world-famed name of Prof. Cesare Lombroso constantly appears on new works, which are fresh guides to science. La Donna Delinquente (Criminal Woman) is the title of his latest book, which is a joint work written together with one of his pupils, Prof. G. Ferrero. This book completes his previous admirable study entitled L’ Uomo Delinquente (Criminal Man). This new study on abnor- mal woman is a very important work, which offered much greater difficulties in the way of research and observation than that on man. Indeed, Lombroso writes in his preface: “The chief results of our first investigations were in opposition to the usual prem- ises; even individual and partial observations seemed to clash; so that if one wished to be logical one was obliged to hesitate as to definite conclusions. We were, however, faithful to the maxim that we have always pursued; we followed facts blindly, even when they appeared to contradict each other and seemed taking a false turning. And we were not wrong: in the end the facts which seemed most opposed, fitted into their places like the pieces of a mosaic and formed a uniform and perfect design, although at first it seemed as if we were groping in the dark and that it was difficult to collect them. When at last we reached the desired goal, we tasted the bitter delight of the hunter who seizes his prey after scouring rocks and precipices, and feels the joy of his success redoubled by the losses and fatigues his conquest has cost him.” In this quotation is given truly the keynote to the whole vol- ume. It explains to the reader what difficulties the authors have had to surmount, in order to draw a precise and certain conclu- sion, and to determine the characteristics of female criminals, just as other similar works written by modern savanis define those of male offenders. The work is divided into four principal parts: 1. Normal Woman. 2. Female Crime. 3. Pathological and Anthropometrical Anatomy of Female Criminals and Pros- titutes. 4. Biology and Psychology of Female Delinquents and Prostitutes. The first part is full of observations on normal women, and is a contrast to the second, which treats of female criminals in all their different changes of organism and mental attitude. In the section devoted to normal women, Lombroso

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a Pe ae ee. ° AI ONS Vtg i — ‘ in betes —T pe Daehivsynweiacs Asien bee a” CRIMINAL WOMAN. 219 treats of the women of primitive nations and compares them with those of civilized peoples. The study is minute, subtle, and val- uable. Nor does Lombroso hesitate even to make comparisons with female animals. This attitude, which might be called a want of respect, Lombroso explains in his preface, saying: “ Those who, writing about women, are not content with the close logic of facts, but continue or rather counterfeit the traditions of the mid- dle ages and use chivalry toward the gentle sex, will think that we have often been wanting in respect to them in our work. But if we have not respected our most cherished preconceived ideas, such as the idea of the ‘reo nato’ (born criminal), neither have we been afraid of the apparent contradictions which to ordinary eyes might have seemed deleterious to our work. How could we be- come followers of a conventional and unscientific untruth, which only acquired shape in order to lose it directly ?” And truly science can not feed on rhetoric, and Lombroso’s books are not those of a poet or novelist, but those of a scientific man, who believes in his work and who devotes himself seriously to its exigencies, no matter whither its necessary conclusions land him. In his study on criminal woman he brings before us women in every condition of life; he makes a minute study of their good qualities and of their defects, analyzing both, and only speaking when he can draw conclusions from what he has ob- served and studied. Hence his work is a powerful contribution to that affirmation of modern theories on crime which are destined to change entirely the theories of penal law which have ruled up to the present time. The first portion of Lombroso’s work is divided into chapters which treat of the females of the zodlogical world; of the anatomy and biology of women; of the senses and mind of women; of their cruelty, pity, and maternity; of their love, ethics, vanity, and intelligence. These chapters are so many monographs and pre- sent normal woman from every point of view. She is described as always inferior to man, because her faculties are less developed. Strange to say, according to Lombroso, she has less feeling than man, This seems a direct contradiction of all legends and tradi- tions. And is it not woman, rather than man, who is the most ardent opponent to all useless suffering ; is it not women who have been the chief promoters of anti-cruelty societies, no matter if this cruelty be practiced on human beings or on animals? But the contradiction is explained, according to Lombroso, by the greater excitability of women and their lesser inhibition. As soon as the primitive barbarities of sexual selection began to be mitigated, men chose as wives the prettiest and gentlest instead of the strongest women, so paying tribute to beauty and the moral qualities that are associated with it. Thus women were

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| 220 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. perfected in gentleness, grace, and pleasing manners, and with- drew from those qualities that required strength and cruelty, Other influences, not least among which is the longer duration of maternity, cause civilized women to become more compassionate; but in every woman there is an undercurrent of cruelty, which appears either when her nature is wicked or when her strongest feelings, such as those of mother or wife, are attacked. Hence Lombroso adduces that woman’s attitude with regard to cruelty and pity is a contradictory one, which will by evolution give way in favor of gentleness and mercy. In the second part of his work Lombroso compares the crimes of female animals with the crimes of primitive and savage women; and in the third chapter he gives a brief history of prostitution, which he considers as one of the great factors in the promotion of crime. Under the head- ing, “Crimes of Primitive Women,” the writer discusses adul- tery, abortion, infanticide, witchcraft, and poisoning, and con- cludes thus: “In general, women savages, like other women, commit fewer crimes than men, although their nature is rather worse than better; and the crimes for which they are punished are in great part conventional, such as those contained in tabu and witchcraft. What corresponds to crime among men is for savage women prostitution.” In the Pathological and Anthropometrical Anatomy of Female Criminals and Prostitutes, which forms the third part of the book, all the measurements which serve to establish those irregulari- ties from which the criminal school draws its conclusions have been taken with the greatest care. According to Lombroso, they are for women the following: Height, the length of the arms when opened, and the length of the limbs are inferior in crimi- nals—weight being, in relation to their stature, greater in prosti- tutes and assassins than in ordinary women. The hands are lon- ger and more developed in prostitutes, the foot shorter, the fin- gers less developed than the rest of the hand. The size and cir- cumference of the skull in female thieves, and even more so in prostitutes, are small; vice versa, the facial diameter and espe- cially the jaw are more developed than in normal specimens. The hair and iris are apt to be darker in criminals, and up to a cer- tain point in prostitutes, in whom, however, fair and red hair are often lighter or darker than the normal color. White hair, which is rare in ordinary women, is twice as frequent in criminals; vice versa, with them baldness is rarer during youth and middle age than among ordinary women, while wrinkles are more frequent only when they are middle-aged. It has been difficult to gather these facts with certainty about prostitutes, who are nearly all painted and made up even when quite young; but from the data Lombroso had to go upon, precocious white hair and baldness

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CRIMINAL WOMAN, would be a common defect, as it is in those who are born delin- quents. Irregularities of countenance are to be met with ina greater degree in female assassins and poisoners than in infanti- cides. The real criminal type is rarer among female than male delinquents; it is found more frequently among prostitutes, and according to a still more precise study made by Tarnowsky, there are more female murderers than thieves, while prostitutes are the most numerous of all, “In short,” as our author writes, “female criminals have less typical faces, because they are less criminal than men, and women in every degeneration present fewer digressions than men, be- cause women being organically conservative preserve the average type even in their moral aberrations; besides which, beauty being a supreme necessity for them, this overcomes all the attacks made by moral degeneracy. Still, it can not be denied that when wickedness is deep-rooted, then the general rule which stamps crime with a type, conquers every obstacle, at least in civilized races, and this is particularly the case with prostitutes, because the latter recall the type of primitive woman much more than fe- male criminals.” The third part closes with a fine chapter on tattooing in women, the tendency to tattoo being, according to Lombroso, an infallible indication of criminal tendencies, The fourth and last part of the work is entitled The Biology and Psychology of Female Criminals and Prostitutes. It is di- vided into twelve chapters that are crowded with the most minute and subtle researches, The first three treat of female criminals and prostitutes in general; the others make a separate study of women born with criminal tendencies and those who have be- come criminals through incidental causes, such as love; suicides; women born with a natural inclination to prostitution; womén who have become prostitutes through circumstances; insane criminals; epileptic and hysterical delinquents. It is this portion . of the work that has required the greatest circumspection. It is so easy here to fall into errors in drawing conclusions from such complicated and various data as presented themselves, and the more, because the variety of subjects examined is very large. Lombroso, in making a réswmé of the second chapter, observes that fatness of the palm of the hand and irregularities in the pupil of the eye are greater in prostitutes than in female crimi- nals, but are never so marked as in male criminals. The reflec- tions in the pupil of the eye in prostitutes are, however, duller than in male criminals, this being accounted for by the direct action of syphilis on the nervous centers. Few women are born with criminal tendencies, according to Lombroso; but when this is the case, criminality is more intense

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' 222 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and depraved in them than in men. They prove themselves most cruel, and when compared with normal women they are found wanting in every attribute belonging to the latter. For example, among women born with criminal tendencies there is a total want of maternal affection, pity, and love; they are excessively erotic and revengeful, revenge among women naturally criminals being one of the chief motives for crime. By a curious contrast in this class a mawkish sentimentality, which is particularly apparent in their letters, takes the place of real and strong sentiment. For instance, Avelina wrote to her lover thus: “I am jealous of Nature, which seems to madden us by its beauty. Dearest one, don’t you think that this beautiful weather is made for lovers and speaks of love?” Again: “How I wish the undertaking which would render us free and happy were over” (the murder of her husband) ; “I miust succeed in it, as paradise isin view. The turning of the path is full of roses.” Lombroso concludes thus: “Since these women are morally insane, and are wanting in all noble and deep sentiments, they exchange them for exaggerated sophistications, just as a coward boasts of a chimerical and ab- surd courage in his discourses.” Women born criminals are intelligent, and make up for their weakness and want of physical power to satisfy their natural de- pravity by having recourse to cunning in their fight against society. But as a whole the type of the wontan born to be a criminal shows a great likeness to the type of men criminals, and in the rare case of complete criminality women surpass men in wickedness, Females who have become delinquents by accident— and the greater number of female criminals belong to this class— may be divided into two categories: the one represented by fe- males born with only slight criminal tendencies, the other con- taining delinquents who differ very slightly from normal women, and who sometimes are nothing but ordinary women whose con- dition in life has been such as to develop that fund of immorality which is latent in every woman. Prof. Lombroso determines by indubitable data the much-debated question of the affinity be- tween prostitution and criminality, concluding that the psycho- logical and anatomical identity between criminals and born pros- titutes could not be more complete; both being morally insane, by a mathematic axiom they become equal: In drawing his conclu- sions on women who have become prostitutes through circum- ‘stances Lombroso says that mentally these are more abnormal than women who have become criminals by choice, because, ac- cording to the theory of his school, prostitution and not crimi- nality is the true degeneration of woman, innate female criminals being rare and monstrous exceptions. He says: “Chastity is the strongest feminine sentiment after maternity; it isa sentiment nan : - 7 nebo ahi pee ate = REE" ie i ” eas Pee See

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Acomen tangled Raise CRIMINAL WOMAN. 223 toward which the minds of women have worked for so many centuries in order to create and consolidate it: thus, if a woman, who though not wanting in chastity loses it easily, she must be more deeply abnormal than a woman who when exposed to great temptations forgets to respect other people’s property. This fact is almost normal; the other being instead most abnormal. This is the reason that women who have become prostitutes by chance present many of the characteristics of those born with a natural tendency to prostitution; while female criminals who are almost normal have little in common with innate criminals, these last being a double exception from many points of view, and a spo- radic monstrosity.” The last chapters treat of insane, epileptic, and hysterical criminals. This terrible but most necessary examination of criminal women occupies a large volume of six hundred and fifty pages. What remedy can be found? This is the subject of the second volume, which will soon appear, and in which Lombroso will speak of the different social importance of crime and prostitution, the two different forms of male and female crime. The present vol- ume is largely illustrated by designs which serve as proofs of the data collected. It is most interesting to see the reproduction of the different types of female delinquents. As usual, Lombroso speaks with the true modesty of a scientific man. “Not one line of this work,” he writes, “ justifies the many tyrannies of which women have been and are still the victims— from the tabu, which forbids them to eat meat or to touch cocoa- nuts, up to that which prevents them learning or, still worse, car- rying on a profession once they have learned it. These are cruel and overbearing practices by whose means we have certainly contributed to maintain and, what is worse, to increase the in- feriority of woman, so as to be able to despoil her for our advan- tage, while hypocritically we were covering the docile victim with praises which we did not believe, and which were a prepara- tion for fresh sacrifices rather than an ornament.” His love for his science he has again and again abundantly proved. It is deeply interesting to read the conclusion he himself draws from his labors—a conclusion that “all who believe in woman and her future can but rejoice in.” Muon suggestive work has recently been accomplished in the domain of chem- istry, in the attempt to apply the principle of gravitation to account for the inter- actions of the molecules of the elements. ‘So far,” says Prof. Reynolds, of the University of Dublin, “the fundamental hypothesis of ‘Newtonian chemistry’ has led to conclusions which are not at variance with the facts of the science, while it gives promise of help in obtaining a solution of the great problem of the nature of chemical action.” :

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- 224 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. Br LESLIE STEPHEN. i el his deeply interesting Romanes lecture, Prof. Huxley has stated the opinion that the ethical progress of society depends upon our combating the “cosmic process” which we call the struggle for existence. Since, as he adds, we inherit the “ cosmic nature” which is the outcome of millions of years of severe train- ing, it follows that the “ethical nature” may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and powerful enemy as long as the world lasts. This is not a cheerful prospect. It is, as he admits, an audacious proposal to pit the microcosm against the macrocosm. We can not help fearing that the microcosm may get the worst of it. Prof. Huxley has not fully expanded his meaning, and says much to which I could cordially subscribe. But I think that the facts upon which he relies admit or require an interpretation which avoids the awkward conclusion. Pain and suffering, as Prof. Huxley tells us, are always with us, and even increase in quantity and intensity as evolution ad- vances. The fact has been recognized in remote ages long before theories of evolution had taken their modern form. Pessimism, from the time of the ancient Hindu philosophers to the time of their disciple, Schopenhauer, has been in no want of evidence to support its melancholy conclusions, It would be idle to waste rhetoric in the attempt to recapitulate so familiar a position. Though I am not a pessimist, I can not doubt that there is more plausibility in the doctrine than I could wish. Moreover, it may be granted that any attempt to explain or to justify the existence of evil is undeniably futile. It is not so much that the problem can not be answered as that it can not even be asked in any intel- ligible sense. To “explain” a fact is to assign its causes—that is, to give the preceding set of facts out of which it arose. However far we might go backward, we should get no nearer to perceiving any reason for the original fact. If we explain the fall of man by Adam’s eating the apple we are quite unable to say why the apple should have been created. If we could discover a general theory of pain, showing, say, that it implied certain physiological condi- tions, we should be no nearer to knowing why those physiological conditions should have been what they are. The existence of pain, in short, is one of the primary data of our problem, not one of the accidents for which we can hope in any intelligible sense to account. To give any “justification” is equally impossible. The book of Job really suggests an impossible, one may almost say a meaningless, problem. We can give an intelligible meaning to a demand for justice when we can suppose that a man has certain

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: oe : + r we apes 6 7 c Pais . io] ) ; 4 in y — ~~) >» AP ~ oo oo. * Pe i ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 225 antecedent rights which another man may respect or neglect, But this has no meaning as between the abstraction “ Nature” and the concrete facts which are themselves Nature. It is unjust to treat equal claims differently. But it is not “ unjust” im any intelligible sense that one being should be a monkey and another a man, any more than that one part of me should be a hand and another a head. The question would only arise if we supposed that the man and the monkey had existed before they were created, and had then possessed claims to equal treatment, The most logi- cal theologians indeed admit that as between creature and creator there can be properly no question of justice. The pot and the potter can not complain of each other. If the writer of Job had been able to show that the virtuous were rewarded and the vicious punished, he would only have transferred the problem to another issue. The judge might be justified but the creator would be condemned. How can it be just to place a being where he is cer- tain to sin and then to damn him for sinning ? That is the prob- lem to which no answer can be given; and which already implies a confusion of ideas. We apply the conception of justice in a sphere where it is not applicable, and naturally fail to get any intelligible answer. The question therefore resolves itself into a different one. We can neither explain nor justify the existence of pain; but of course we can ask whether, as a matter of fact, pain predominates over pleasure, and we can ask whether, as a matter of fact, the “cosmic processes” tend to promote or discourage virtuous con- duct. Does the theory of the “ struggle for existence” throw any new light upon the general problem? Iam quite unable to see, for my own part, that it really makes any difference: evil exists; and the question whether evil predominates over good can only, I should say, be decided by an appeal to experience. One source of evil is the conflict of interests. Every beast preys upon others, and man, according to the old saying, is a wolf to man. All that the Darwinian theory can do is to enable us to trace the conse- quences of this fact in certain directions, but it neither reveals the fact nor makes it more or less an essential part of the process, It “explains” certain phenomena, in the sense of showing their . connection with previous phenomena, but does not show why the phenomena should present themselves at all. If we indulge our minds in purely fanciful constructions, we may regard the actual system as good or bad, just as.we choose to imagine for its alter- native a better or a worse system. If everybody had been put into a world where there was no pain, or where each man could get all he wanted without interfering with his neighbors, we may fancy that things would have been pleasanter. If the struggle, which we all know to exist, had no effect in promoting the “sur-

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226 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. vival of the fittest,” things—so at least some of us may think— would have been worse. But such fancies have nothing to do with scientific inquiries, We have to take things as they are, and make the best of them. The common feeling, no doubt, is different. The incessant struggle between different races suggests a painful view of the universe, as Hobbes’s natural state of war suggested painful theories as to human nature. War is evidently immoral, we think; and a doctrine which makes the whole process of evolu- tion a process of war must be radically immoral too. The strug- gle, it is said, demands “ ruthless self-assertion,” and the hunting down of all competitors; and such phrases certainly have an un- pleasant sound. But, in the first place, the use of the epithets implies an anthropomorphism to which we have no right so long as we are dealing with the inferior species. We are then in a re- gion to which moral ideas have no direct application, and where the moral sentiments exist only in germ, if they can properly be said to exist at all. Is it fair to call a wolf “ruthless” because it eats a sheep and fails to consider the transaction from the sheep’s point of view ? We must surely admit that if the wolf is without mercy he is also without malice. We call an animal ferocious because a man who acted in the same way would be ferocious, But the man is really ferocious because he is really aware of the pain which he inflicts. The wolf, I suppose, has no more recog- nition of the sheep’s feelings than a man has of feelings in the oyster or the potato, For him, they are simply non-existent; and it is just as inappropriate to think of the wolf as cruel as it would be to call the sheep cruel for eating grass. Are we, then, to say that “Nature” is cruel because the arrangement increases the sum of general suffering? That is a problem which I do not feel able to answer; but it is at least obvious that it can not be answered off- hand in the affirmative. To the individual sheep it matters noth- ing whether he is eaten by the wolf or dies of disease or starvation. He has to die anyway, and the particular way is unimportant. The wolf is simply one of the limiting forces upon sheep, and, if he were removed, others would come into play. The sheep, left to himself, would still have a practical illustration of the doctrine of Malthus. If, as evolutionists tell us, the hostility of the wolf tends to improve the breed of sheep, to encourage him to climb better and to sharpen his wits, the sheep may be, on the whole, the better for the wolf: in this sense, at least, thus the sheep of a _ wolfless region might lead a more wretched existence, and be less capable animals and more subject to-disease and starvation than the sheep in a wolf-haunted region. The wolf may, so far,-be a blessing in disguise. This suggests another obvious remark. When we speak of the . me oF; +o. de? ari ce eke ere A sh ewe a, iat Stant — = hal P . ee -- md ; i a eet ee ne ae eS er - ‘ “Ai fal” ght NE pe Sa

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a - ey Fyn k ee or "RR stip s Ree ia eopaiet oP ny So ge Bes, OF apt So lea it eae Pad o ¢ 6 & Oe ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 227 struggle for existence, the popular view seems to construe this into the theory that the world is a mere cockpit, in which one race carries on an internecine struggle with the other. If the wolves are turned in with the sheep, the first result will be that all the sheep will become mutton, and the last that there will be one big wolf with all the others inside him. But this is contrary to the essence of the doctrine. Every race depends, we all hold, upon its environment, and the environment includes all the other races. If some, therefore, are in conflict, others are mutually necessary. If the wolf ate all the sheep, and the sheep ate all the grass, the result would be the extirpation of all the sheep and all the wolves, as well as all the grass. The struggle necessarily im- plies reciprocal dependence in a countless variety of ways. There is not only a conflict, but a system of tacit alliances. One species is necessary to the existence of others, though the multiplication of some implies also the dying out of particular rivals. The conflict implies no cruelty, as I have said, and the alliance no good will. The wolf neither loves the sheep (except as mutton) nor hates him; but he depends upon him as absolutely as if he were aware of the fact. The sheep is one of the wolf’s necessaries of life, When we speak of the struggle for existence, we mean, of course, that there is at any given period a certain equilibrium between all the existing species; it changes, though it changes so slowly that the process is imperceptible and difficult to realize even to the scientific imagination. Thesurvival of any species involves the disappearance of rivals no more than the preservation of allies. The struggle, therefore, is so far from internecine that it necessarily involves co-operation. It can not even be said that it necessarily implies suffering. People, indeed, speak as though the extinction of a race involved suffering in the same way as the slaughter of an individual, It is plain that this is not a necessary though it may sometimes be the actual result. A corporation may be suppressed without injury to its members. Every indi- vidual will die before long, struggle or no struggle. If the rate of reproduction fails to keep up with the rate of extinction, the species must diminish. But this might happen without any in- crease of suffering. If the boys in a district discover how to take birds’ eggs, they might soon extirpate a species; but it does not follow that the birds would individually suffer. Perhaps they would feel themselves relieved from a disagreeable responsibility. The process by which a species is improved, the dying out of the least fit, implies no more suffering than we know to exist inde- pendently of any doctrine as to a struggle. When we use an- thropomorphic language, we may speak of “self-assertion.” But “self-assertion,” minus the anthropomorphism, means self-preser- vation ; and that is merely a way of describing the fact tliat an

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228 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. animal or plant which is well adapted to its conditions of life is more likely to live than an animal which is ill adapted. I have some difficulty in imagining how any other arrangement can even be supposed possible. It seems to be almost an identical proposi- tion that the healthiest and strongest will generally live longest ; and the conception of a “struggle for existence” only enables us to understand how this results in certain progressive modifica- tions of the species. If we could even for a moment have fancied that there was no pain and disease, and that some beings were not more liable than others to those evils, I might admit that the new doctrine has made the world darker. As it is, it seems to me that it leaves the data just what they were before, and only shows us that they have certain previously unsuspected bearings upon the history of the world. One other point must be mentioned. Not only are species interdependent as well as partly in competition, but there is an absolute dependence in all the higher species between its different members which may be said to imply a de facto altruism, as the dependence upon other species implies a de facto co-operation. Every animal, to say nothing else, is absolutely dependent-for a considerable part of its existence upon its parents. The young bird or beast could not grow up unless its mother took care of it for a certain period. There is, therefore, no struggle as between mother and progeny, but, on the contrary, the closest possible alliance. Otherwise life would be impossible. The young being defenseless, their parents could exterminate them if they pleased, and by so doing would exterminate the race. This, of course, constantly involves a mutual sacrifice of the mother to her young. She has to go through a whole series of operations, which strain her own strength and endanger her own existence, but which are absolutely essential to the continuance of the race. It may be anthropomorphic to attribute any maternal emotions of the human kind to the animal. The bird, perhaps, sits upon her eggs because they give her an agreeable sensation, or, if you please, from a blind instinct which somehow determines her to the prac- tice. She does not look forward, we may suppose, to bringing up a family, or speculate tpon the delights of domestic affec- tion. I only say that as a fact she behaves in a way which is at once injurious to her own chances of survival and abso- lutely necessary to the survival of the species. The abnor- mal bird who deserts her nest escapes many dangers; but if all birds were devoid of the instinct, the birds would not survive a generation. : Now, I ask, what is the difference which takes place when the monkey gradually loses his tail and sets up a superior brain? Is it properly to be described as a development or improvement of os ati Rey Tee, 5 le 4. - * . it ae ing! Ny PME cee = ge et eee Me - n oe. ee ei x i % > = : -

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ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 229 the “cosmic process,” or as the beginning of a prolonged contest against it ? In the first place, so far as man becomes a reasonable being, capable of foresight and of the adoption of means to ends, he recognizes the necessity of these tacit alliances. He believes it to be his interest not to exterminate everything, but to exterminate those species alone whose existence is incompatible with his own. The wolf eats every sheep that he comes across as long as his ap- petite lasts. If there are too many wolves, the process is checked by the starvation of the supernumerary eaters. Man can preserve as many sheep as he wants, and may also proportion the numbers of his own species to the possibilities of future supply. Many of ‘ the lower species thus become subordinate parts of the social 3 organism—that is to say, of the new equilibrium which has been established. There is so far a reciprocal advantage. The sheep Ree VT area a pee Se Sr aoe “era: . % who is preserved with a view to mutton gets the advantage, i though he is not kept with a view to his own advantage. Of all é arguments for vegetarianism, none is so weak as the argument ¥ from humanity. The pig has a stronger interest than any one in the demand for bacon. If all the world were Jewish, there would be no pigs at all. He has to pay for his privileges by an early death; but he makes a good bargain of it. He dies young, and . though we can hardly infer the “love of the gods,” we must ad- mit that he gets a superior race of beings to attend to his comforts, moved by the strongest possible interest in his health and vigor, and induced by its own needs, perhaps, to make him a little too fat for comfort, but certainly also to see that he has a good sty, and plenty to eat every day of his life. Other races, again, are extirpated as “ruthlessly” as in the merely instinctive struggle for existence. We get rid of wolves and snakes as well as we can, and more systematically than can be done by their animal com- petitors. The process does not necessarily involve cruelty, and certainly does not involve a diminution of the total of happiness. The struggle for existence means the substitution of a new system of equilibrium, in which one of the old discords has been removed, and the survivors live in greater harmony. If the wolf is extir- pated as an internecine enemy, it is that there may be more sheep when sheep have become our allies and the objects of our earthly providence. The result may be, perhaps I might say must be, a state in which, on the whole, there is a greater amount of life sup- ported on the planet: and therefore, as those will think who are not pessimists, a decided gain on the balance. At any rate, the difference so far is that the condition which was in all cases ne- cessary, is now consciously recognized as necessary ; and that we deliberately aim at a result which always had to be achieved on penalty of destruction. So far, again, as morality can be éstab- RS WE wcll a Go

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230 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. lished on purely prudential grounds, the same holds good of rela- tions between human beings themselves. Men begin to perceive that, even from a purely personal point of view, peace is prefer- able to war. If war is unhappily still prevalent, it is at least not war in which every clan is fighting with its neighbors, and where conquest means slavery or extirpation. Millions of men are af peace within the limits of a modern state, and can go about their business without cutting each other’s throats. When they fight with other nations they do not enslave nor massacre their prison- ers. Taking the purely selfish ground, a Hobbes can prove con- clusively that everybody has benefited by the social compact which substituted peace and order for the original state of war. Is this, then, a reversal of the old state of things—a combating of a “cosmic process”? Ishould rather say that it is a development of the tacit alliances, and a modification so far of the direct or in- ternecine conflict. Both were equally implied in the older condi- tions and both still exist. Some races form alliances, while others are crowded out of existence. Of course, I cease to do some things which I should have done before. I don’t attack the first man I meet in the street and take his scalp. The reason is that I don’t expect that he will take mine; for, if I did, I fear that even asa civilized being, I should try to anticipate his intentions. This merely means that we have both come to see that we have a com- mon interest in keeping the peace. And this, again, merely means that the alliance which was always an absolutely necessary condi- tion of the survival of the species has now been extended through a@ wider area. The species could not have got on at all if there had not been so much alliance as is necessary for its reproduction and for the preservation of its young for some years of helpless- ness. The change is simply that the small circle which included only the primitive family or class has extended, so that we can meet members of the same race on terms which were previously confined to the minuter group. We have still to exterminate and still to preserve. The mode of employing our energies has changed, but not the essential nature. Morality proper, however, has so far not emerged. It begins when sympathy begins; when we really desire the happiness of others ; or, as Kant says, when we treat other men as an end and not simply asa means. Undoubtedly this involves a new principle no less than the essential principle of all true morality. Still I have to ask whether it implies a combating or a continuation of a cosmic process. Now,as I have observed, even the animal mother shows what I have called a de facto altruism, She has instincts which, though dangerous to the individual, are essential for the race, The human mother sacrifices herself with a consciousness of the results to herself, and her personal fears are overcome by

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a os ae cided Mae wen bia = WR staan 4 ME aad ttn, ites a” ems WA, Cee meeiet ie an »- - ¢ r PS ads ART 3 or Cee ag : ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 231 the strength of her affections. She will endure a painful death to save her children from suffering. The animal sacrifices herself, but without consciousness and therefore without moral worth. This is merely the most striking exemplification of the general process of the development of morality. Conduct is first regarded purely with a view to the effects upon the agent, and is therefore enforced by extrinsic penalties, by consequences, that is, supposed to be attached to it by the will of some ruler, natural or supernat- ural. The instinct which comes to regard such conduct as bad in itself, which implies a dislike of giving pain to others, not merely a dislike to the gallows, grows up under such protection, and in the really moralized being acquires a strength which makes the external penalty superfluous. This, indubitably, is the greatest of all changes, the critical fact which decides whether we are to regard conduct simply as useful or also to regard it as moral in the strictest sense. But I should still call it a development and not a reversal of the previous process. The conduct which we call virtuous is the same conduct externally which we before re- garded as useful. The difference is that the simple fact of its utility—that is, of its utility to others and to the race in general —has now become the sufficient motive for the action as well as the implicit cause of the action. In the earlier stages, when no true sympathy existed, men and animals were still forced to act in a certain way because it was beneficial to others. They now act in that way because they perceive it to be beneficial to others, The whole history of moral evolution seems to imply this. We may go back to a period at which the moral law is identified with the general customs of the race; at which there is no perception of any clear distinction between that which is moral and that which is simply customary; between that which is imposed by a Jaw in the strict sense and that which is dictated by general moral principles, In such a state of things, the motives for obedience partake of the nature of “ blind instincts.” No definite reason for them is present to the mind of the agent, and it does not occur to him even to demand a reason. “Our father did so and we do so” is the sole and sufficient explanation of their conduct. Thus in- stinct again may be traced back by evolutionists to the earliest period at which the instincts implied in the relations between the sexes, or between parents and offspring, existed. They were the germ from which has sprung all morality such as we now recognize. Morality, then, implies the development of certain instincts which are essential to the race, but which may in an indefinite number of cases be injurious to the individual. The mother is killed because she obeys her natural instincts; but if it were not for mothers and their instincts, the race would come to

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eet ti ae ay eee LN MLS. & es ae ey 232 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, anend. Prof, Huxley speaks of the “ fanatical individualism” of our time as failing to construct morality from the analogy of the cosmic process. An individualism which regards the cosmic process as equivalent simply to an internecine struggle of each against all must certainly fail to construct a satisfactory morality, and I will add that any individualism which fails to recognize fully the social factor, which regards society as an aggregate in- stead of an organism, will, in my opinion, find itself in difficulties. But I also submit that the development of the instincts which directly correspond to the needs of the race, is merely another case in which we aim consciously at an end which was before an unintentional result of our actions. Every race, above the lowest, has instincts which are only intelligible by the requirements of the race; and has both to compete with some and to form alli- ances with others of its fellow-occupants of the planet. Both in the unmoralized condition and in that in which morality has be- come most developed, these instincts have the common charac- teristics that they may be regarded as conditions of the power of the race to maintain its position in the world, and so, speaking roughly, to preserve or increase its own vitality. I will not pause to insist upon this so far as regards many qualities which are certainly moral, though they may be said to refer primarily to the individual. That chastity and temperance, truthfulness and energy, are, on the whole, advantages both to the individual and to the race, does not, I fancy, require elaborate proof; nor need I argue at length that the races in which they are common will therefore have inevitable advantages in the struggle for existence. Of all qualities which enable a race to hold its own, none is more important than the power of organiz- ing ecclesiastically, politically, and socially, and that power im- plies the prevalence of justice, and the existence of mutual confi- dence, and therefore of all the social virtues. The difficulty seems to be felt in regard to those purely altruistic impulses which, at first glance at any rate,make it apparently our duty to preserve those who would otherwise be unfit to live. Virtue, says Prof. Huxley, is directed “not so much to the survival of the fittest,” as to the “fitting of as many as possible to survive.” Ido not dispute the statement, I think it true in a sense; but I havea difficulty as to its application. Morality, it is obvious, must be limited by the conditions in which we are placed. What is impossible is not a duty. One condition plainly is that the planet is limited. There is only room for a certain number of living beings. It is one conse- quence that we do in fact go on suppressing the unfit, and can not help going onsuppressing them. Is it desirable that it should be otherwise ? Should we wish, for example, that America could

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r i : ; ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 723; still be a hunting ground for savages? Is it better that a country should contain a million red men or twenty millions of civilized whites ? Undoubtedly the moralist will say with truth that the methods of extirpation adopted by Spaniards and Englishmen were detestable. I need not say that I agree with him and hope that such methods may be abolished wherever any remnant of them exists. But I say so partly just because I believe in the struggle for existence. This process underlies morality, and oper- ates whether we are moral or not. The most civilized race—that which has the greatest knowledge, skill, power of organization— will, I hold, have an inevitable advantage in the struggle, even if it does not use the brutal means which are superfluous as well as cruel. All the natives who lived in America a hundred years ago would be dead now in any case, even if they had invariably been treated with the greatest humanity, fairness, and considera- tion. Had they been unable to suit themselves to new conditions of life, they would have suffered a euthanasia instead of a partial extirpation; and had they suited themselves they would either have been absorbed or become a useful part of the population. To abolish the old brutal method is not to abolish the struggle for existence, but to make the result depend upon a higher order of qualities than those of the mere piratical viking. Mr. Pearson has been telling us in his most interesting book that the negro may not improbably hold his own in Africa, I can not say that I regard this as an unmixed evil. Why should there not be parts of the world in which races of inferior intelli- gence or energy should hold theirown? Iam not so anxious to see the whole earth covered by an indefinite multiplication of the cockney type. But I only quote the suggestion for another rea- son. Till recent years the struggle for existence was carried on as between Europeans and negroes by simple violence and brutality. The slave trade and its consequences have condemned the whole continent to barbarism. That undoubtedly was part of the strug- gle for existence. But if Mr. Pearson’s guess should be verified, the results have been so far futile as well as disastrous. The negro has been degraded, and yet, after all our brutality, we can not take his place. Therefore, besides the enormous evils to slave- trading countries themselves, the lowering of their moral tone, the substitution of piracy for legitimate commerce, and the degradation of the countries which bought the slaves, the supe- riur race has not even been able to suppress the inferior. But the abolition of this monstrous evil does not involve the abolition but the humanization of the struggle. The white man, however mer- ciful he becomes, may gradually extend over such parts of the country as are suitable to him, and the black man will hold the rest, and acquire such arts and civilization as he is capabile of VOL, XLIv.—19

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234 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. appropriating. The absence of cruelty would not alter the fact that the fittest race would extend; but it may insure that what- ever is good in the negro may have a chance of development in his own sphere, and that success in the struggle will be decided by more valuable qualities. Without venturing further into a rather speculative region, I need only indicate the bearing of such considerations upon prob- lems nearer home. It is often complained that the tendency of modern civilization is to preserve the weakly, and therefore to lower the yitality of the race. This seems to involve inadmissible assumptions. In the first place, the process by which the weaker are preserved consists in suppressing various conditions unfavor- able to human life in general. Sanitary legislation, for example, aims at destroying the causes of many of the diseases from which our forefathers suffered. If we can suppress the smallpox, we of course save many weakly children, who would have died had they been attacked. But we also remove one of the causes which weakened the constitutions of many of the survivors. I do not know by what right we can say that such legislation, or again the legislation which prevents the excessive labor of children, does more harm by preserving the weak than it does good by prevent- ing the weakening of the strong. But one thing is at any rate clear. To preserve life is to increase the population, and there- fore to increase the competition, and, in other words, to intensify the struggle for existence. The process is as broad as it is long. If we could insure that every child born should grow up to ma- turity, the result would be to double the severity of the compe- tition for support. What we should have to show, therefore, in order to justfy the inference of a deterioration due to this process, would be, not that it simply increased the number of the candi- dates for living, but that it gave to feebler candidates a differen- tial advantage ; that they are now more fitted than they were be- fore for ousting their superior neighbors from the chances of sup- port. But I can see no reason for supposing such a consequence to be probable or even possible. The struggle for existence, as I have suggested, rests upon the unalterable facts that the world is limited and the population elastic, and under all conceivable cir- cumstances we shall still have in some way or other to proportion our numbers to our supplies, and under all circumstances those who are fittest by reason of intellectual or moral or physical quali- ties will have the best chance of occupying good places, and leav- ing descendants to supply the next generation. It is surely not less true that in the civilized as much as in the most barbarous race, the healthiest are the most likely to live, and the most likely to be ancestors. If so, the struggle will still be carried on upon the same principles, though certainly in a different shape. ua

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ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 235 It is true that this suggests one of the most difficult questions of the time. It is suggested, for example, that in some respects the “ highest ” specimens of the race are not the healthiest or the fittest. Genius, according to some people, is a variety of disease, and intellectual power is won by a diminution of reproductive power. A lower race, again, if we measure “high” and “low” by intellectual capacity, may oust a higher race, because it can support itself more cheaply, or, in other words, because it is more efficient for industrial purposes. Without presuming to pronounce upon such questions, I will simply ask whether this does not interpret Prof. Huxley’s remark about that “cosmic nature” which, he says, is still so strong, and which is likely to be strong so long as men require stomachs. The fact is simply that we have not to suppress it, but to adapt it tonew circumstances. We areengaged in working out a gigantic problem: What is the best, in the sense of the most efficient, type of human being? What is the best combination of brains and stomach? We turn out saints who are “too good to live,” and philosophers who have run too rapidly to brains. They do not answer in practice, because they are instru- ments too delicate for the rough work of daily life. They may give aforetaste of qualities which will be some day possible for the average man; of intellectual and moral qualities which, though now exceptional, may become commonplace. But the best stock for the race are those in whom we have been lucky enough to strike out the happy combination in which greater intellectual power is gained without the loss of physical vigor. Such men, it is probable, will not deviate so widely from the aver- age type. The reconciliation of the two conditions can only be effected by a very gradual process of slowly edging onward in the right direction. Meanwhile the theory of a struggle for existence justifies us, instead of condemning us, for preserving the delicate child, who may turn out to be a Newton or a Keats, because he will leave to us the advantage of his discoveries or his poems, while his physical feebleness assures us that he will not propagate his race. This may lead to a final question: Does the morality of a race strengthen or weaken it; fit it to hold its own in the general equi- librium, or make its extirpation by lower races more probable ? I do not suppose that anybody would deny what I have already suggested, that the more moral the race, the more harmonious and the better organized, the better it is fitted for holding its own. But if this be admitted, we must also admit that the change is not that it has ceased to struggle, but that it struggles by differ- ent means. It holds its own, not merely by brute force, but by justice, humanity, and intelligence, while, it may be added, the possession of such qualities does not weaken the brute force,

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236 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY. where such a quality is still required. The most civilized races are, of course, also the most formidable in war. But, if we take the opposite alternative, I must ask how any quality which really weakens the vitality of the race can properly be called moral? I should entirely repudiate any rule of conduct which could be shown to have such a tendency. This, indeed, indicates what seems to me to be the chief difficulty with most people. Charity, you say, is a virtue; charity ipcreases beggary, and so far tends to produce a feebler population ; therefore,a moral quality clearly tends to diminish the vigor of a nation. The answer is, of course, obvious, and I am confident that Prof. Huxley would so far agree with me. It is that all charity which fosters a degraded class is therefore immoral. The “ fanatical individualism ” of to- day has its weaknesses; but in this matter it seems to me that we see the weakness of the not less fanatical “ collectivism.” The question, in fact, how far any of the socialistic or reli- gious schemes of to-day are right or wrong, depends upon our an- swer to the question how far they tend to produce a vigorous or an enervated population. If I am asked to subscribe to General Booth’s scheme, I inquire first whether the scheme is likely to increase or diminish the number of helpless hangers-on upon the efficient part of society. Will the whole nation consist in larger proportions of active and responsible workers, or of people who are simply burdens upon the real workers? The answer decides not only the question whether it is expedient, but also the ques- tion whether it is right or wrong, to support the proposed scheme, Every charitable action is so far a good action that it implies sympathy for suffering; but if it implies such want of prudence that it increases the evil which it means to remedy, it becomes for that reason a bad action: To develop sympathy without de- veloping foresight is just one of the one-sided developments which fail to constitute a real advance in morality, though I will not deny that it may incidentally lead to an advance. I hold, then, that the “struggle for existence” belongs to an underlying order of facts to which moral epithets can not be properly applied. It denotes a condition of which the moralist has to take account, and to which morality has to be adapted, but which, just because it is a “cosmic process,” can not be altered, however much we may alter the conduct which it dictates. Under all conceivable circumstances, the race has to adapt itself to the environment, and that necessarily implies a conflict as well as an alliance. The preservation of the fittest, which is surely a good thing, is merely another aspect of the dying out of the unfit, which is hardly a bad thing. The feast which Nature spreads before us, according to Malthus’s metaphor, is only sufficient for a limitéd number of guests, and the one question is how to select elit RG IEE. plore 4% os wet

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ETHICS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 237 them. The use of morality is to humanize the struggle; to mini- mize the suffering of those who lose the game; and to offer the prizes to the qualities which are advantageous to all rather than to those which serve to intensify the bitterness of the conflict, This implies the growth of foresight, which is an extension of the earlier instinct, and enables men to adapt themselves to the future, and to learn from the past, as well as to act upon the immediate impulse of present events. It implies still more the development of the sympathy which makes every man feel for the sufferings of all, and which, as social organization becomes closer, and the dependence of each constituent atom upon the whole organization is more vividly realized, extends the range of a man’s interests beyond his own private needs. In that sense, again, it must stimulate “collectivism” at the expense of a crude individualism, and condemns the doctrine which, as Prof. Huxley puts it, would forbid us to restrain the member of a community from doing his best to destroy it. If it be right to restrain such conduct, it is mght to carry on the conflict against all anti-social agents or tendencies. I should certainly hold any form of col- lectivism to be immoral which denied the essential doctrine of the abused individualist, the necessity, that is, for individual re- sponsibility. We have surely to suppress the murderer as our ancestors suppressed the wolf. We have to suppress both the — external enemies, the noxious animals whose existence is incom- — patible with our own, and the internal enemies which are inju- rious elements in the society itself. That is, we have to work for the same end of eliminating the least fit. Our methods are changed ; we desire to suppress poverty, not to extirpate the poor man. We give inferior races a chance of taking whatever place they are fit for, and try to supplant them with the least possible severity if they are unfit for any place. But the suppression of poverty supposes not the confiscation of wealth, which would hardly suppress poverty in the long run, nor even the adoption of a system of living which would make it easier for the idle and the good-for-nothing to survive. The progress of civilization de- pends, I should say, on the extension of the sense of duty which each man owes to society at large. That involves a constitution of society which, although we abandon the old methods of hang- ing, and flogging, and shooting down—methods which corrupted the inflicters of punishment by diminishing their own sense of responsibility—may give an advantage to fhe prudent and indus- trious and make it more probable that they will be the ancestors of the next generation. A system which should equalize the advantages of the energetic and the helpless would begin by de- moralizing,and would very soon lead to an unprecedented intensi- fication of the struggle for existence. The probable result of a

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238 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ruthless socialism would be the adoption of very severe means for suppressing those who did not contribute their share of work. But in any case, as it seems, we never get away or break away from the inevitable fact. If individual ends could be suppressed, if every man worked for the good of society as energetically as for his own, we should still feel the absolute necessity of propor- tioning the whole body to the whole supplies obtainable from the planet, and to preserve the equilibrium of mankind relatively to the rest of Nature. That day is probably distant, but even upon that hypothesis the struggle for existence would still be with us, and there would be the same necessity for preserving the fittest and suppressing, as gently as might be, those who were unfit.— Contemporary Review. —_——__+e-—___- THE CALUMET IN THE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. By Pror. G. H. PERKINS. F the many interesting objects which have been found in different localities in the United States none more fully illustrate the artistic skill and taste of the aborigines than do the stone pipes, and it is probably true that they represent the finest work in stone which the Indian was able to execute. In form, though not perhaps in material, the pipes exhibit greater variety and less conformity to conventional types than do other classes of prehistoric objects. No other specimens in our ar- cheeological collections recall so completely the ceremonial usages of the Indians as do the pipes; no other ob- jects occupied so important a place among the possessions of the tribe or the individual, as the student of Indian customs soon learns. Pipes there may have been, and undoubt- edly were, many of them of common mold, which were used and regarded very much as are modern pipes, simply as a means of social or personal enjoyment, and these may have been of earthenware, or even of wood or bone, more often than of stone; but the real calumet, the elaborately wrought ceremonial pipe, was a very different affair. With this were associated in the Indian mind the most solemn ceremonies, the most impressive experi- ences of life. Without the calumet no treaty could be ratified, no war declared, no important tribal or religious question settled. | This single object combined in itself a dignity and an essential significance which can hardly be overestimated. It is not strange, therefore, that the pipemaker should have aioe AP eet achat 2 $ &

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f : a at . : 3 THE CALUMET IN THE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. 239 exercised his best skill and his most patient labor upon that which he wrought. As Dr. Abbott,in Primitive Industry, well says, “ To know the whole history of tobacco, and the custom of smoking and of the origin of the pipe, would be to solve many of the most interesting problems of American ethnology.” The beauty and variety of the pipes which have been found in the Mississippi Valley are unequaled in specimens from any Fie. 2. other part of the country, and because of this, and because these pipes are so well known, the simpler forms of less favored locali- ties have sometimes been too much overlooked. But the less elaborate New England specimens are not without importance because they have a place in the archzology of the whole country. In beauty of material and in finish the pipes of the Champlain Valiey are quite equal to the best of the mound pipes, but in elaborateness of form they are much inferior. So far as our an- cient pipe-makers attempted the execution of any particular form, they usually did very well—that is, unless they destroyed all their failures; but they do not appear to have tried to fashion any very difficult shapes, and very seldom attempted to imitate those ani- mals which were common about them as did the Western tribes. Inasmuch as no two of our pipes are the same in size or form, there is no single type which represents this region. It is probable that the pipes which have been found in the Champlain Valley were used and, unless obtained in trade or war, made by Aigonkins or Iroquois, for these tribes occupied the region from no one knows how early times. Pipes, whether of stone or earthenware, are very uncommon in the Champlain Val- ley, though diligent search has brought to light a considerable number. In the descriptions and illustrations which are here presented it is the intention of the writer to give a tolerably com-

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240 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. plete account of such specimens of the class under consideration as have been obtained up to the present time. All the specimens figured are in the collection of the University of Vermont, and all, except Fig. 11, are given of full size. Our simplest pipes—and it is difficult to imagine a simpler form—are represented by Fig. 1. This is merely a rounded bit of steatite of a grayish color, fairly well shaped and smoothly finished. The excavation is of the same general form as the out- side and is.very well done. At the top it is rather more. than half an inch across. As the figure shows, the opening for the stem is a little below the middle of one side. It is about a fourth of an inch in diameter on the outside, and slopes upward, so that the bowl hung obliquely on the stem. Such a pipe as this must have had some sort of a stem, either a bit of hollow reed, a twig with the pith removed, or the wing bone of a bird. In Fig. 2 we see a somewhat more elaborate specimen, though the material is very much the same. As the line showing the excavation indicates, the stem, if there was one, entered at the bottom. It is also noticeable that the inside does not at all cor- Fie. 5. respond with the outside, but is more regular. About the upper margin there isa rather weak attempt at decoration in rudely incised lines around the bowl and oblique lines between. This pipe is well polished. It is two inches and a quarter long and seven eighths of an inch in diameter at the top. No other specimen from this region is in any respect like that shown in Fig. 3. As may be readily seen in the figure, there are two bowls of nearly equal size. The separation of the bowls is,

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THE CALUMET IN THE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. 241 however, more apparent on the outside than it is inside, since the partition is largely cut away, the two cavities being distinct only at the top and a short distance below it. Most unfortunately, the lower end is broken, so that it is not possible to know exactly how it terminated. Probably, however, this part of the pipe grew narrower and formed a stem or mouthpiece. As is true of most of our pipes, the excavated portion was cut, not bored, for the numerous tool-marks are parallel with the long axis of the bowl; moreover, the openings are not quite circu- lar, as they must have been if the bowl had been drilled out. The opening at the top of each is nearly five eighths of an inch in greatest diameter. The height is about two inches. Ata is the small opening into the double bowl. The specimen is very well pol- ished. The material is a fine-grained, dark- green steatite. It was found near Swanton, in the northern part of Vermont, as also were those previously described. Another very unique specimen is seen in Fig. 4. Itis apparently intended to repre- sent some quadruped, and if so it is espe- cially interesting, as the only object thus far discovered in this region having the form of an animal. Although a rather clumsy piece of work, I think that there can ; be no doubt that the maker tried to fashion Fis. 6. the pipe after a bear or some other familiar animal. The four legs are well defined, and those on the one side are separated from those on the other by a deep groove. The material is the usual steatite, of a gray color, and the surface is smooth and fairly well polished. As the figure shows, there are about the bowl several oval or quadrangular excavations, which may have been considered sufficiently ornamental in themselves, or they may have been filled by some ornamental bits of stone or shell. As compared with the entire pipe, the hollow of the bowl is small and not much larger than the opening for the stem. The length of this pipe is over two inches and the width is one inch, while the height is a little more. In an article by the writer in The American Naturalist,* a Vermont pipe is mentioned and figured which has a projection on one side of the rim that may very probably have been intended * Vol. xiii, p. 735.

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242 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. for the beak of a bird, and if this is true we have two animal carvings, such as they are, from this region. In some respects the most interesting of all our pipes is that shown in Fig. 5. Its form is quite peculiar, but the chief impor- tance consists in the carved human faces, one on each side of the top, one of which the figure shows. As may be seen at the base, the pipe is oval in section, the transverse diameter being an inch and a half. The cavity is unusually large and is about three fourths of an inch deep. The stem opening is seen on one side of the figure near the middle, and is about as large as an ordinary pencil. The whole height is over two inches. The faces are in rather bold relief, and of the form seen in the figure; the face on the side not shown is very nearly like that shown. As the figure shows, there are two lines, one from each side of the nose. Do these indicate streaks of paint, or are they intended to represent a mustache and therefore a European face? At the base, which is flat, there is, just below the place where the stem entered, a small hole, as if to enable the owner to attach a thong for suspending the pipe when not in use. The material is very dark steatite. The specimen was found on Grand Isle in Lake Champlain. Only one other specimen having upon it the carving of a face has been found in the Champlain Valley; this is a pipe of oval section and in general a bag or pouch-like form, bearing in full relief on the edge of the bowl a small but distinctly marked head. Singularly, this face also has lines under the nose, which may, as in the pipe figured, indicate by the mustache a European. A very regularly shaped and beautifully polished specimen is that shown in Fig. 6. It is three and a half inches long and an inch in diameter at the top. The opening for the stem is at the point marked A, and this is at the bottom of the bowl, the ere » xs Ciuc “" —t e o Sa pet % ia tee eee os “ ant Arends jn A ee. a eA el baci iets : ¢ - ¢] 3 P 4 ea

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7 a i adc Mls., Mena aia 7 Pe Z itp 7 > —— wo ee ee RS Pa POA. 0S ~ e os ‘ ee OE ee ‘\ portion below this being solid. The bowl is polished inside, and ornamented about the top by a series of transverse lines, The well-known platform pipes of the West and many other localities are not common here, but now and then a specimen is found. Fig. 7 gives one of the best of these. It is of a very pretty, light yellow stone, well polished. The opening through which to draw the smoke is at A, and this is so small that it is most probable that no other stem than that afforded by the base itself was used. The platform is nearly three inches long, and the bowl is an inch and a quarter high. The bowl of this pipe differs from that of most of those found here in that it bears cir- cular stris#, and was evidently worked out with a drill. Pipes of a more modern form than those described, though there is no reason to consider them as actually more recent, are not uncommon among our speci- mens. The finest example of this class is that shown in Fig. 8, and it is very elegantly finished. The material is a dark, clouded gyp- sum, hard enough to take an ex- cellent polish. The outside of the bowl was ornamented, like that of Fig. 4, by inlaid pieces of stone, the excavations for which are evident in the figure. There tie. ti can be no doubt in this case that the cavities were intended not for ornament, but to receive some different material, since they are left in an unfinished state, while the rest of the pipe is unusually well finished. The bow] is pol- A , ‘ = i + seins ire * A. en ee ae Sel », . — » ; a Pe Pili CFE yy Pare wet > eee eee ; ; THE CALUMET IN THE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. 243

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244 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ished inside near the top, but lower, circular strizw are to be seen. The stem is rather thick; the upper surface is made up of two sloping planes, and there is a narrow groove running from the bow! to the end. Measured on the outside, the bow] is two inches high; the stem is about a fourth of an inch longer. Several quite similar pipes have been found on both sides of the lake. A sim- pler though well-made pipe is that given in Fig. 9. It is not so perfectly polished as the preceding, and is one of the more com- mon sort. It is well known that no material was so highly valued for making pipes as the famous red pipestone. If the calumet had any ceremonial significance in itself, as it certainly had, this be- came doubly great if the pipe were made of the red stone. This material was regarded as the petrified flesh of ancestors and was revered accordingly, and the single quarry where it could be ob- tained was a very sacred place. We often find this red pipestone mentioned by early writers, and it is strange that specimens made of it are not more often discovered, but they seem to be very rare everywhere, except, of course, those made in recent times. The single specimen that has been found in the Champlain Valley was thrown out by the plow a dozen miles south of Bur- lington, and is shown in Fig. 10. It is made of the ordinary dark red catlinite, and has the form given in the figure. It is larger than most of our pipes, the stem being rather more than three inches long and the bowl about two inches and a quarter high. The cavity of the bowl is peculiarly excavated, as it is # + — . ee Me Sy g Pbscus - omy ) os Wa Mi Hee ek abl ge hae” valten

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THE CALUMET IN THE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. 245 strongly conical, being three fourths of an inch in diameter across the top and only a sixteenth of an inch at the bottom. On the flat upper side of the stem there are rudely scratched outline fig- ures, as seen at A, and there are also outlines on the rim of the bowl. The surface of this pipe is well polished. The inside of the bowl shows both circular and vertical striz. Stone tubes, of somewhat different form in different localities, have been found in almost every station which has been carefully searched for archeological specimens, and few objects have ex- cited greater curiosity than these. Always well made, often of handsomely colored and veined stone, they have been regarded as pipes, musical instruments, medicine tubes, and even telescopes, by different authors. When one examines these tubes he very readily sees that it is more than probable that all can not be placed in the same class, for, not only do they vary in size very widely—some being only two inches long and of small diameter, while others are ten, fifteen, and rarely twenty inches in length— but the bore is even more variable, in some being as large as the outside will allow, and of uniform size from end to end; in others it is large at one end and grows smaller toward the opposite end, where it is often of no greater diameter than the bore of some of the pipestems. Very likely the tubes of the first sort were used in the perform- ances of the medicine man, and those last named were used as pipes, as are the very similar pipes smoked to this day by Utes and other West coast tribes. The tubes appear to be everywhere rare, and yet no form of pipe so often occurs in the Cham- plain Valley, especially on the Vermont RESERS side. Our Vermont tubes have a bore which is very much smaller at one end than at the other, and the small end was, I think, always stopped partially by a rudely ground and imperfectly fitting stone plug, as it cer- tainly was in most cases, for we find the plug in some of thé tubes. The general form of the tubes of this region is somewhat differ- aie y Fie. 12.

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246 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY. ent in each specimen, but Fig. 11 shows a typical example, the heavier line giving the outline of the bore. This tube is eight inches anda half long, nearly an inch and a half in diameter at the largest part, and about an inch at the smallest. The material —and this is the same in all—is a drab talcose slate. The figure is one third full size. Other tubes have been previously figured and described by the writer in the Portland volume of Proceed- ings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence. The tubes are all very carefully shaped and well finished. The bore was probably first drilled with a reed and sand, and then at the large end worked out by means of some pointed tool, for circular strie are plainly seen at the small end, while at the other only longitudinal marks occur. Whatever may have been the design of other tubes, it seems by far most probable that those found here were used as pipes, for they are in all essential re- spects like those mentioned above, now and anciently in use on the Pacific coast, as may be seen by reference to the seventh vol- ume of the Wheeler Survey, Plates 7 and 8, and also to Volume III of the Contributions to North American Ethnology. In Fig. 12 there is shown a pipe which may be considered as representing the transition from stone to modern forms; for, al- though it was dug in a locality that has yielded more of our stone pipes than any other, it is made of pewter. It does not appear as if cast in a mold, but rather as if worked out of a solid block in the same manner that a stone pipe would be made. The sur- face is covered with tool-marks, and the bowl bears inside both vertical and circular stris. Of course, the material of which this specimen is made arouses suspicion that it was the work of a white man; but its appearance, as well as the circumstances in which it was found, all indicate that it is of Indian origin. The material was of course obtained from Europeans. A people who had attained to such skill in working clay into jars as had the aborigines of the Champlain Valley would un- doubtedly make many of their common pipes of this material,

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fata ae 3 ih Salle Pipe am ep te Ra TR eA Pe Oe rine: er ge a ie Se z a j y t a, ee ee eee + sh nd ” BT ed ire pate. Pyces hl ea Ri Sh a de THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. 247 and we find numerous fragments of earthenware pipes of various forms, but most of the specimens of this sort are merely frag- . ments. A few entire pipes of the same mixture of clay and pounded stone which we have in the jars dre in existence. One of these is shown in Fig. 13. Earthenware pipes of the same general form as that seen in Fig. 8 have also been found, and very likely this was the more common shape, The pipe repre- sented in the figure is unusually thick and heavy, and apparently was made for service rather than ornament. It is three inches long, and the diameter at one end is an inch and a half, at the other about an inch. The bore is rapidly contracted, so that it soon becomes quite small. Most of the earthenware pipes of this region are very smooth on the outside, having received a finishing coat of fine clay, but this is without it, though the surface is tolerably smooth. ——-—- ee THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. By MM. L. A. HALLOPEAU anp ALB. POISSON. MONG the men of science of the first half of the seventeenth century the name of Jean Rey, doctor, of Périgord, was long forgotten and is still little known. He was born toward the end of the sixteenth century, at Bugues la Dordogne. Hardly anything is known of his life. He was a doctor of medicine, and devoted himself for several years to researches in chemistry and physits, in co-operation with his elder brother, also named Jean Rey, Sieur de la Perotasse, proprietor of the iron forge at Roche- beaucourt, la Dordogne. He died in 1645, and his days may have been cut short by grief over a disastrous lawsuit. Jean Rey invented a water thermometer, or thermoscope, and a wind arquebus, and he even thought of applying his thermome- ter to the uses of medicine. It was certainly one of the first in- struments invented to measure differences of temperature, In his description of it. he said: “It is nothing but a little round vial with a long, uncorked neck. In using it,I place it in the sun or in the hands of a fever patient, after having filled it, all except the neck, with water. The heat, dilating the water, causes it to rise more or less, according as the heat is great or little.” He wrote one little book of a hundred pages, dedicated to the ~ Count de la Tour d’Auvergne, which was printed in 1630, under the title of Essais de Jean Rey, Doctor of Medicine, on an investi- gation of the cause of the increase in weight of tin and lead when they are calcined. This work was not understood by the learned men of that period. It was probably not. very widely published,

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248 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, and only two copies of the edition existed in the middle of the eighteenth century. But one of these copies was complete. It belonged to the great library of the king. It was, however, re- printed in 1777 by Gobet, who also reprinted, about the same time, the works of Bernard Palissy. After the essays, Gobet published a part of Rey’s correspondence with Pére Mersenne relative to them, and there are probably still other letters in the manuscript correspondence of Pére Mersenne. Rey’s book was therefore well published at the close of the eighteenth century. Nevertheless, this edition, too, is now very rare, and only three copies exist in the libraries of France. As very few persons of this age have read the Essays of Jean . Rey, we have thought it might be of service and cast some light on the history of science, obscure in its beginnings, to give 4 brief but exact analysis of its contents. Judging by his writings, Jean Rey appears to have had very extended scientific knowledge and a talent for experimentation rare in histime. He was, furthermore, in pleasant relations with most of the learned men of the period, who were accustomed to consult him in difficult cases, while he was correctly informed of all that had been done in France and other countries. Three men in particular were closely associated with his works—viz., the Sieur Brun, master apothecary of Ber- gerac; Deschamps, a physician of the same city ; and Pére Mer- senne, of the order of the Minims, who had a continuous and in- teresting correspondence with him. Rey’s experiments were undertaken at Brun’s request. Brun’s letter, giving as it does an idea of the confidence which Rey in- spired among his contemporaries and of his high reputation, merits publication entire. He wrote: “ Desiring a few days ago to calcine some tin, I weighed two pounds and six ounces of the finest English metal, put it in an iron kettle on an open furnace, and, stirring it continually without making any change in the adjustment, I converted it in six hours into a very white earth. I weighed it to determine the loss, and found that it weighed two pounds and thirteen ounces. This astonished me incredibly, for I could not imagine where the surplus seven ounces had come from. I performed the same experiment with lead, and calcined six pounds. I found it had gained six ounces. I asked the cause of this from many learned men, particularly from Dr. N. (Des- _ champs), but none of them could explain it tome. Your brilliant _ mind, which soars, when it is so disposed, above the common, will find matter to occupy itself with in this. I implore you with all my affection to employ yourself with the search for the cause of so rare an effect, and to oblige me so much that by your aid I may be enlightened respecting this wonder.” Rey immediately set himself to work to find the answer to this ee eee > Bite . 2 became te ae Ls ie carota tel #

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: * Per Re . IP, a ee are ah eee toa. AN py 8S RG + * ? >| by : THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. question—one of “the most difficult that philosophy has ever brought forth.” It was not without emotion that he took up the pen: “ Believing I have reached the end of the matter, I produce these my essays, not without well foreseeing that I shall be called rash, for in them I shall disturb some of the maxims that have been. approved for ages by most philosophers. But what can there be rash in exposing the truth to the light after having found it?” The book of twenty-eight chapters or essays is divided into distinct parts. In the first part the author, as it were, prepares his reader for the ideas he is about to set forth in the second. He first demonstrates the weight of the air—an entirely new fact in science then—and next he applies the ideas he has just enunciated to the explanation of the weight of lead and tin when calcined in the air. The great physicists of the seventeenth century had as yet produced nothing when Jean Rey’s essays appeared. Otto von Guericke was only twenty-one years old; Torricelli was still studying mathematics at Rome, and his celebrated experiment was not performed by Viviani till 1643. Galileo was the only one who might at that moment have had established ideas on the weight of the air, and his Dialogues on the Motion and the Re- sistance of Fluids was not published at Leyden till 1638. Rey was therefore the first person who declared that the air has weight, and he alone has the right to all the honor for this important discovery. His first essay is entitled Everything Mate- rial under the enclosure of the Sky has Weight. He supposed that the earth occupied the center of the world. “ Matter, filling at every point the space inclosed under the curvature of the sky, is continually urged by its own weight toward the center of the world. True it is that earth, being the heaviest, promptly oc- cupies that place, and, forcing its contraries into retreat, makes . water, second in weight, also second in place; so that air, driven from the lowest and the second place, is confined to the third, leaving to fire, the least ponderous of all, to abide in the highest region.” Thus Jean Rey showed very precisely that all bodies have weight, that there.is nothing light in Nature, and “no up- ward movement that is natural.” Let us give his own words: “I say, if there was a channel from the center of the earth up into the region of fire, open at both ends and full of the four elements, everything in its usual place, that,on drawing the earth down, water would descend to occupy its place, leaving its own to the air, and the air leaving its place to fire. Then, withdrawing the water from that place, the air would come down to fill it; and this, too, being taken away, the fire would take possession of the vacant space and fill the whole channel, descending to the center, just by that being removed which prevented its doing so. Those / i

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250 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. who say that this would be done to avoid a vacuum do not say much. They point to the final cause, and this demonstration concerns the efficient one, which rules that there can not be a vacuum.” Rey’s book, however, while it marked an immense progress in science, contains some considerable errors. Thus, he undertakes in his fifth essay to show, by the acceleration of the motion of falling bodies as they descend, that fire and air are heavy, and he attempts to prove by an ingenious but fallacious demonstration that they are forced down more and more rapidly by the increasing weight of the air and fire above them. Having tried to “impress upon everybody’s heart that air has weight,” Rey announced the proposition, then new to science, deduced from this principle, that “ weight is so closely joined to the primal matter of the elements, that changing from one to another they always keep the same weight. The weight which each portion of matter takes from its cradle it will carry to its grave. In whatever place, under whatever form, and to whatever volume it may be reduced, always the same weight.” This prin- ciple, which he discovered more than a century before Lavoisier, was confirmed by a curious experiment of Brun’s, who in 1644, having constructed a distilling apparatus, hermetically sealed, inclosed within it wood of guaiac, box, or oak, weighed the whole, and distilled it. The wood was destroyed; but a new weighing, made at the end of the experiment, showed that the total weight of the apparatus had not changed during the distillation. The experiment was a delicate one, and proves that they knew how to work in Rey’s time. Mistakenly believing that water could change into air, Rey constructed an apparatus for determining what volume of air a given quantity of water would form. It consisted of a bulb (zolipile) in which water could -be boiled, connected by a tube with a cylinder open at the top; a piston was worked in this cylinder. The piston was brought down to the bottom of the cylinder. Heat was applied to the solipile and the water was made to boil or was “ transformed into air” ; the piston of course rose, under pressure of the steam or “ water air,” and the capacity of the part of the cylinder below it showed the volume of the air that was supposed to be formed. Then the eolipile could be removed, the opening from it into the cylinder stopped up, and the cylinder exposed to cold, when the piston would be forced down and the vapor frozen or turned into water. Unfortunately for himself, Rey did not personally try this experiment, or he might have anticipated Papin by half a century. But not more than a year after the publication of his essays—September 1, 1631—Pére Mersenne said: “ As to the experiments with the #olipile, I have made them; but it is a false imagination to suppose that the water which issues from on ‘ " a s rj i“ a s a? te St as * ; 7 Ba i i arches I ay EEE Hi RPO GI BORIS spi 5 in

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rm 2 § y — = Gy P. a ey B § Mee eeiimee lee THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. 25t it is turned into air; it still remains water, and will naturally return to itself.” Resuming his study concerning the weight of the air, Rey observed that his predecessors had failed to find it because they had weighed the air in itself: “ Balancing the air in the air itself, and not finding weight, they have thought thatit had none. But let them balance water (which they know is heavy) in water itself, and they will find no weight there too; it being a fact that no element has weight when balanced in itself. Everything that is weighed in the air and everything that is weighed in water should, for an equal volume, have as much more weight as it has more matter than the air or the water in which the balancing is done.” Air, he said, could be made heavy by mixing it with some foreign matter having more weight; by compressing its particles; or by removing the lighter portions. In demonstra- tion of the first principle, Rey determined by experiment that moist or cloudy air was heavier than dry air; of the second, he showed that, if a globe was filled by a strong draft of air from a bellows, it would be heavier than the same globe “empty.” He even tried to make use of compressed air in the construction of a wind arquebus, but he did not carry out his idea; and the honor of making this invention practical belongs to the Sieur Marin Bourgeois, of Lisieux. Inversely, Rey observed that if one takes a glass vial cold, warms it a little on a chafing dish, and weighs’ it, he will find that it weighs less, because air has gone out from it; and in order to find how much, the pipe should be put, still warm, into water, which it will suck up till as much water comes into it as air has gone out of it. Rey was, however, not the first who had observed this fact, for Drebbel had anticipated him. The converse of these principles was also enunciated by Rey, viz., that the weight of air may be diminished by purifying it from heavier foreign matter, by extending it to ampler limits, and by extracting its heavier parts. “Even the balance sometimes de- ceives”; for, “if we examine the balances, cases may be found in which the object weighed will appear heavier or lighter without adding or subtracting foreign matter; as when it has been con- tracted or expanded.” In support of this view, Rey cited as ex- amples the cases of a ball of feathers tightly tied up, which will weigh more than the same feathers loose; and of two ingots, one of gold and the other of iron, which will balance one another without having the same absolute weights, “for the gold occupies a smaller volume for equal weight, and consequently displaces less air.” These views were confirmed about 1650 by the inven- tions of Otto von Guericke. Rey was now able to answer the question put to him by Brun, and to explain the cause of the increase of weight shown *

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252 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. by tin and lead when they are calcined. “ Now,” he said, “ that I have made my preparations, that is, have laid the foundations of my answer to his question” (as to the source of the seven ounces which the two pounds and six ounces of tin gained when heated for six hours; the difficulty of the problem was en- hanced by its being necessary also to find the other matter required to compensate for the loss which the tin sustained through expansion in heating): “to this question, then, resting on the formulations already laid, I answer and maintain glori- ously, that the increase in weight comes from the air, which has been thickened in the vessel, made heavy, and in no way adhe- sive, by the vehement and long-continued heat of the furnace; which air mingles with the earth (the frequent stirring aiding this) and attaches itself to the smallest particles; not otherwise than water makes sand heavy when sand is wet and the mass is stirred, by moistening and adhering to its smallest grains.” Several authors had already spoken of the increase of weight in metals on calcination. Cardan, in his Traité de la Subtilité, tried to explain the increase of the weight of lead in the forma- tion of white lead by saying it was because the lead died and lost * the celestial heat which was its soul and made it lighter; and added that an animal is always heavier dead than living. Rey remarked, in answer to this, that lead is void of life and can not be compared with the body of an animal, and showed that it was easy, by a known process, to recover the lead from its earth. Further, “nothing increases in weight except by the addition of matter or by contraction of volume,” and this can not take place in the present case, even under Cardan’s hypothesis, for the celes- tial heat in disappearing takes away matter, while on the other hand the volume increases perceptibly through the whole dura- tion of the experiment. It will be noticed that Rey shared in the prejudice of his time in regard to the weight of animals increas- ing after their death, and with him many of the learned men of the period. Pére Mersenne was the first to refute this error. He ascertained by experiment that a dog and.a hen weigh more, though very little more, alive than dead, and wrote to Jean Rey, September 1, 1631, “ You can yourself try the experiment with- out losing any of the blood, or a hair, or a feather, of the animals, by smothering them, as we have done.” Scaliger had undertaken to refute Cardan’s assertions, and said that the increase in the weight of the calcined lead was caused by the fire consuming its aérated particles, comparing lead with the tile, “which is heavier baked than unburned.” Noth- ing could be more simple than Rey’s answer: “If the lead loses airy particles, would it not diminish in volume? On the contrary, it increases, And then, if this reason is correct, why do not gg ARNE Se Dera Ne Pay # 2 5 d x ¢ aie é rs ae ae 2 4 a ¥ 3 x | & 4 ib | * : i

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THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. 253 stones and plants increase in weight when they are calcined? I add, finally, that air which is forced into a globe full of it, com- ing out diminishes the weight of the vessel instead of increasing it, as Scaliger believes.” He rejected the comparison of the lead with the tile, saying, “ The tile increases in weight by the shrink- ing of its extent; the lead by the matter that is added to it.” Cesalpin had supposed, as Libarius records, in explanation of the phenomenon, that the soot produced by the fire struck the roof of the furnace and fell back upon the matter. Rey answered that the soot would blacken the lead instead of communicating a white tint to it. Moreover, if this were the cause, the production of earth might be carried on indefinitely by keeping up the fire, which was not the case. Libarius ‘said that even apprentices in chemistry would laugh at Cesalpin’s theory. Rey also showed that the increase in weight could not come , from the iron vessel in which the calcination took place, for the earth would not continue white in contact with the dust of iron; besides, the vessel would be consumed in two or three operations, — instead of being serviceable every day for several years; and, finally, if it was so, we should obtain from a very small quantity of tin or lead a very large quantity of earth, which is contrary to the experiment. Furthermore, a German chemist, Modestinus Fachsius, who also occupied himself with the question, concluded from the examination of the metals, the cupel, the lead, and the - metal under trial, that all are heavier after the calcination than before they were exposed to the fire. Deschamps assumed that the increase of weight was due to vapors of charcoal traversing the vessel. Rey answered that such vapors could not traverse a globe of glass, a plate of tin, or an earthen pot, because boiling water, sauces, and potages were not infected by them. How, then,cou)” they traverse an iron vessel ? Even if they did, why should they stop in the earth instead of going on? Deschamps did not stop with this, but insisted that charcoal had two parts or natures, a vegetable and a metallic nature, and that each of them had two others, one fixed and the other volatile. The fixed part remains in the ashes, from which a fixed salt can be obtained by washing; but the volatile part, being of a mercurial nature, ascends around the vessel; and he made the objection to Rey’s proposition that “the volatile part, lifted up on the wings of moisture, meeting the air which is directly on the vessel, being more rarefied and less heavy than the vapor that issues from the coal, is taken up by that in the vessel, and attaches itself by a close sympathy to the fixed salt of the earth of tin, which, having taken a certain quantity of it, and being, as it were, satiated, rejects the surplus.” This observation, purely theoretical and made by

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254 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. @ man of science, has a curious appearance now, but was all in place in Rey’s time. Rey, who had answered the other objections by argument, had recourse this time to experiment. “If a fur- -nace is built in a wall separating two rooms, in such a way that the vessel shall be on one side and the ventilating registers and doors for feeding in coal on the other, I maintain that the increase in weight will still take place, although no vapors can enter the chamber containing the vessel. I have confirmed this by an ex- periment which I made at the forges of Jean Rey, Lord of Perro- tasse, my elder brother, where I found the increase in tin, which I calcined on a pig, as they call it, or an ingot of sixteen or twenty quintals of iron, at the instant when, coming out of the furnace, it was cast into its mold; for it can not be said that vapors of coal contributed anything to it. Therefore, the volatile salt can not be accepted in this case.” Finally, with a single experiment Rey swept away all the ob- jections in alump. “I have just read in Homerus Poppius,” he said, “in the third chapter of his book entitled Basilica Antimonit, of the new way that he practices in calcining antimony. He takes a certain quantity of antimony, weighs it, and having pulverized it, puts it in the shape of a cone on a marble; then takes a burn- ing mirror, holds it in the sun so as to bring the pyramidal point of the reflected rays upon a point of the cone of antimony, which fumes abundantly, and in a little while the antimony, touched by the rays, is turned into a pure white earth, which he separates with a knife and turns the rays upon the rest till all has been turned white, and then the calcination is done. It is a wonderful thing that, although in this calcination the antimony loses much of its substance in the vapors and fumes that exhale from it copiously, its weight increases instead of diminishing. Now, if we ask the cause of this increase, will Cardan say that it is the disappearance of the celestial heat ? That has been infused more largely by means of the solar rays. Will Scaliger say that it is by consumption of the airy parts? Thinning into earth and increas- ing in volume, it forces more in. Will Cesalpin allege his soot ? There is no fire to produce any soot. Does the vessel give up any of its own substance? Indeed, the rays are conducted so directly upon the matter that they do not touch the marble. Do you speak of the vapors of charcoal? No charcoal is used in this transac- tion. The volatile salts which have been so ingeniously brought forward lose here all their savor and grace, Perhaps moisture will be suggested, as has been recently done by some one. But where can it come from? From the marble? No, no, that is not conceivable. From the air? Still less; for the operation is best practiced in the warm days of summer, in the most violent heats of the dog star.” ere , _ eee a Peg Bias tac rhe Sse ae Th ait Pad Tees

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- ee ae pee atid eae ee ee Sa a es note bee 1 Dieta ee tO uin, et ht =~" ao inst i eet Rx fi ath iaane I ys lant § THE ESSAYS OF JEAN REY. 255 The final objection to his theory was one of Rey’s own sugges- tion: Why does not earth go on increasing in weight indefinitely ? Because “the thickened air attaches itself to it and continues to adhere to the most minute of its particles, so that its weight goes on increasing from the beginning to the end; but when it is all enveloped in air it can not take any more.” He concludes then, and terminates his treatise by declaring with pride that he has found the real way of the truth, breaking the road for his success- ors, and advising them not to go astray from it. This is the summary of the works of Jean Rey. A skillful experimenter, he knew how to use the balance, and it was the balance that suggested to him the result of his experiments. His book is a brief one. A single principal experiment is described, a single object is pursued in it. But. he made two great advances in science. He discovered the weight of the air, being the first to publish that hypothesis, and verified it by experiments in chemistry and physics. The increase of the weight of lead and tin on calcination had been noticed for a long time by the al- chemists, and even Galen knew of it. But nobody before Rey found that the cause of that increase in weight came from the air —from that thickened and heavy air. | It was certainly a remark- able achievement to announce such a fact at a time when chemis- try had made so little advance. No gas was yet known; and it was not till about 1719 that a misunderstood man of science, Mortrel d’Elément, found means to decant air through water into bottles, and taught in a public lecture in Paris “ how to make air ° visible and perceptible enough to measure it in pints or in what- ever quantity you will.” It was not his fault, therefore, that he did not advance further.—Translated for The Popular Science Monthly from the Revue Scientifique. As a possible solution, or working hypothesis, of the reason of the migration of birds, Canon Tristram suggests: “ Instinct in mammals and birds attracts them + to the place of their nativity. When the increasing cold of the northern regions, in which they all had their origin, drove the mammals southward, they could not retrace their steps, because the increasing polar sea, as the arctic continent sank, barred their way. The birds reluctantly left their homes as winter came on and followed the supply of food, But as the season in their new residence became hotter in summer, they instinctively returned to their birthplaces, and there reared their young, retiring with them when the recurring winter impelled them to seek a warmer climate. Those species which, unfitted for a greater amount of heat by their more protracted sojourn in the northern regions, persisted in revis- iting their ancestral homes, or getting as near to them as they could, retained a capacity for enjoying a temperate climate, which, very gradually, was lust by the species which settled down more permanently in their new quarter’, and thus a law of migration became established on the one side, and sedentary habits on the other.”

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTALY. SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. By HORATIO HALE. aes late President of Toronto University was distinguished not only for his educational work and his achievements in science, literature, and art, but also for the happy combination in his mind and character of qualities which are commonly deemed incongruous. An ardent votary of science, prepared to follow every investigation of Nature to the utmost limit of actual knowl- edge, and to welcome every accession to this knowledge, he was equally firm in maintaining his belief in the religion which ex- plained to him those mysteries of the universe that lay beyond this limit. Strongly conservative of ancient landmarks in his quality of artist and antiquary, he was in education and in poli- tics fearlessly liberal and progressive. Endowed with an energy of will and an intellectual power which inevitably brought him to the leadership of any enterprise or institution in which he took part, he was at the same time utterly devoid of personal ambi- tion, and shrank from titular honors with the same earnestness with which some are wont to seek them. Generous almost toa fault and careless of the arts of money-making, his natural fore- sight and indefatigable industry preserved him from the pecun- iary troubles by which scholars and writers are too often ham- pered, and secured for him throughout his life that good fortune for which poor Burns vainly sighed, “the glorious privilege of being independent.” Sir DANIEL WILSON was born in Edinburgh on the 3d of Janu- ary, 1816. His father, Archibald Wilson, was a merchant of that city ; his mother was a woman of rare natural gifts, who fostered in her children the love of knowledge which they inherited from her. Of a large family, only four—two sons and two daughters— survived to mature age. The sons, George and Daniel, both proved to: possess talents which insured them early distinction. George, a physician, became Regius Professor of Technology in the University of Edinburgh and Director of the Industrial Mu- seum of Scotland. Though he died at the early age of forty-two, he had already gained a European reputation. To his biography, written by his sister, Daniel contributed reminiscences which are of interest as indicating the existence in childhood of tastes which afterward became prominent. “Edinburgh,” he writes, “ was the scene of all our youthful years, and that itself was no unimpor- tant element in life’s training. Among my earliest recollections are scramblings on Arthur’s Seat, where we knew every cleft and gul- ly. ASaturday’s ramble carried us away to old Roman Cramond, where the sculptured eagle of the legionaries of the second cen- . . i H

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J pa aia ae one 2 - 5 ‘ aay Fe I ahaa Saat ae oe ais aay ete 4 SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. 257 tury, still visible on the rocks, was a source of never-failing won- der to us. The ruins of Bothwell and Crichton Castles, of Roman camps, and historical scenes already possessed an interest for us, A good deal of antiquarianism mingled with our natural history, and two of us were already embryo numismatists, and knew a Roman denarius from a bodle as well as Edie Ochiltree himself.” Daniel’s education was commenced in the famous High School of Edinburgh, whence he passed to the still more famous univer- sity of that city. At this period the special turn and capacity for art which he always retained was so strong as to induce him, on his graduation, to decide to make the pursuit of it his profession. With this object he removed to London, where a notable group of great painters was then rising into fame. At their head was Turner, with whom he soon became intimate. He describes him as an “old, slovenly, slouching little man, as remote from the ideal of artist or poet as could well be conceived; but the flash of his keen gray eyes redeemed the face from the otherwise vulgar and sensual look.” The door of the strange house in Queen Anne Street was freely open to the young student; and he found in his repeated visits that the great painter could be kind and genial to an enthusiastic youth, while grimly ridiculing his enthusiasm. In 1840 Wilson brought to London as his bride a Scottish lady. They had three daughters, the first of whom was born in London. She died ten months later, when with her mother visiting the old home. This affliction changed the course of the parents’ life. They decided to return to Edinburgh, and Wilson, giving up art as a life-pursuit, devoted himself to literature. His diligent pen and varied talents soon found ample occupation. “He was,” we are told by one of his biographers, “a constant contributor to The Scotsman, and wrote for Tait’s Magazine, Chambers’s Miscellany, the British Quarterly, North British Review, Edinburgh Philo- sophical Journal, Gentleman’s Magazine, and other periodicals. He contributed articles to the edition of the Encyclopedia Bri- tannica then in progress, as well as to subsequent issues, and he edited for a time the Proceedings of the Scottish Antiquary. He also prepared for friendly publishers some historical books, which, though creditably written, he afterward refused to include in the list of his acknowledged writings, counting them mere compila- tions and craftsman’s work, as distinguished from the produc- tions of original research, to which he was soon to owe his fame. The first of these was published in 1848, under the title of Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time, by Daniel Wilson, Acting Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. It filled two quarto volumes, illustrated throughout with fine en- gravings of the buildings and localities described, all from his own drawings. The pictures are enlivened by characteristic VOL, XLIV.—21

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258 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. figures of people engaged in their ordinary vorat:ons, presented with a life and spirit which show how far superior in these quali- ties the higher efforts of the draughtsman’s art are to the best photography. The description and historical explanations evince deep research, combined with a genial temper and lively humor, which make the work attractive reading. It has been twice re- printed, the latest revised edition appearing in 1890. In his next publication the author found a subject of wider scope, and as- sumed a higher position. He had passed from art to literature, from literature to archeological study, and now emerged on the loftier plane of pure science, to which his intellectual tastes and faculties naturally tended. In 1851 appeared his Archeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, which was revised and repro- duced in two volumes as Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, in 1863. The expressive adjective “ prehistoric,” which was first employed in this title and work, has since made its way into the language of almost every civilized nation, and in France constitutes, as Le Préhistorique, the title of an important science. In his preface the author dwells earnestly on the importance of this science of prehistoric man, and expresses his surprise that “the British Association, expressly constituted for the purpose of giving a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific in- quiry, embraced within its original scheme no provision for the encouragement of those investigations which most directly tend to throw light on the origin and progress of the human race, Physical archzology was indeed admissible, in so far as it dealt with the extinct fauna of the paleontologist; but it was prac- tically pronounced to be without the scientific pale whenever it touched on that portion of the archeology of the globe which comprehends the race of human beings to whom we ourselves belong.” A delusive hope had been raised by the publication, in the first volume of the Transactions of the Association, of “ one memoir on the contributions afforded by physical and philologi- cal researches to the history of the human species”; but the ethnologist was doomed to disappointment. From that time all papers relating to this important branch of knowledge had been constantly rejected. It was no small triumph for Sir Daniel Wilson when, thirty-three years later, at the Montreal meeting of the British Association, in 1884,in which he held a prominent position, anthropology was admitted to the rank of a distinct “section,” and a committee was appointed, of which he was a member, to investigate the tribes of northwestern Canada—a com- mittee from which very extensive reports of “ physical and philo- logical researches” have been warmly welcomed by the Associa- tion, and have formed a conspicuous feature of its recent volumes, . The publication of this work changed his entire career. The

: net Ete FE hay ieee ig ad os a (Ne Ee PRISE BRIE o> Fate Be < “4 j § ‘4

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Aire i ftw: pots ha j aoe en Ol ed! *; as i or q SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. 259 high reputation which it gave him—a reputation sufficiently in- dicated by Hallam’s opinion that the book was “the most scien- tific treatment of the archzological evidences of primitive history that had ever been written ”—procured him the appointment, in 1853, to the chair of History and Literature at University College in Toronto. He removed to that city, and, as one who knew him and the colony in those days has written, “he brought a new element into the life of the place, and indeed of the province. Representing ‘letters,’ and winning favor to them by his eloquent speech, in a community too much absorbed in business, he has left his mark clear and deep on young Ontario and the whole Dominion. Thousands have been consciously benefited by his character, life, and works.” From this time till his death, nearly forty years after, his life was bound up with the interests of the college. It was his boast that for thirty years he never omitted a lecture. The work of his professorship harmonized with his tastes, and gave him a field in which his powers were ‘soon felt. “As a lecturer in history,” we are told, “he was noted for the breadth and liberality of his views, and for the spirit of toleration and courtesy which he displayed toward those who differed from him. In archeology and ethnology, subjects peculiarly his own, he never failed to excite interest, and generally succeeded in arousing no small degree of enthusiasm.” But other and less congenial duties were frequently cast upon him. The large endowment granted by the Government to the secularized university was deemed by the denominational col- leges an injustice and an injury to themselves. A determined effort was instituted by their supporters to secure a division of it among the different colleges. An appeal was made to the Legis- lature, which referred the question to a committee. Before this committee, Prof. Wilson, as the foremost member of University College, was appointed to appear and defend the interests of his college and the cause of secular education. This he did with so much force of argument that the hostile attempt was promptly defeated, and was never afterward renewed. All controversy was distasteful to him, but when a cause dear to him was endangered, and the “ perfervid Scottish temper” was once aroused, he could strike heavy blows. In the present case the usual reluctance was felt, but finally, he wrote, “I plucked up heart of grace, and found a grim satisfaction in mauling the assailants of our college militant.” In 1880, on the death of the Rev. Dr. McCaul, who was the first President of University College, Prof. Wilson was promoted to that office. The position gave at last the needed opportunity for the display of his remarkable energy and organizing talent, al- ways directed by a judicious forethought and impelled by an un-

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260 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. tiring zeal. In a sketch written soon after his death, we are told that “the twelve years of his régime have been marked by an extraordinary rapidity of development in various directions. The attendance of students has greatly increased, so that they now number about five hundred in the faculty of arts alone. The teaching medical faculty has been restored to the university, and is now in a highly prosperous condition. A foundation for a law faculty has been laid. The university has been brought into more effective and beneficial relation to the secondary schools, by the establishment of a co-operative supervision over their leaving examinations, During the past six years women have been permitted to attend lectures in the university and University College, their number being now about one fifth of the whole attendance, and the ratio rapidly increasing. Several additional institutions have been taken into affiliation with the university, which has thus been strengthened with the whole community, as well as with many special and powerful interests.” As originally established, the University of Toronto and Uni- versity College were to a certain extent distinct institutions. The university was simply an examining and degree-conferring cor- poration, while University College was a teaching institution, with a faculty of arts. By a recent change, part of the teaching function, comprising all the work in science, philosophy, and his- tory, has been transferred to the university; and as a result, the President of the College became actually, as he had been in com- mon parlance, the President of the University. For the interests of science and literature it was probably for- tunate that Prof. Wilson’s accession to the college presidency, with the consequent great increase in his scholastic duties, did not occur at an earlier day. During the twenty-seven years which elapsed between his arrival in Toronto and this accession, he had leisure to pursue his studies in various directions. In 1862 appeared his most important work, entitled Prehistoric Man: Re- searches into the Origin of Civilization in the Old and the New World. This work attracted much attention on both continents, and gave a new direction, particularly in Germany, to anthro- pological inquiry. A second edition appeared in 1865, still in one volume. The continuing demand and the growth of scientific knowledge called for a new and revised issue, with many addi- tions, which appeared in 1875, in two large and finely illustrated volumes. ; The author’s literary taste and judgment were happily shown in his admirable book, Chatterton: a Biographical Study, which appeared in 1869. It was a thoroughly successful effort. to re- habilitate the moral character of the “ marvelous boy,” as well as to display the real nature and extent of his surprising intellectual

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= SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. 261 powers. The attraction which drew the biographer to his sub- ject was doubtless the similarity of archzological and poetical tastes. Early in life he had published—like Chatterton, under an assumed name—a little volume of verse, entitled Spring Wild Flowers: Poems, by Wil. D’Leina, of the Outer Temple. By re- quest of the publisher, the collection was reprinted in 1875, with the author’s name, and with a modestly deprecatory preface, in which he solicits indulgence for these “sins of his youth.” But an impartial critic would find nothing to offend and much to be admired in the volume. Caliban: The Missing Link, appeared in 1873, a genial, half-humorous, and wholly shrewd and happy commentary on Shakespeare, Darwin, and Browning, full of keen suggestions, which the admirers of those famous authors would do well to study with care. The vivid recollections of his early home appeared in his Reminiscences of Old Edinburgh, published in 1875, in two charming volumes of mingled history, description, and gossip, beautifully illustrated by pen-and-ink sketches from the author’s hand, in his peculiarly vivid and animated style. Among other claims which may be made for this work is that of being the best commentary (next to Scott’s own) on the famous “Scotch novels ” of the author’s illustrious townsman. For a time the duties of the presidency interrupted Sir Daniel’s authorship. But in 1891 appeared a volume on Left-handedness, comprising, as a reviewer remarked, “a careful and comprehen- sive discussion of the origin and nature of the prevailing distinc- tion between the uses of the two hands and the consequences which follow this distinction.” Sir Daniel was himself left-handed; but, like other eminent men who have been subject to this apparent disability—including a personage no less distinguished than the illustrious artist and mechanician, Leonardo da Vinci—he was able to convert it into an advantage by the simple process of cul- tivating the use of his right hand, and thus making himself am- bidexterous. He was accustomed to write with his right hand and draw with his left; and both his handwriting and drawing were of unusual excellence. This volume was followed in 1892 by his latest work—and, as it proved, a posthumous publica- tion—entitled The Lost Atlantis and other Ethnographic Stud- ies. This was a collection of essays on various ethnological and archeological subjects, reprinted from the Transactions of scientific societies, and chiefly from those of the Royal Society of Canada. The volume of four hundred pages comprises only eight essays, but each of them, as a reviewer has said, “is a complete monograph on the special subject to which it relates; and every subject has its peculiar interest and value to students of history and the science of man.” These subjects comprise, besides the well-known Atlantis legend, The Vinland of the Northmen, Trade

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a 262 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and Commerce in the Stone Age, Pre-Aryan American Man, The Atsthetic Faculty in Aboriginal Races, The Huron-Iroquois—a Typical Race, Hybridity and Heredity, and Relative Brain-weight and Size. The volume may be said to fitly sum up its author’s life-long studies of these important topics. But this anticipates. Sir Daniel’s later years were marked by events of grave moment. In 1885 a great and irreparable per- sonal loss befell him in the death of his wife, “after forty-five years of as great wedded happiness as ever fell to the lot of man.” The event made little change in his outward demeanor; but how deeply it affected him was shown three years later, when the honor of knighthood was unexpectedly bestowed upon him. In general, as has been said, he cared nothing for merely titular dis- tinctions. For her sake, to gratify her wifely pride and affection, this honor might have been acceptable. As it was, he at first positively declined to accept the title. But pressure from all sides came upon him. He wrote in his own amusing vein: “I have had the honor and glory of knighthood for a full week—telegrams, cable messages, letters of congratulation, time for little else but replying. To a jolly old bumble-bee the process of feeding on honey and being smothered in rose leaves is probably the ideal of happiness; but to a wingless biped like myself a little goes a long way. And what are most covetable honors, now that my Maggie is gone?” But the friendly urgency proved too great for resist- ance, and he yielded at last to the general desire of the commu- nity, which, reasonably enough, saw in the title simply an evi- dence of well-earned respect and public gratitude. Not long afterward, his unremitting labors for the advance- ment of his university were interrupted by a serious calamity. On the 14th of February, 1890, a fire broke out in the principal college building, which destroyed nearly the whole of its con- tents, including its fine library of thirty-three thousand volumes and most of its museum coilections. The president’s action was characteristic. Instead of being depressed by the blow, as might have been expected in a man of seventy-four, his spirit rose with the occasion. He was early on the ground, giving every assist- ance in his power to rescue what could be saved. Returning home late at night, he said to one anxiously watching for him: “Well, the old building’s gone; but never mind. It wasn’t large enough for us. We'll soon havea betterone.” Toacolleague who came in a few minutes later, saying, “O Mr. President, don’t be discouraged,” he replied: “Discouraged! I should think not. You'll see, we'll soon have a far finer building.” Before sleeping that night he had formed his plans. On the next day, which happened to be Saturday, he so arranged for Monday’s lectures being held in various buildings kindly placed at his disposal, that a dina eee oe ON 4 ashlee Wt sy as tated gd Heh

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. are ay a aT ier as Se SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. 263 the college and university work continued without the interrup- tion of a single lecture. Hundreds of letters poured in, but not one of them was left without a suitable reply. “Courtesy does not cost much,” was his frequent answer, when urged to take no notice of seemingly trivial letters. Encouraged by public sympa- thy, and bent on seeing his much-prized university more than. itself again, he seemed to renew his youth. “Sir Daniel is the youngest man in college,” was a common saying at the time. “I mean,” he wrote, “ not to bate heart or hope; but trust, near as I am to the goal of life, to see the renovated pile in its old beauty, and vastly improved within.” This hope was fulfilled, mainly, it may be said, through the influence of his own great reputation and the character for liberality of comprehension, irrespective of class, creed, or race, which he had stamped upon the institution. Offers of substantial aid to the building fund, the library, and the mu- seum came from numerous and often unexpected quarters in Europe and America, including a generous contribution from the Legislature of Roman Catholic Quebec. So rapidly was the work of renovation pushed on that at the college “ commence- ment” of 1891 he was enabled to give his presidential address— one of the most eloquent and brilliant, and unfortunately, as the event proved, the last of his efforts in that line, in one of the new halls; and before his death the restoration of the university, in a condition far superior to that which it held before the fire, had been practically completed. Among other honors it may be mentioned that he received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Aberdeen, and later also from McGill University, of Montreal, of which, at an earlier day, he had been offered the presidency. He was for several years President of the Canadian Institute of Toronto, the leading scien- tific association of Ontario. When the Royal Society of Canada was founded by the Governor-General, Lord Lorne, he was at first made president of its Literature Section, and three years later was elected president of the society. He was a member of various learned societies in Europe and America, too numerous to men- tion. In religious and charitable associations at home he was an active worker. He aided in founding Wycliffe College in To- ronto, and was at his death a member of its governing board. The newsboys of the city attracted his special care, and it was mainly through his efforts that the “ Newsboys’ Home,” a most useful and well-managed charity, was founded and maintained. Near the close of his life one special honor came to him which he highly prized. In the summer of 1891 he paid his last visit to Scotland. While he was there, the “freedom” of his native city was, with much public ceremony and cordial demonstration, con- ferred upon him, and he thus happily “renewed his youth as the

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264 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. request, that it might have a place in the Scottish Portrait Gal- lery. It now hangs there, an admirable work of art by Sir George Reid, President of the Scottish Academy. To Sir Daniel, Edin- burgh was (in his own words) “as Jerusalem was to the royal Hebrew, or the city of the violet crown to the old Athenian”; and these marks of the esteem and personal regard of his early friends and their children were specially grateful and cheering. On his return home the elasticity of his spirits was noted by his friends and correspendents. A busy winter followed, in which his energy and intellectual force showed themselves in no way abated. Then, almost suddenly,the end came. A brief and near- ly painless illness closed with his death on August 6, 1892, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. His life was, as he himself said, “a singularly happy one.” “T have been fortunate,” he wrote, “ beyond my deserts, and seem to have had far more than my share of God’s best gifts.” The qualities which insured this singular happiness appear to deserve particular note. A naturally sanguine and sunny temperament had doubtless much to do with it, but the main element was un- questionably his entire unselfishness. His thoughts were con- stantly for others, and were only for himself so far as the power of serving others was concerned. This disposition was quickly evident to all with whom he came in contact, and was evinced in many ways, great and small. “ His colleagues,” we are told by one who knew him intimately, “ noted his extreme thoughtfulness for others and forgetfulness of self. This naturally led to har- monious relations and strong attachments. One writes, “My friendship for him is one of the sweetest recollections of my life”; and he was not alone in the expression of such a feeling. In his students he took a deep personal interest, frequently invit- ing them to his house. In their debating societies, sports, and Young Men’s Christian Association they could always rely on his practical sympathy. No length of years diminished his interest in a former student’s fortunes. The result was a strong affection for him, which was displayed whenever an occasion offered. A striking characteristic, we are told, “was his unfailing fun. It made his home a very merry one. His letters are full of it, and remind one of Thackeray in their humor. With his students a joke was a more potent weapon for maintaining order than a reproof. He would cleverly turn the laugh of the class against some idler or disturber of the peace. Senate and council meet- ings were relieved of their tedium by his ready wit; and when in good spirits—and he was rarely otherwise—he was a great ac- quisition to any social gathering. In early days he wrote valen- tines for his daughters, and was found out in delivering one of youngest burgess of the guild.” His portrait was also painted by Ce ee eealpaarrs”, Say f.0 Wr SAA har line Bt 5 Si gt EY eS athe kh os Mp sh ee ann as

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cag Bec aati! . iting. -' a os. ~ my. met VS SARS! PTET ER RIES OT © SKETCH OF SIR DANIEL WILSON. 265 them by losing his spectacles, which had to be recovered the next day.” He shone as a correspondent. Few idle men kept up so large a correspondence as this extremely busy one. His letters, frank, cordial, sympathetic, full of lively touches, apt suggestions, and pleasant reminiscences, were highly prized by all who were favored with them, and gave naturally to strangers who read them a most pleasing impression of the writer’s character. The fortunes of his friends were always in his mind, Nothing of joy or sorrow could happen to one of them without eliciting from him a letter of sympathy, which exactly fitted the need. The dumb animals about him—* My poor relations,” as he was wont to style them—shared his tenderness. Long after his death, “a favorite cat haunted his vacant study, evidently seeking the friend who would rather resign his favorite chair than have her disturbed.” His benevolence was not undiscriminating, as the regulations of his “ Newsboys’ Home” sufficiently show ; but in his private charities he allowed himself a freer hand and, so to speak, a willing credulity. “He was a perfect fortune to beggars. Taken in again and again, every new applicant seemed to him ‘a very decent-looking fellow, especially if he happened to be Scotch. And if nothing else could be said, he.would excuse his generosity by ‘It’s hard to be poor,’ or ‘I was once poor myself.’ He did, indeed, note that the word ‘borrow’ seemed to have no connection with that other word ‘repay’; but he went on lend- ing still.” A poor woman who, coming to ask for him, found crape on the door, went away saying, “ The blessing of those that consider the poor will surely fall on him and his.” It is easy to predict that this singularly fine character, illus- trious for many great qualities and achievements, and with no shadows except such pardonable failings as “lean to virtue’s side,” will shine brighter in becoming better known, and will be hereafter ranked among the beacon-lights of the age. In the sci- entific world, the large-minded and far-seeing scholar, who first gave a place and a name to the science of “ prehistoric man,” must always be a conspicuous figure, In his presidential address before the Geographical Section of the British Association, Mr. Henry Seebohm expressed the opinion that life areas or zod- geographical regions are more or less fanciful generalizations, Animals recog- nize facts, and are governed by them in the extension of their ranges; they care little ur nothing about generalizations. The mean temperature of a province is a matter of indifference to some plants and to most animals. The facts that govern their distribution are various, according to the needs of the plant or animal concerned. Actual temperature governs them, not isotherms corrected to sea level. .

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THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. CORRESPONDENCE. A CRITIC CRITICISED. Editor Popular Science Monthly. NY one who reads the book notices in journals wherein literary criticism is conducted as it is in many important newspa- pers will be impressed with the necessity of the custom of anonymous reviews, if we are to have any criticism worth any- thing. Under the present system such notices are work largely of flippant critics, com- petent only to frame condemnatory epithets, who assume to judge everything without spe- cial knowledge of anything ; and also of those who have special acquaintance with the topic in hand, but are consumed by feelings of jealousy which prompt them to underrate, to disparage, to stab in the back, to break down reputations acquired, or to prevent the ac- quiring of any on the part of new authors who may apparently be rising. All these things can be done and are done constantly under the system of anonymous criticism. The critic is safe in his concealment, and can send forth his poisoned arrows with impunity. Whether he is a giant or a dwarf can not be known, save, perhaps, by his weapons ; but if, as is usually the case, he is a pygmy, he is not less since retaliation is impossible. The New York Evening Post of October 25, 1893, contains a notice of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s latest volume, Parts V and VI of po! some ties of Ethics, which furnishes a eitention of the d tion of a si If there were space I would ask the editor of The Popular Science Monthly to reprint it as such, without comment. But, since the article can not be reprinted, I shall draw attention to one or two of its features. It begins by assertions of the marvelous dullness of Mr. Spencer’s works, his “ cheap and superficial platitudes,” making him “an accomplished artist in tedium.” This cer- tainly is a novel charge to be yom against the author in question. Of all the modern philosophical writers, according to the gen- eral judgment expressed in numberless re- views, notices, and comments published here, there, and everywhere, Mr. Spencer has been esteemed the one most free from the quality of tediousness! His power of holding the reader’s attention without wearying, lu- cidity of statement, his felicity in illustra- tion, make his books eminently readable. Of course, they imply a capacity to take ld of thought, but, if this be presw readers will call Mr. Spencer d As matter of —* never occurs average reviewer that criticising a writer on tigen is often much criticising a sculptor or painter because work is true to life. If the philosopher ee FREES af keeps within his topic, it is evidence of his greatness that his statements are so clear, so true, that they seem indisputable. It is his crowning excellence that he says things which the reader recognizes as so evident that he believes he himself and everybody else must always have held the same ideas, The writer in the Post endeavors to dis- parage Mr. Spencer’s work by the old charge that he is no scholar, that he reads little and knows little of the progress of modern thought. He claims that Mr. Spencer has admitted his ignorance of Kant and is not familiar with German idealism, while the list of authorities he cites is “ crude and uncrit- ical material.” It is difficult to deal with these charges of little scholarship and failure to know what is significant in philosophical literature, in any other way than by a flat contradiction. That Mr. Spencer has not read everything in German philosophy, or in recent philosophical literature of other coun- tries, is no doubt true, but any one who knows Mr. Spencer’s habits is well aware how care- ful he is to ascertain what literature is pro- duced from time to time and its bearings upon philosophical truth. For an ignorant man and one who takes no note of what is passing in the world Mr. Spencer shows a remarkable aptitude for getting hold of facts and theories bearing upon his own doctrines, as is evinced in his recent discussions of Prof. Weismann’s theories in the Contemporary Review. If, then, a critic declares Mr. Spen- cer has fallen behind the times, he may dis- cover, if he makes inquiry of those who know what Mr. Spencer does, that it is easier to write misleading statements for a newspaper than to prove them when challenged. Per- haps it is expected of Mr. Spencer that he will turn aside from his work and prepare book re- views, to demonstrate his scholarship and his familiarity with questions of present impor- tance in philosophy. But if he should have no better success in that way than his anonymous critic, it would scarcely be worth his while. This critic is especially severe because, as he says, Mr. Spencer, in a passage quoted, “represents every operation of the mind as a recognition of a likeness or the recognition of an unlikeness. According to this, every operation of volition, every operation of go- ing to sleep, and every other mental operation is but an act of ition.” The passage quoted by this able reviewer is this (Italics mine): “One division of an earlier work in this series of works—the Principles of Psy- chology—was devoted to showing that all in- tellectual operations are ultimately decompos- able into recognitions of likeness and unlike- ness.” The writer who assumes to inform } i + : - * re -) .e cS. Py 1 el 4 ci i Siete aie es ate fe sein tae SS a 14 - re 38 toe

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st <li si ae) 7 Dich so pity? %;

his constituency so confidently of Mr. Spen- cer’s paucity of knowledge and his general decrepitude does not seem to know that intellect, feeling, and will are three depart ments of mind, and that Mr. Spencer’s state- ment is applied to one only. “ Intellectual operations” are not all the operations of mind. What Mr. Spencer says he may be criticised for, not what his blind critic avers that he says. Yet this perversion with its comments occupies a long h. I have not space for further illustration of the heedless, dogmatic, crude, and false statements with which this worthless critique abounds; but the public will be exposed to its like so long as anonymity is the fashion in book reviews. DanrEL GREENLEAF THOMPSON, New York, October 30, 1898.

COLORED AUDITION. Editor Popular Science Monthly : Dear Sie: Struck with M. Binet’s x The Problem of Colored Audition, in The EDITOR’S TABLE.

267 Popular Science Monthly for October, with- out questioning the facts, when consulting my own recollections I was unable to re- call any one who possessed such curious powers. as to meet to-day a young lady, the was about pleasant or unpleasant voices, such as are in use in ordinary conver- sation. Both of us commented on the voice of a person of our acquaintance, when the lady said: “So-and-so has a green voice. It always sounds to me.” Without bringing M. Binet to the front, I questioned the lady in regard to this color comparison. I found that voices, intonations, and sounds had positive color effects on her mind, There was a tleman whose voice was “red” to her. en I asked her if she had read M. Binet, and she said she had no acquaintance with the article published by you, nor had she any conception that there was anything peculiar in her associating tones with colors. She said she always did it. Respectfully, § Barnet Paruirs. Brooxirn, October 6, 1893.

EDITOR’S TABLE, SCIENCE AND CIVILIZATION. HE close of the great Columbian Exposition at Chicago naturally suggests reflections as to its general sig- nificance and import. The Exposition was meant to furnish a conspectus, as it were, of what the art of man is able to accomplish toward the end of the nineteenth century; and, as a memorial of the civilization of to-day, its general catalogue would be to future ages a most important document. That the Exposition as a whole was a vast and overwhelming demonstration of the re- sources of modern life, no one can question. Until the riches of the world are gathered together in some such way we wholly fail to realize, and even when they have been so gathered to- gether, we but imperfectly—very imper- fectly indeed—realize what the achieve- ments of our age have been. When the idea has, however, in some measure been brought home to us, we involan- tarily ask, What has made our age to differ so much from past ages, when

whole centuries would pass with very little change in the outward conditions of society? The anewer lies on the sur- face: The modern world has found the key to real knowledge. In former ages a certain number of useful arts were discovered empirically and more or less fortuitously; to-day we have learned how to make discoveries, as it were, by rule. We regard Nature as a book, every leaf of which contains useful les- sons, written sometimes in characters difficult to decipher, but always deci- pherable in the end if but proper pains be taken and proper methods pursued. _. In former ages men’s minds were pos- - sessed by a number of absolute notions and a priori principles which they ap- plied to the interpretation, or rather misinterpretation, of Nature; and as a consequence the discovery of trath lagged and languished. How greatly, for example, was the progress of as- tronomy retarded by the assumption that as the circle was a perfect figure, the planets must move in circled; that

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268 because the earth was big to the eye and the sun small, the former must be the central orb and the latter the satel- lite; that mystic powers resided in cer- tain numbers, and so on! To-day we come to Nature as simple questioners, not telling her what she must be, but asking her what she is, and what are her laws. A certain amount of knowl- edge, of course; we have gained, and this we use as capital for the accu- mulation of more; but even our best- established conclusions we hold subject to revision, at least as regards their theoretical expression. Even on the strength of experience we do not under- take to dictate as to what must be, for all experience is, we are aware, imper- fect. We know in part, and therefore, when we are wise, we prophesy but in part. To revert for a moment to the science of astronomy, it may be said that we find there an unending series of les sons against a priori and absolute views. The planets are not perfect spheres; their orbits are not perfect circles, nor do they perfectly retain their form; their rates of movement are not uniform; their inclinations to the planes in which they move undergo constant changes. It might be supposed beforehand that they would all be developed on the same plan and in some regular order of gra- dation; but no, they increase in size from Mercury to the earth; then we have the moon (which is strictly a planet) of much inferior size; then Mars, much larger than the moon, but much smaller than the earth; then the fragmentary asteroids; then the giant Jupiter; then Saturn and Uranus suc- cessively smaller; and finally Neptune, larger than Uranus but smaller than Saturn. Again, as if to show a unique example of the way in which rings were thrown off from the original nebula, Saturn alone of all the planets is sur- rounded by rings which, in some way, managed to preserve their equilibrium as rings instead of being rolled together by gravitation into spheres. The solar THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. system as a whole seems to speak to us in commanding tones and say, “ When the laws and phenomena of Nature are concerned, don’t assume to know what ought to be, but find out what is.” On this line of the patient study of Nature all the victories of modern science, we might almost say of modern civilization, have been won. : Science is now of age and can take care of itself, but we have not to look back very far in the history of the world in order to come to the time when it had to ask the permission of Theology and so-called Philosophy for every step it took, and when frequently its progress was absolutely barred by some arbi- trary mandate. In our own day even, what opprobrium has been heaped upon geologists like Lyell, and biologists like Darwin, simply because their conclu- sions threatened to disturb those in which the orthodox world, on wholly insufficient evidence, had been pleased to settle down! Henceforth Science will brook no dictation. She will not herself dictate to Nature, and she will suffer no arbitrary authority to dictate to her. What is scientifically true will be determined by evidence industrious- ly gathered, carefully sifted, and cau- tiously interpreted; and the world will reap the benefit of the principles thus established in ever new additions to the comforts and refinements of life. Still more important, however, it may be hoped, will the progress of scientific thought prove in the intellectual and moral sphere. We want what we have never had as yet, but what the labors of that truly great philosopher Her- bert Spencer have at least in part pro- vided for us, a true science of life— that is to say, a scientific treatment of the duties of life and the means of hap- piness. But meanwhile much advan- tage will result from the gradual spread of scientific methods of thought—meth- ods which incline to caution, to a care- ful scrutiny of causes and consequences, in the sphere of social action. Here-

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tofore wisdom has been largely won through suffering; but we may bope that, with the wider establishment and recognition of sound principles of con- duct, this will more and more cease to be the case. There does not seem any very good reason why men might not be taught to love right conduct just as they may be, and are, taught to prefer temperate and wholesome to intemper- ate and unwholesome eating and drink- ing. To tell the truth an advance of science is more wanted to-day in the sphere of conduct than in the mechan- ical arts. We could get on very well for the next quarter of a century without traveling any faster, or without any far- ther cheapening of cotton goods; but every day we feel directly or indirectly the need of greater wisdom in the con- duct of life; for daily we suffer either through our own errors or those of others. Ancient codes of ethics are very well—some of them at least—as far as they go; but it will be a good day for the world when it is universally recognized that the true canons of con- duct are deducible by sound reasonings upon the facts of life and the relations of individaals, and that, so deduced, they have the highest authority that any moral code can possess. A SCIENTIST, BUT NOT A PHILOSOPHER, Awone the papers contributed to the World’s Congress of Religions was one by Sir William Dawson, of Montreal, entitled Religio Scientis (the Religion of Science). This eminent geologist never loses an opportunity of attacking the doctrine of evolution, and it is not surprising, therefore, that he should have done so on this occasion. No evi- dence has ever been afforded, however, that Sir William Dawson has taken proper pains to ascertain what evolu- tion, as understood and taught by the leading believers in the doctrine, means, Speaking of man’s moral nature, he EDITOR'S TABLE. 269 says: “On this point a strange confa- sion, produced apparently by the doc- trine of evolution, seems to have affect- ed some scientific thinkers, who seek to read back moral ideas into the history of the world at a time when no man- dane moral agent is known to have been in existence. They forget that it is no more immoral for a wolf to eat a lamb than for a lamb to eat grass.” Now, it would be sinfply impossible for any one who had read even so brief a treatise as Spencer’s Data of Ethics with any atten- tion to have made such a remark, Let any one to whom that treatise is in the least familiar try to imagine Spencer forgetting that “it is no more immoral for a wolf to eat a lamb than for a lamb toeat grass”! A man with Sir William Dawson’s reputation should really not commit himself in this way. Not only is there not one word in Spencer’s writ- ings to indicate that he thinks it im- moral for a wolf to eat a lamb, but his whole method of treating the subject of the development of morality shows that he utterly repudiates such aview. What Spencer does attempt to do is to prove that the conduct we now call moral must be regarded as a development from con- duct to which it is impossible to apply the term. He traces for us in the most careful manner every stage of the pro- cess; and if Sir William Dawson would undertake to point out where the line of succession fails, or, to express it other- wise, where the evolution of on» stage from that immediately preceding it has been incorrectly assumed, he would then be grappling seriously with the ethical side of the doctrine of evolution. To do this, however, he would have to stady Mr. Spencer's Principles of Ethics with careful attention, and this would prob- ably not be agreeable tohim. It would be easy to note other points in Sir Wil- liam’s address to which, from a scientific point of view, exception might betaken. - Our purpose, however, on the present occasion is sufficiently served by show- ing that this really able geologist allows

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> himself to speak on philosophical sub- jects with altogether too slender an equipment of necessary knowledge. LITERARY NOTICES. Tue History anp Tueory or Monry. By Sipnzy SHEerwoop, with Addresses by Dr. Wrii1aM Pepper and others. Phila- delphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. Pp. 4138. Price, $2. Tue American people has heard more about the theory of money during the past summer than in a long time before. Much - that has been said has been erroneous, and, unfortunately, the error has often been put forth so speciously that many of those who have not given the subject of finance serious study have mistaken the false for the true. During the early months of 1892, when the subject of money was also attracting con- siderable attention, a series of lectures was delivered in Philadelphia, under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension * of University Teaching, and the patronage of the bankers of Philadelphia. These lec- tures were given by Dr. Sherwood, of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, and, with certain supplementary matter, con- stitute the volume before us. The twelve lectures are evenly divided between history and theory; under the former head the prin- cipal topics are coinage, past fluctuations in the supply of the coin metals, the develop- ment of credit, the history of the Bank of England, and the history of American cur- rency. The first lecture on theories is also historical, while the remaining five are de- voted wholly to monetary theories now cur- rent. Dr. Sherwood affirms that the prac- tical law of value of money is the law of demand and supply. Governments can, within narrow limits, make money more or less desirable and more or less plenty, thus affecting its value. He presents the argu- ment both for and against a large volume of currency, and then sets forth certain impor- tant facts that bear upon this matter. Paper money he describes as a promise to pay. In treating of banks of various kinds he states that there is a growing tendency to divorce note-issue from the deposit and discount functions of banks; that the latter functions are constantly becoming more important, 270° THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. while there are tendencies both for and against the extension of the former. The eleventh lecture deals with the monetary question of greatest current interest—the Battle of the Standards, or monometallism versus bimetal- lism. Dr. Sherwood gives the arguments of both parties in the controversy, and states his conviction that bimetallism based on an agreement of the chief commercial nations would be advantageous, but attempted by one nation alone would be disastrous. France maintained it only so long as certain accidental conditions existed. The policy of the United States under the Sherman law is not bimetallism. The subject of the closing lecture—monetary panics—is also a timely one. The lecturer points out seven causes of panics, and states the measures taken by financial institutions for allaying them. Each of the lectures was followed by a dis- cussion, which is reported. Appended to the volume are a syllabus of the lectures and a list of books for reading. Addresses made by Dr. William Pepper, Mr. William H. Rhawn, and others, at the opening and closing of the course, are also included. Brizr Guive ro THE ComMONER BUTTERFLIES or THE NortHerN Unirep Srares anp Canapa. By Samvet Hussarp Scupper. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 206. Price, $1.25. Tae Lire or a Burrerriy. By 8. H. Scup- per. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Pp. 186. Price, $1. Tue former of these small volumes is a manual for amateur collectors. The author has aimed to guard against alarming the- beginner by its size, and to give quite full life-histories of the butterflies that are in- cluded in it. It is described further in his own words as follows: “I have accordingly selected the butterflies—less than a hundred of them—which would almost surely be met with by any industrious collector in the course of a year’s or two years’ work in the more populous Northern States and in Can- ada, and have here treated them as if they were the only ones found there. I have omitted many species which are common enough in certain restricted localities (such, for instance, as our White Mountain butter- fly), and included only those which are com- mon over wide areas. As the earlier stages of these insects are just as varied, as inter- “a . S * "i et Pas * y 2 KP St iT in ARAL i Aa BONAR AA Si PE SRE REE Lg Te i: ‘ i

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esting, and as important as the perfect stage, descriptions are given of these under the guidance of the same principle.” The work opens with a short introduction to the gen- eral study of butterflies, which is followed by keys to the various groups, based respect- ively on the perfect butterfly, the caterpillar, and the chrysalis. The body of the work consists of concise descriptions arranged systematically, each comprising first a de- scription of the butterfly, the caterpillar, and the chrysalis, then some account of the eggs and habits of the species. An ap- pendix furnishes instructions for collecting, rearing, preserving, and studying, with cuts of apparatus. In The Life of a Butterfly, Mr. Scudder has described one of the most conspicuous American butterflies—the large orange and black milkweed butterfly—and at the same time he has, by introducing comparisons, given some account of the lives of the other members of its tribe. The several habits of the chosen type are also used to illustrate such general scientific topics as the struggle for existence, mimicry, distribution, classifi- cation, etc. Four plates, showing the type insect and its important parts, are given. Genera Greene. By Francis Vinton Greene. Great Commanders Series. New York: D. Appleton & Co. Pp. 3382. Price, $1.50. Some splendid fighters have come of Quaker stock, and Nathanael Greene was a notable one of these., His comparatively short life was a most valuable one to this country, and to-day his statue stands with that of Roger Williams to represent Rhode Island in the Capitol at Washington. His life up to thirty-three years of age was un- eventful. Then the Revolution broke out, and the Assembly of his colony elected him brigadier general to command the Rhode Island militia. The choice was amply justi- fied by Greene’s career, first as a thorough organizer in camp near Boston, then as the friend and trusted subordinate of Washing- ton in the operations about New York and Philadelphia, as quartermaster general, and most of all as the strategist, ever active and vigilant, who manwuvred the British out of the Carolinas. The volume before us gives a vivid and detailed account of his part in

LITERARY NOTICES. sy

the struggle for independence. The descrip- tions of battles are clear and precise and all important ones are illustrated with maps. An engraving from the portrait of Greene by Charles Wilson Peale forms the frontis- piece of the volume, Grotocy. By A. J. Juxes-Browne. New a Macmillan & Co. Pp. 248. Price, Tus is one of the volumes of Whittaker’s Library of Popular Science, and its simple style amply justifies its appearance in such a series. It is a small book, containing only the information that would be desired by an intelligent person who did not care to make a study of the subject. Its twenty- one short chapters are divided into three groups: the first telling how rocks are made, and what they are made of; the sec. ond telling how the rocks were brought into the positions they now occupy; and the last describing the rocks of different ages, and the fossils which serve to identify them. There are ninety-four illustrations. A History or IRe.anp in tae Eicureentsa Century. By W. E. H. Lecxy. New York: D. leton & Co. Five vol- umes. Price, $5. In this work Mr. Lecky develops a pro- foundly interesting chronicle. Not only does it present much that is novel to those whose ideas of the subject have filtered through English media, but it reveals the forces which have aided in the evolution of Irish character. The typical traits of the Irish are often carelessly ascribed to racial differences. The influence of the Celtic element is not easily traced and is apt to be overestimated. What are termed distinctively Irish evils character- ize chiefly the counties settled by English- men. Religion has been a more potent factor in modification, while the climate and situa- tion of the country have had an important share in the formative process. The suppression of her industries con- tributed largely to the downfall of the na- tion. The policy of England, however, was essentially the same toward Scotland and America, but Ireland was for various causes more completely in her grasp. It is difficult to read unmoved the struggles of this unfor-

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tunate people. Not only was their land con- fiscated, all commerce and manufacture le- gally restricted, their religion made a crime, but premiums were put upon bribery and treachery. The feeling in England was car- ried to such an extreme thft petitions were presented to prohibit Irishmen from catch- * img herrings, because they might forestall English markets! According to Burke, “the Irish were treated as a race of savages who were a disgrace to human nature itself,” and even the poet Spenser advocated their sub- jection by systematic starvation. The ob- ject of English rule seemed at first to wipe ~ out the Irish race rather than their religion ; later, it assumed the phase of a war of creeds. It is shown by Mr. Lecky that the Irish were naturally tolerant. They harbored Quakers and Huguenots, sheltered Protest- ant clergymen, and did not indulge in the burning of witches. The English, on the contrary, were relentless persecutors, and although there was no summary destruction of Papists in Ireland, such as there had been of Protestants in Spain, yet the results of legislation were further reaching and more pernicious. “The law did not suppose any such person to exist as an Irish Roman Catholic.” Every office and profession was closed to him; it was even a penal offense to pick up the crumbs of learning as an usher in a school. Land he could not buy, nor own a horse over the value of five pounds. He could not appoint a guardian for his own child, and if he married a Protestant, the ceremony was null and the priest who per- formed it could be hanged. The degrada- tion of the Irish by this penal code was un- paralleled, since it affected not a minority but three fourths of the population and was in force nearly a century. A perusal of the laws in the light of the present day is enough to make one blush for English ancestry. Judged even by the intolerance of the age, they were excessive and short-sighted, and form an indelible blot upon English govern- ment. The disputed character of Irish his- tory necessitates frequent reference to origi- nal materials ; these include the correspond- ence and records of the English and Irish Governments and a vast number of private papers and letters. The reader is thus en- abled to judge the truth for himself, and, far 272 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. from finding the narrative a dull one, is al- most persuaded that he is in the current of events. The limits of this work do not correspond to those of the History of England, previously issued. They include the rebellion of 1798, the legislative union of 1800, and the events of the two succeeding years, as properly be- longing to the same epoch. Tue Puysio.ocy or Tae Senses. By Jonn Gray McKenprick, M. D., and Witt1aM Snoperass, M. B. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Pp. 318. Price, $1.50 net. Ir is the aim of this book, which is one of the series issued under the name of Uni- versity Extension Manuals, to give a suc- cinct account of the functions of the organs of sense in man and the higher animals. The authors have refrained from discussing with fullness of detail either the compara- tive physiology of the senses or the numer- ous interesting questions of a psychological character that are connected with the study of the sensory mechanisms. The volume has been written so as to be readily under- stood even by those who have not made physiology a special subject of study. Some comparatively simple experiments have been given, by which the reader may test certain of the statements for himself. The last chapter is of a speculative character, being an attempt to elucidate the nature of the physiological basis of sensation. The vol- ume is illustrated with one hundred and twenty-seven figures. British Forest TREES AND THEIR SYLVICUL- TURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT. By Joun Nisser, D.(c. New York: Macmillan & Co. Pp. 352. Price, $2.50. One more evidence of the growing at- tention that is being paid to forestry is fur- nished by the appearance of this work. It is devoted to what may be called the larger considerations of sylviculture, such as the choice of kinds of trees for plantations, the mixing of different kinds, so that they will help and protect each other, the proper density of forests, underplanting, etc., de- tails of such matters as sowing, planting, and tending being omitted. The greatér part of the volume is devoted to special considera- tions regarding the growth of individual eee i: San geen, oo 2 > * iter > 1 Sa Seer

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it aa oe =e ne AUS SRR ed . Pit hed et whee, + eee pil oe ae So ceili ee cee adele ag species of British forest trees. Among those classed as minor species not usually forming pure forests in Britain are five coni- fers introduced from North America. Some- thing is told also in regard to the yew, juni- per, hazel, alder, buckthorn, and hawthorn among useful shrubs. Lecrore Nores on THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY, By F.G. Wrecumann. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 225, A LARGE body of notes, corresponding to an extended course of lectures, is given in this book. Many of the facts, laws, and processes which it includes are stated with much fullness and are accompanied with illustrative examples. As indicated by the title, the work is confined to theoretical chemistry, and much of the history of chem- ical theory is included in it. A chapter is given to solutions in which the recent work on that subject finds a place. Thermo-chemis- try receives due attention, and there are short chapters on photo-chemistry and electro- chemistry. Considerable prominence has been given to stoichiometry, but for prob- lems in this subject students are referred to special manuals, The author is instructor in chemical physics and chemical philosophy at the School of Mines, Columbia College. Tue Brats anp DevELOPMENT oF ORNAMENT. By F. Epwarp Hume, F.L.S., F.8. A. New York: Macmillan & Co., 1893. Pp. 840, Price, $1.50. Tuts book is an attempt to put into small compass and cheap form a general view of the origin and growth of the use of ornament. The opening paragraph follows: “The Birth of Ornament! Countless centuries before man appeared upon the earth, the Creator of the universe had gazed upon the work of his hands, and declared that all had reached his lofty ideal.” Certainly the author can not be accused of too modern a starting point, and he further on puts this beyond question. “* Hence we claim for our subject nothing short of infinite antiquity, nothing less than divine authority.” The first chapter deals with the value of a knowledge of past ornamentation, the study of principles, and various other general matters. . Chapter II really opens the subject, with a consideration of Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Phoenician art. VOL, XLIV.—22 LITERARY NOTICES, 273 Chapter III deals with Greek and Roman art Chapter IV, division of the Roman Empire: Byzantine, Romanesque, and Early English Art; Chapter V, Causes of the Decay of Goth- ic Art, and the Renaissance ; and Chapter VI, The Art of Islam, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Mexican, Peruvian, and, finally, Art afnong the North American Indians and the Primitive Savages. The work seems to be the result of a large amount of labor and time. It is very well illustrated with exam- ples from thé various periods, and abounds in quotations from such authorities as Sir Joshua Reynolds, Guizot, Ruskin, and Wil- kinson. It contains a useful index. A Dictionary or Appiiep Cemistry. T. E. Tuorrs, D. Sc., F. R. 8., assisted b Eminent Contributors. In Three V umes. Vol. III. O-Z, London and New York: Longmans, Green & Co. Pp. 1058. Price, $20. We congratulate the editor and the pub- lishers upon the completion of this valuable work. So many subjects requiring extended treatment fall within the latter part of the alphabet that the concluding volume has grown far beyond the size of the other two, and its price has been increased by five dollars. The article on Sulphuric Acid occupies sixty pages, and treats fully each detail of the process of manufacture. Sixteen cuts, show- ing brimstone burners, steam jet pipes, Gay- Lussac and Glover towers, and other appa- ratus are given. Another subject demand- ing large space is the making of sodium car. bonate, which is described with like fullness, The making of other compounds of sodium and the extraction of the metal itself also receive due attention. Under the head of Silver the extraction of that metal is de. scribed, and under Zinc we find the methods of extracting the metal and the composition of its alloys. The article on Water, con- tributed by Prof. Percy F. Frankland, is characterized by a large number of results of analyses of waters from sources of various geological characters and from various local supplies—mainly in the British Isles. The composition of many saline and other min- eral waters is given also. Modes of purify. ing water for drinking and for industrial also gives « special section on the bacteriol:

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274 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ogy of water, and refers inquirers to half a page of authorities. Among the organic sub- stances treated in this volume are the oils, paraffin, petroleum, starch, and sugar. The Vegeto-alkaloids, grouped under this head, are also found here. The Triphenylmethane Coloring Matters are another important group of organic substances treated in the present volume, the author of the article being Prof. Otto N. Witt, of Berlin. Alfred H. Allen, author of the Commercial Organic Analysis, contributes the article on Fixed Oils and Fats; Prof. W. A. Tilden, those on the Es- sential Oils, Terpenes, and Resin; the one on Sugar is by Messrs. J. A. R. and B. E. R. Newlands; that on Russian Petroleum is by Boverton Redwood; and that on American Petroleum by Prof. 8. P. Sadtler, of the University of Pennsylvania. Among the more purely scientific articles are those on Specific Gravity, Solution, and Spectrum Analysis; while others whose technological character are more marked are Paper, Pot- tery and Porcelain (by William Burton, Esq., of the Wedgwood Works), Photography, Soap, Tea, and Wine. The contributions of the editor (unsigned articles) are many and important. When so much chemical knowl- edge is spread before us, perhaps we ought not to expect Prof. Thorpe to know what Americans mean by saleratus, or even the current spelling of the word (p. 364); and it is still less material that he allows his con- tributor, John Heron, Esq., to annex Long Island to New Jersey (p. 579). A Gumwe ro Srerrocuemistry. With an Appendix: Models for Use in teaching ic Chemistry. By Arnoip Eroarr, Ph. D., B.Sc. New York: Alexander Wil- son, 26 Delancey Street, Agent. Price, $1 net ; free. Tue scope and purpose of this book may be best indicated by the following quotation from the author’s preface : “ Although no new branch of chemistry is found more interesting by chemists and students than that which treats of the ar- rangement of atoms in space, so that lec- tures on the subject are everywhere wel- come, yet it has been difficult to give guid- ance and permanence to this interest. . . . It seemed desirable in attempting to supply such a book to make it as compact as pos- sible without stripping the subject of the charm so natural to it. In this Guide, there- fore, established facts have been promptly accepted as such. . . . Living issues appro- priate the pages thus gained, so that more than the usual proportion of space is occu- pied by the later and more daring develop- ments of stereochemistry ; the theories con- cerning the space-relations of nitrogen are a case in point. At the same time especial care has been taken to notice the criticisms of those hostile to such innovations.” Tt should be added that this work, while it may be used as a text-book by students, will also be read as a critical and historical review of the subject. The American Book Company adds Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice to its series of English Classics for Schools. An account of the sources whence the play was derived, a notice of the occasion on which it was written, suggesting that it was designed to take advantage of current sensational events, and an analysis, are given in the in- troduction. The Letters from Queensland (Australia), reprinted from the special correspondence of the London Times by Macmillan & Co., con- tains, besides sketches of travel and scenery and incidental observations of Chinese and Kanaka labor, valuable information and sta- tistics about the sugar industry and mineral wealth of the colony, cattle and sheep rais- ing, and a political chapter on the Separa- tion Question, or the question of the divi- sion of the colony by the separation of North Queensland. Moses or Darwin? A School Problem for all Friends of Truth and Progress, is the title of three papers on Evolution and Darwinian- ism which were originally delivered as lec- tures by the author, Dr. Arnold Dodel, at Zurich and St. Gall, Switzerland. Their im- mediate purpose was to direct the attention of the public “to the calamitous gulf lying between the higher and the common schools” —which he further describes by the words “Truth for the few” (higher school pupils, to whom the scientific doctrines of evolution are taught) and “Errors for the many” (lower school pupils, who are taught “the Mosaic myth”). The translator and Ameri- can editor, Frederick W. Dodel, furnishes a preface, in which is a disquisition on School BA eae nn nen, abe © Tana A catcadet bontiadiadla rsa nceabisnn 24s peer Were b

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4 4 % el Pa t a 3 ey ¢ Reform in the West, the burden of which is the installation of science and the elimina- tion of all religious teaching in all the schools. (The Commonwealth Company, Boston.) The character of the Essays included by Mr. Henry Smith under the general title of Religion of the Brain is indicated by the frontispiece, which pictures an ivy-grown tree with the motto, “The Ivy has nearly killed the tree, Theology has all but destroyed religion. Science will kill Theology, then Religion will revive.” Submitting to theo- logical teachings during half of his life, he professes to have found them barren. Then he turned to science, and, while it took from him the hope of heaven, it taught him how to make this life happy; it took from him theology, and gave him natural religion. He sets forth in this book how he accepts the teaching of science and declines that of theology. (Watts & Co., London, Price, 2s. 6d.) Karl Heinzen, the author of a volume on The Rights of Women and the Serual Rela- tions, published by Benjamin R. Tucker, Bos- ton, is described by Karl Schmemann, editor of this present edition, as “one of the most enlightened and humanitarian spirits of our time, whose libertarian and reformatory la- bors were not limited to his German father- land and our republic, but extended to the entire civilized world by their unique and masterful many-sidedness.” The author ad- vocates, with great freedom and little reserve, the complete emancipation and independence of woman, with “liberty to choose her com- panion and liberty to change.” Instead of a Book is published by the au- thor, Benjamin R. Tucker, because, he says, he was “too busy to write one”; that is, to give orderly arrangement, finish, symmetry, and due subordination to his thoughts on the cause he champions. He has been for twelve years editor of a journal called Liberty, in which he has expounded the principles of “Philosophical Anarchism.” Pending the arrival of the man having time, means, and ability to produce the bouk that is desired in maintenance of this cause, he has put forth “as a makeshift” a partial collection of his writings for his journal. The volume opens with a paper on State Socialism and An- archism, which represents, in a way, a sum- mary of the entire scope of the work. In the LITERARY NOTICES. 275 sections, or groups of essays following this, the fundamental ‘principles of human asso- ciation (as he regards them) are dealt with ; applied to the two greet economic factors, money and land; the “ authoritarian social principles that go counter to them ” are dealt with ; and the methods by which the cham- pioned principles can be realized are dis- cussed. Other articles, less subject to classi- fication, follow. While the work is highly objectionable from the conservative point of view, it is not at all wanting in vigor and earnestness, ($1.) In preparing his Standard Arithmetic for schools and academies, President William J. Milne of the Normal College at Albany, has aimed to secure together in the student skill in numerical computations and a proper un- derstanding of the reasons for the steps in the explanation of processes and the solution of problems. Either can be acquired with- out the other, but the student will not then be a full arithmetician, while with both he is qualified for any work. The book, therefore, contains examples to promote accuracy and rapidity, and exercises to train the analytical powers and develop the reasoning faculties. Business methods of computation are pre- ferred to the processes of the schools. (Ameri- can Book Company.) Mr. R. Lachlan’s Elementary Treatise on Modern Pure Geometry, and the Elementary Treatise on Pure Geometry of Mr. J. W. Rus- sell, cover substantially the same ground in very similar manners, Pure geometry is de- fined in the new regulations for the Cambridge Tripos as “ namely, Euclid ; simple properties of lines and circles; inversion; the element- ary properties of conic sections treated geo- metrically, not excluding the method of pro- jections ; reciprocation ; harmonic properties ; curvature.” Mr. Lachlan has brought togeth- er in his treatise all the important proposi- tions—bearing on the simple properties of lines and circles—that might fairly be con- sidered within the limits of this regulation ; and has at the same time endeavored to treat every branch of the subject as com- pletely as possible, in order to attract a larger number of students to the science. Mr. Russell has attempted in his treatise to. bring together all the well-known theorems and examples connected with harmonies, an-

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276 homology), and reciprocation. In order to avoid the difficulty of framing a general geometrical theory of imaginary points and lines, the principle of continuity is appealed to. The properties of circular points and circular lines are then discussed, and applied to the theory of the foci of conics. This work is also well furnished with examples. (Macmillan & Co. Price, $4.25 and $2.60.) The Primary Lessons and the Advanced Lessons in Human Physiology, by Prof. Oli- ver P. Jenkins, are successive volumes in the Indiana State series of common-school text- books. The author insists that the books be used only as a guide to the study of the human body, and not as the object to be stud- ied. “If this or any other elementary book in physiology is used simply as a book to be learned and recited, the time spent on it is worse than wasted.”” The author shows that many parts of the body can be put directly under study and their operations carefully observed and analyzed, while the lower ani- mals can furnish the rest of the illustrations. The body should also be observed in action. Charts and drawings have their place in the teaching, but “they should come after the objects and never before, and certainly should not stand for them.” In the second book of the series— Advanced Lessons—directions are introduced for the practical demonstration of many anatomical and physiological facts. Recognizing the change that has come in re- cent years over the tone and spirit of pbhysio- logical thought and discussion, the author has endeavored to infuse enough of this spirit into his work “ to introduce even the young student into its influence.” (Indiana School- book Company, Indianapolis.) A Studen?s Manual of a Laboratory Course in Physical Measurements, by Wal- lace Clement Sabine, is a guide to experi- ments. It was primarily written for one of the Harvard courses in physics, and the ex- periments detailed in it are based upon those performed in that course. It has been given the form of an abstract of the daily lectures preceding the laboratory work and describ- ing the experiments to be performed, and is intentionally condensed. Efforts are made to explain all the corrections to be applied, and te call attention to all the precautions which should be taken in the accurate and proper performance of the experiments, On THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the other hand, in the majority of cases, the description is purposely not such as will ad- mit of a mechanical and unintelligent inter- pretation. (Boston: Ginn & Co.) The second part of Jane H. Newell's Reader in Botany contains selections for reading, adapted from well-known authors, on flower and fruit. In it Christian Con- rad Sprengel is represented by passages on Cross-Fertilization and Fertilization of Tro- peolum, Darwin in Cross-Fertilization, Het- erostyled Flowers, and the Habits of Insects in Relation to Flowers, writers in the Ger- man Pflanzenleben in The Protection of Pol- len, The Dissemination of Pollen by the Wind, and The Color of Flowers as a Means of attracting Insects; Wallace in Attractive and Protective Colors of Fruits; Gray in Fertilization of Orchids; Grant Allen and ‘Byron D. Halsted in Weeds; F. L. Sargent in The Common Dandelion; Sir John Lub- bock in Habits of Insects in Relation to Flowers; Miss Buckley in Epochs in the History of Botany; and four papers have no names attached. (Boston: Ginn & Co.) The Orum System of Voice Education, for reading and conversation, recitation, dramatic expression, and Bible reading, by Julia A. Orum, is based on the system of James Fennell, as transmitted through his pupil, L. G. White, and Mr. White’s pupil, James B. Roberts. The author has made its illustration and establishment her special work for sixteen years. The book is a tran- scription of her method of instruction in schools and classes which include children and men and women of various vocatiuns. It is based upon physiological principles, and begins with the elucidation of the elemental functions of the body in the expression of sentences. (Published by the author at Philadelphia.) The Manual of Current Shorthand—or- thographic and phonetic—of Mr. Henry Sweet is intended to supply the want of a system of writing shorter and more compact than long- hand, and at the same time not less distinct and legible. None of the systems most in use at the present time, the author affirms, fully meet these requirements, because they sacrifice efficiency to brevity. The present system is on a script basis instead of a geo- metrical one, like Pitman’s—that is, is formed on its model of ordinary longhand, reduced

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sla al Se ee ities 4. . “ine A Leng he te he, oR or 7 aey 4 RA eal Chelle Cl acme ‘ : | =4 4 4 ; t e] to its simplest elements; it provides for the vowels, and is on an alphabetic and syllabic basis. (Macmillan & Co., $1.25.) The seventeenth monograph of the Geo- logical Survey is The Flora of the Dakota Group, a work on fossil botany by the late Leo Lesquereuzx (Geological Survey, $1.10). The specimens from which the descriptions in this work were written are mostly in the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Cam- bridge, the museum of the University of Kansas, and the private cabinet of Mr. R. D. Lacoe, of Pittston, Pa. This was the last production of its author, and the chief events of his life are appropriately set forth in the editor’s preface. A monograph on the Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Raritan Clays and Green- sand Marls of New Jersey, by Robert Parr W hitfield, is the eighteenth in the series of the Geological Survey, and forms also a part of the report on the Survey of the State of New Jersey. The material for this re- port was very meager, the gasteropods being represented in the several formations only by casts and the cephalopods largely by fragments. Fifty plates, each bearing from one to thirty figures, illustrate the text. The United States Geological Survey has issued A Dakota-English Dictionary, by Stephen Return Riggs, a quarto volume of 665 pages. The author, who died in 1883, was a student of the language for mission- ary use for over thirty years, having pre- pared a grammar and dictionary that was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1852. The present volume has been edited by James Owen Dorsey. In the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1889-90 it is shown that the property used for common schools bad reached the value of $350,000,000, an aver- age increase of $10,000,000 a year since 1870. In the same period the school at- tendance in the South Atlantic States had risen from six to twenty-two per cent of the whole population, and in the South Central States from seven and a half to twenty-three and a half per cent. The enrollment for the whole country is twenty-three per cent. This is a better showing than that of any other nation except Saxony. But many European states have a much longer yearly session than we have. Here, says LITERARY NOTICES. the commissioner, is the place to show improvement in future years. Among the subjects on which special reports are pre- sented are the educational congresses held in Paris in 1889, education in Scotland, the higher schools of Prussia and the school conference of 1890, temperance instruction, and the curricula of professional schools. Numerous other topics receive attention also, and there are the usual statistics. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. Aé@ronantics. M.N. 1, Pome. Editor and ~~ Riallrosd Sournale Monthly. Pp. 16. 10 ante $1 a year. Bo Pp Pp. 416. Latin Prose ee Ameri- can Book Company. Pp. 415. $1 each. Bardeen, C.W. Hi of Educational Jour- nalism in the State of New ork. Syracuse, N. Y. : C. W. Bardeen. Pp. 45. 10 cents. Bed rederick, and Crehore, A.C. Alternat- Ae, —-U.. New York: W. J. Ey limited. Pp. 825. aeseee, Sees. Ye West African Crustaceans . Washington : Smithsonian Institution. Fp. 10. A 50 cen’ Beep Cae. 6.2 British Locomotives. New & Co. Pp. 376. Ay York: Macmillan gers. ire yenctoneles Co, Pp. 1} Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. Pro- spectus for 1893-"04. Pp. 55. Chica- Brown, Marshall. Bulls and Blunders. go: abd n iio He Pp. 304. $1. cuts sclgra Gecoglea Survey, Carus, Dr. Paul. Our Pp. 1d-"The Heligion of Selenoe. Dek, ek? Continuous-current Dynamos and Motors. New York: W. a eo ‘A Subtropical Miocene wiretie Siberia, United States National Museum. Pp. 10, with Plate. , R. B., M. D., Olema, Cal. Evolution and ‘of the Special Senses. Pp. 10. De , Thomas. aa Are «nd New York: Henry Holt & Co. Pp. :

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Hart, Ernest. The Profession, the Publ the Code. Address before the Pan-American . Blind Cra National

and ed- hes of Indiana, etc. useum. Pp. 4, with . The Points of the Horse. : Macmillan & Co. Pp. 379, with Hill David J. Genetic Easement New York: Macmillan & Co. han ” Hill, Robert T _ Paleontol of the Creta- ceous Fossils of Te etc. Biological Society of Washington. Pe 12, 12, with Plates Jenner, Sir William. Lectures and Essays on Fevers and 7 theria, 1819 to 1879. New York: Macmillan & Pp. 581. Killeman, W. A. yon oy Certain Nat- > weed A ys without a Cam em Bp. Experi- Bibliography of Ohio t of Treated ~ Pp. 5.— i. ee Botany. Pp. 22. Se Kitoen, , Aug. Da "Analytical Synopsis oe abe! Cc. The Revolt of the Brutes. ey eee: C. T. Dillingham &Co. Pp. 123. 50 Leffmann, Hi William. fo sis of Milk and Mik | amg peantetphta: Blakiston, Son & Co. Pp. 9. $1. We ae ~~ XII. pacrien! ¢ on the pais: of La- : Pilot Ey hing Co. Pp. 1 , and others. Siben for sek forming New | Eh nag in Phys- ica ew As Dull of Qt Pp. 107. $1.60. Memisler, wane am. § hes A New York: D. Appleton £00 $2. soe Ee im Mining School. ‘coms Dal the Di- Monroe, W. 8. The . AAT. Labors of C. W. Bardeen. Henry Barnard. Syracuse, N. Y.: Pp. 3. 50 cents. Three Introdu Lectures Publishing the Bclence of se ar Chi cago: Open Cour rn book of Com- acmillam & Co. Pp. : the Determination of od rag ag doe oes 6 C. Elemen' mercial Law. New York: 191. 90 cents. Newton, Alfred, and Gadow, Hans, etc. A ey ee. Ly a Ga-Moa. New York: Macmillan & Co. Pp. 212. New York Academy of Sciences. Transac- tions, 1892-"98. Pp. about 300. President’ Address, Iowa of Com- ites be Jemes ma Bib! hy of the Chinookian United hates Bo reau of regi nology, 1880-8. at ot = Burean of Eth- Pp. 298, with William H., and Stubbs, Arthur J. A m7 New York: Macmillan & Prosser, C. 8. ‘The Upper Hamilton and Port- Central and Eastern New York. Rein, Prof W. Outlinesof ice, Syra- . W. Bardeen. Pp. 199. 12. On a Collection of ey Rio Frio, Cos- ational Museum. Ee THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.

am 2 Chicago: Open Court Publishing Co. Pp. $1. Roscoe, Sir for Beginners. Lunt, Joseph. Inor- ew York: Mac- ic Ch Sillan & Co. Bp. S45 Sanford, Henry R. PaxinennedRi ler. cuse, N. Y.: C. W. Bardeen. Pp. 104 85 Saunders, Sredank. Editor. bane e com- memorative of the American Centennial and of owe New Youk: E.B. Treat. Pp. 1041. Scientific Alliance of New York. Third An- nual Directory. Pp. 40. Scott, Sir Walter. The of the Lake. American Book Company. Pp. 192. 385 cents. Siemens, Werner von. Personal Recollections, New York: D. Appleton & Co. Pp. 406. $5. Smith, John B. aes | of the Lepidopter- = 8u amily Noctuids found in Boreal Amer- nited States National Museum. Pp. 424. ” ‘aoe Thomas H. Divisions in the So- ciety of Friends. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. Pp. 112. Stearns, Robert E. C. Mollusk Fauna of the Galapagos "Islands. Pp. 96, with Plates.—Rare or Little-known Mollusks from the West Coast of North and South America. Pp. 12, with Plate.— Pe Species collected in West Africa, 1889- Todhunter, Isaac, and Pearson, Karl. A His- of the Theory of <4 py of the Strength of Materials from Galilei he Present Time. Volume II, Parts I and II. New York: Macmillan & Co. Pp. 762 and 556. $7.50. University pen of Engineering. Laboratory of Chemistry. Pp. 23. Vv ‘s Aeneid i books) and Bucolics, my etc., ae, by SY . An and Frank J. Mil- American Company. Pr oa 564. + 50. George M.D. Therapeutical Super- wal Gem ait we Werner, E.. “Clear the Track."" New York: ces International News Company. Pp. 319. 50 was, Carroll 2D. The Ph of the ted Stat . 145.—Wright, Carro! » y= Gould, E. ae 6 sees oo aoe uor ic. —Washington: Go ere oe hon's hadieate (seven books), edited by R. Harper and James Wallace. American Book Company. Pp. 575. $1.50. Zirret, Alexander. An Elementary Treatise on Theoretical Mechanics. PartI, Kinematics. New York : Macmillan &Co. Pp. 181. hate oo

POPULAR MISCELLANY. The World’s Congress on Geology.— This auxiliary of the Columbian Exposition occupied the week August 21st to 26th, hav- ing a large attendance of geologists of the United States and Canada, with a few from other countries, though many papers were sent to the Congress by foreign geologists. The sessions were held only in the forenoons, leaving the afternoons for attending the World’s Fair. Forty papers were presented before the Congress, of which thirteen were by women who are teachers and special stu- dents of geology, three of these being from G. J. An Examination of Weisman.

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PVE rt een it a oe ~ Le ial ss cap om “oP insnaaentatN é . a + © England, one from Belfast, Ireland, three from Massachusetts, two from Ohio, two from Illinois, and one each from Iowa and Colorado, Of the twenty-seven papers by professional geologists, twelve were from the United States and three from Canada, the twelve others being as follows: from Brazil, two; Venezuela, one; England, Scotland, and Germany, each two; and Sweden, Nor- way, and Switzerland, each one. Besides the formal papers, interesting discussions fol- lowed, and the programmes for three of the days ended with questions for special dis- cussion, these being, Are there any natural geological divisions of world-wide extent ? What are the principles and criteria to be observed in the restoration of ancient geo- graphic outlines? and similarly, What are the principles and criteria to be observed in the correlation of glacial formations in op- posite hemispheres? Among the geologists present at this Congress were Prof. Dr. Groth, of Munich; Mr. Hjalmar Lundbohm, of Stockholm; Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, Director of the Geological Survey of Canada; the venerable Prof. James Hall, whose work in geology began sixty years ago; Profs. Le Conte, Chamberlin, Salisbury, Lindahl, Wal- cott, H. S. and G. H. Williams, N. H. Win- chell, G. F. Wright, and many others from the United States. Subdivisions or Unity ef the Glacial Peried.—The final day of the World’s Con- gress on Geology was devoted to papers on the Glacial period, of which eight were pre- sented. Brief notes of these papers and of the ensuing discussions will be of popular interest, as they all were specially directed to the recently much debated question wheth- er the ice age comprised two or several glacial epochs, separated by warm intervals, as has been urged by Croll, Geikie, Wahn- schaffe, Penck, De Geer, Chamberlin, McGee, and others, or was a single and continuous period of glaciation, as maintained by Dana, Wright, Upham, Lamplugh, Kendall, Falsan, Holst, Nikitin, and others. The first paper of this series was by Prof. James Geikie, of Scotland. This distin- guished glacialist concludes, from his obser- vations in Great Britain and their correla- tion with the northern drift-covered portion of continental Europe, that no less than five POPULAR MISCELLANY. 279 distinct glacial epochs are recognizable there, separated by long times of interglacial tem- perate climate. These alternations are held to be in accord with Dr. James Croll’s astro- nomic theory of the causes of the Ice age, affording indeed a demonstration of the truth of that theory. Mr. Hjalmar Lundbohm, of Sweden, giv- ing the results of his own studies and of the more extended observations of Baron De Geer in that country, thought that good evi- dence is found for two epochs of ice accumu- lation and drift deposition. During the first glaciation the Scandinavian ice-sheet flowed outward over the northwestern half of Rus- sia and the northern half of Germany, while southwestward it covered the basin of the North Sea and was confluent with the British ice. The later glaciation, in which a great ice-lobe stretched south and southwest over the basin of the Baltic Sea, formed conspicu- ous moraines in Finland, northern Germany, and southern Sweden. Since the retreat of this ice-sheet Scandinavia has been differ- entially uplifted to a maximum amount of about one thousand feet in the center of the peninsula, and the Baltic Sea has been alter- nately open to the ocean and closed from it, so that for some time it was a fresh-water lake. Mr. Andrew M. Hansen, of Norway, also declared in favor of two glacial epochs, each of them inclading two or more stages of ice advance and retreat. The glacial drift of Norway, however, was described as affording little testimony of an interglacial epoch, which this author accepts from its stratified deposits underlain and overlain by till in other parts of Europe. Dr. Albrecht Heim, of Switzerland, from the glacial drift with intercalated beds con- taining lignite coal and plentiful plant re- mains in valleys of the Alps, confidently as- serted that the glaciers must three times have advanced far beyond their present limits. The second advance was the far- thest, and was doubtless contemporaneous with the maximum extension of the ice-sheets of Scandinavia and Great Britain. Dr. Robert Bell spoke of the glaciation of Canada, which was wholly enveloped by the North American ice-sheet, excepting a tract west of the lower Mackenzie Valley.and perhaps a narrow ‘area adjoining the east

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280 side of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta. The stratified beds, some of them fossilifer- ous, and others containing layers of lignite, which are found in Canada between deposits of till, may probably be explained by moder- ate advances of the ice-sheet interrupting its general recession, not so prolonged nor im- portant as to be called interglacial epochs. Prof. T. C. Chamberlin reviewed the his- tory of the Ice age in the United States, concluding that it has probably a threefold division. Two long glacial epochs had pre- ceded the chief time of deposition of the loess, which was followed by the principal interglacial epoch with retreat of the ice bor- der perhaps generally to the northern line of the United States. The last great ice ad- vance and stages of its retreat were attended by the formation of the remarkable marginal moraines, ten to twenty in order from south to north, which have been mapped across the northern United States and portions of Canada, while others doubtless remain to be traced in regions farther north. Mr. Warren Upham noted the uniqueness of the climatic conditions of the Ice age, and the absence of glacial periods from the far longer Tertiary and Mesozoic eras. So ex- eeptional climate during the Quaternary era must have resulted from very unusual causes, which could not be astronomic, for in that ease records of frequently recurring general glaciation would be found in the long pre- ceding eras. Great uplifts of glaciated coun- tries to such altitude that they received snowfall instead of rain during all the year are regarded as the cause of the ice accumu- lation; but the vast weight of the ice-sheets finally depressed the land, bringing on a warm climate by which the ice was at last rapidly melted away. Only one epoch of glaciation, with fluctuating advance and re- cession of the ice, is held to be a sufficient explanation for the observed glacial phenom- ena of both North America and Europe; and the Glacial period in each of these con- tinents appears to have ended only some six thousand to ten thousand years ago. Mr. Frank Leverett described the diverse deposits of the older drift in northwestern Illinois, showing on a map of that State the courses of the glacial boundary and retreatal moraines which he has traced. Comparison of the depths of stream erosion in the older THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. and newer drift indicates that their times of formation were divided by a much longer interval than the time from the end of the Ice age until now. In the discussion following these papers, Prof. G. F. Wright spoke of the rock gorges eroded by the Delaware, Susquehanna, and upper Ohio Rivers below the highest drift- gravel terraces. This erosion has been re- ferred to an interglacial epoch, but he finds evidence that it was preglacial, and that the valleys were filled with the early drift gravels from their present bottoms to the level of the high terraces. The general parallelism of the drift boundary and the successive re- treatal moraines is thought to imply the for- mation of all the drift during a single epoch. Prof. R. D. Salisbury cited the much deeper oxidation and leaching of the older than of the newer drift as proof of their widely different ages, separated by a long interval of ice departure and mild climate. Major C. E. Dutton objected to the ex- tension of theories beyond the warrant of facts observed. He thought it too early at the present stage of investigations to decide the causes of the Ice age; but he doubts the astronomic theory, and looks rather to geo- graphic conditions. Lack of time prevented the consideration of the subject assigned for special discussion, on the correlation of glacial formations in opposite hemispheres, which, however, had been more or less touched upon by several of the papers. The prevailing view seemed to be that the glaciations of Europe and America were nearly or quite at the same time, and that there was a close agreement in the sequence of events constituting the Ice age on both continents. The World’s Fair Model Library.—The model library of five thousand volumes shown by the American Library Association at the World’s Fair is to be sent to the Bureau of Education at Washington for use and exhi- bition. This library marks a noteworthy step in advance in the choosing of books— in each department the selection was com- mitted to an authority in his field. In the sections of electricity, photography, general political economy, and American govern- ment, lists were printed, each title being fol- lowed by a note of description and appraisal

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ts 2 r- eat Sa . Z BRA kar et aA RLS Le ae lenis ®. ative te Oe ea ME UT aint es we i ‘ from an eminent teacher. This method, were it applied to the whole working litera- ture of education, would place the judgments of the best teachers at the service of all the people. Of the catalogue of this library the Bureau of Education is printing twenty thousand copies. Thickness of Oil Films.—From experi- ments made in the Baltic Sea off Greifswald, Prof. Oberbeck, of the University of Greifs- wald, has found that the surface of water calmed by one litre of rape-seed oil or ma- chine oil oscillates around nineteen thousand square metres, indicating that the thickness of the film is about one twenty-thousandth of a millimetre. The oil doubtless extends also in an imperceptible film outside of the circle of calm, whence the average thickness of this inner layer is probably even less. The author has made skillfully devised series of labora- tory experiments to determine still more pre- cisely the minimum thickness of a percepti- ble film, and found it to be two millionths of a millimetre. This is the same thickness as that which Lord Rayleigh found adequate to arrest the movements of camphor. Mr. Réntgen has also found that the vapor of ether striking upon oil scatters it till it is re- duced to the same thinness. According to Herr Oberbeck, a film six times thinner is still coherent. If the quantity of oil is gradually increased the pellicle becomes more and more resistant, and of uniform thickness. When it reaches eighteen millionths of a millimetre, the oil collects in droplets which rise above the rest of the surface; and the film does not become uniform till enough oil has been poured on to equal the entire thickness of the droplets. Adyanees in the Dairy Industry,—At the Dairy Building at the World’s Fair there were daily demonstrations of the best mod- ern practice in butter and cheese making. Prof. 8. M. Babcock, of the University of Wisconsin, the chemist in charge, as part of his apparatus, employed the milk tester in- vented by him in 1890. This tester is used by adding to milk an equal quantity of sul- phuric acid of 1°82 or 1°83 specific gravity. The mixture is poured into a series of glass bottles, each drawn out at the neck as a narrow and calibrated tube; the bottles, laid POPULAR MISCELLANY, in an inclined position on a frame, are rotated 700 to 1,200 times per minute; the sulphu- rie acid separates the fat, and this fat, by centrifugal motion, is sent up into the cali- brated tubes, where it is easily read off. This test places the dairy industry upon a business footing, and not only enables the proprietor of a butter or cheese factory justly to appraise the milk he buys, but also de cides for the dairyman which of his cows is most profitable and which should be sent to the butcher. The importance of this simple and ready test is evident when we learn that in Wisconsin alone there are 1,700 butter and cheese factories. The Babcock tester is manufactured by some twenty firms in the United States, and by a firm in England and a firm in Germany. Due as it was to the experiments of a servant of a State, the de- vice has not been patented. To this fact is in part due the wide sale of the tester; it is so simply manufactured that no costly pat- terns and plant are needed for its produc- tion; at retail the price is but eight to twelve dollars, according to size. To his forerunners in the task of fat testing Prof. Babcock declares his indebtedness. Mr. Shert, of the University of Wisconsin, had invented an apparatus in which milk fat was saponified and driven forth by centrifugal motion; Prof. Patrick, of Iowa, employed, in a tester of his design, an acid instead of an alkaline combination. Uniting an idea from each of these devices, Prof. Babcock hit upon success. Vegetarian Pedestrians.—The result of a pedestrian contest recently completed be- tween Berlin and Vienna was a triumph for two vegetarian walkers, who came out a long way ahead of their carnivorous competitors. The fact corresponds with other evidence of the enduring power of non-meat-eaters. If there is one thing certain, says an English journal, remarking on the achievement, about the races that eat no meat, it is that they can march, “Thousands, probably scores of thousands of Sikhs and Hindostanees would have perfurmed the German feat, and not have thought at the end of it that they had done anything wonderful; and they not only eat no meat, but they are the descendants of men who have eaten no meat for perhaps two thousand years. They bave eaten wheat

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282 THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. or millet, and drunk plenty of milk; and they can walk rapidly as long as life re- mains in them. A Sepoy regiment which means it will walk a European regiment to death, and do it on food which their compet- itors would pronounce wholly insufficient to sustain vigorous life. A regular Hindostanee carrier, with a weight of eighty pounds on his shoulders—carried, of course, in two divisions hung on his neck by a yoke—will, if properly paid, lope along over a hundred miles in twenty-four hours, a feat which would exhaust any but the best English runners.” But the writer doubts whether this power of endurance is parallel with what is called physical strength. Hypnotism in Remedial Treatment.— An unnamed writer, whose views are pro- nounced by the Lancet “eminently wise and judicious,” has been publishing a series of articles in the London Times on the New Mesmerism, in which he identifies the hyp- notism of the French and other neurologists of the present time with the mesmerism of a former generation and the hypnotism of Braid. He affirms that denial of the exist- ence of hypnotism is out of the question. To the inquiry whether it is sufficiently beneficial to justify its use, he replies that “a method which has been already tried and found wanting ought not to meet with the same open reception as anew remedy. What would be mere caution in the latter case very properly becomes suspicion in the former.” Quoting from the old authors to show that hypnotism was practiced in former days for the same maladies and with the same alleged results as to-day, he concludes that if it had possessed a real efficacy it would never have been allowed to fall into disuse. He accepts Charcot’s view that the hypnotic condition is essentially morbid and dependent on a dis- ordered brain, and that its employment is only justifiable in a few exceptional cases here and there. The writer sums up his conclusions by saying: “ Hypnotism in treat- ment has a real but very limited value, and it should only be used with great care. It is not likely to die out altogether, but neither is it likely to be generally adopted, or even to spread much beyond its present limits. Hyp- notic experiments, unless they have the pa- tient’s benefit in view, are injurious and un- justifiable alike on the platform and in the laboratory. Finally, if I may offer any prac- tical advice to the public, it is this: Regard hypnotism with extreme caution, and do not resort te it except on the advice of an un- prejudiced medical man in whose opinion you have implicit confidence.” Tree-top Vegetation.—The plants that grow in the tops of willow trees near Cam- bridge, England, have been recorded during the last few years. They represent eighty species, and have been found altogether 3,951 times among about 4,500 trees. Of the eighty species, only eighteen furnish one per cent each of the whole number of records; the others occurring only in very small numbers. Classifying the plants according to means of distribution, nineteen species, of which 1,763 records, or 44°6 per cent, occur, have fleshy fruits; three species with burs were found in 651 instances, or 16°4 per cent; thirty- four species, with winged or feathered fruit, gave 996 records, or 25°1 per cent; seven plants with very light seeds, 421 records, or 19°6 per cent; and plants whose means of distribution is poor or somewhat doubtful, 120 records, or 2°9 per cent. It is thus very strikingly shown how the various mechanisms for distribution succeed, for only the better ones present any considerable numbers in the list. The bird-distributed plants appear higher here than in such cases as the flora of the churches of Poitiers, because birds visit trees more frequently. The observations show that a seed is carried only a short dis- tance by its mechanism for distribution. Plants are always found upon the soil within two hundred and fifty yards, at most, of those found in the trees. An analysis was made as faras possible of the birds’ nests found in the trees, and pieces, often with ripe fruits, of many of the plants in the list were discov- ered in them ; so that probably this means of distribution is of some importance. Athleties and Seholarship.—Mr. Wil- liam Odell, of Torquay, England, recently ad- dressed the question to the headquarters of some of the large public schools as to whether the boys who excel in athletics are as a rule also excellent in school work, ex- aminations, etc. A similar inquiry made by a Mr. Cathcart ten years ago elicited an- ‘ Bil ail a ae sia Yale _* es ieovds aR SEEM Poaceae Reel Ready ae ee SF neg ay ee pete

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pe) We iy avria aiaaaadtal: E 5 i m ee er a, “¥ PRE Kei t a xf 4 swers that were full of enthusiasm and un- stinted praise of athletics. The replies to Mr. Odell’s questions are more reserved and critical. One correspondent answered that as a general and rarely broken rule, excel- lence in athletics and in intellectual work are not met with at the same time in the same person; another, that “the spirit of athleticism needs controlling.” Dr. Horn- by, of Eton, notes that “some years ago it was quite possible for a boy who had an aptitude for cricket or rowing to attain to the highest excellence, according to the stand- ard of that day, in athletics and school work. I doubt whether it is so now. Athletics of all kinds have become so developed and brought into a system, and, I may almost say, professional, that the time required for a very high excellence in them is, I think, a serious obstacle to a reading man or a stu- dious boy’s engaging in them with a view to athletic distinction. This is a serious evil in our day”; and Dr. Percival, of Rugby, that “the great publicity given to athletics tends to give them an undue prominence in the minds of both boys and men.” These re- plies suggest that physical education in pub- lic schools may have been overdone and overestimated, and that the enthusiasm of a few years ago may have carried matters fur- ther than was intended. The Glory of Columbus.—In his presi- dential address before the American Geo- ' graphic Society on Discoverers of America, the Hon. Gardiner 8. Hubbard claims for Columbus, in the face of the recent attempts to depreciate his work, all the credit that has at any time been given him. There was no map published until after the sixtecnth century, Mr. Hubbard says, that gave a cor- rect delineation of the seacoast of America. “Tt is no wonder that Columbus never com- prehended the nature or extent of his discov- eries. The more we study the history and geography of the times, the influence of the Church, the difficulty of determining longi- tude, the ignorance of the movements of the mariner’s compass and of the distance to Cipango, the greater will be our admiration for Columbus. Yet a recent writer speaks of the discovery of Columbus as a blunder, and others say, as if in disparagement of his work, that he knew of the discoveries of the POPULAR MISCELLANY. 283 Northmen, and was only following their track; that the chart of Toscanelli, which Columbus took on his first voyage, indicated clearly his route; that Columbus died in the belief that he had discovered Cipango and Cathay, never realizing that it was the New World, and that Americus Vespucius is entitled to the greater credit.” Sebastian Cabot is quoted by the author in testimony of the admiration with which Columbus’s dis- covery was received at the court of Henry VII, where it was affirmed “to be a thing more divine than humane to saile by the west into the easte, where the spices growe, by a chart that was never before knowen.” It is very doubtful if Columbus knew of the voy- ages of the Northmen, nor would such know!l- edge have been of much value, for Greenland was then believed to be a part of Europe and joined to Norway. If Columbus bad known of their discoveries and sought the countries they had found, he would have sailed north- westward instead of westward. Many before Toscanelli and Columbus believed the world to be round, and that by sailing westward Asia might be reached. Columbus not only believed but proved it. He made no blun- der, for he sought land the other side of the Atlantic, and he found it. Vespucius knew little more than Columbus of the New World, and never realized that North America and South America were one continent, The maps show that learned geographers long after the discoveries of Columbus, Vespucius, Cabot, and Magellan, did not understand the geography of the New World. “ All voyages before that of Columbus had been coasting voyages, the sailors keeping in sight of land. -Columbus pushed into the unknown and trackless ocean, leaving the land far be- hind. Good seamen were unwilling to under- take such a voyage, so convicts were obtained, liberated from prison on condition of sailing with Columbus. A brave, resolute, and self- contained spirit was necessary to command such a crew on such an expedition. New wonders startled him each day. . . . No voy- age like that was ever made before, and none like it can ever be made again, for the great discoverer solved the problem and reached the east by sailing west.” The Pose of Egyptian Drawings.—The first thing that a Western observer remarks

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284 in the pose of Egyptian drawings of the hu- man figure is that it is an impossible combi- nation according to our ideas. We see the face in profile, the eye full length, the chest in front view, and the legs sidewise. But before we condemn this as contrary to Na- ture, it is well, as Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie suggests, to see what the attitude of a mod- ern Egyptian is, and how far our notions are correct. To avoid all ideas of posing for the subject, he selects the figure of a boy from a large group that was photographed without any special aim by a Cairo dealer. In the kneeling figure are seen the profile of the face, the eye full, the chest in front view, and the legs sidewise. Everything that we have heard condemned as unnatural and im- possible in the ancient sculpture is seen in the modern native, without any constraint, when simply taking an easy position. This shows what is the true ideal of the conven- tional Egyptian pose; it is a three-quarters view, modified by the omission of the much foreshortened parts beyond the profile—a simplification which was essential to an out- line system of representation. Variety in the Eyes of Animals.—It is hard, in studying some of the lower animals, to determine whether they have a proper sense of vision. They can all recognize light and distinguish it from darkness ; but that is probably all the sight that a few or- ganisms possess. In such creatures as earth- worms, for instance, the whole skin is sup- posed to be sensitive to light; and there is some evidence that they have a choice be- tween colors. Mollusks have eyes of vari- ous qualities: those of the snail distinguish- ing light from darkness ; those of the cuttle- fish very highly developed; the unique and curious eyes of the nautilus; and the two kinds of eyes of the onchidium. Some of these animals possess the power of restoring their eyes, as well as other lost members, when they are cut off. Great differences appear in the organs of sight of crustaceans. They are of all sorts, from a simple eye-spot in some species up to two compound eyes on a movable eye-stalk (as in the crab and lobster), with complete optical apparatus; and some have both simple and compound eyes. Most insects have two kinds of eyes: the large compound eye, one on each side of THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. the head; and the ocelli, or simple eyes, of which there are generally three, placed in a triangle between the other two. The com- pound eyes are complex in structure, consist- ing of a number of hexagonal facets, each with its system of nerves. It is not known whether the combination forms one aggre- gate eye, or whether each facet is an eye. Many insects have thousands of these facets—some beetles as many as twenty-five thousand. The vision of scorpions, though they have six eyes, is imperfect; and that of spiders, equally well provided as to the number of ocelli, is not much better. The dexterity and unerring aim with which many reptiles catch their insect food in the air proves that they have very keen vision. The chameleon has the additional faculty of moving its eyes independently of each other, so that it can look up with one eye while looking down with the other, backward and forward, or in other different directions. The eyes of deep-sea fish are very varied: some have no eyes or sight; some have greatly enlarged eyeballs ; and others are provided with phos- phorescent processes or spots. Birds and many of the smaller mammals have very acute vision, while that of the larger ani- mals is very much like our own. Co-operation in Nature.—That crude competition is the universal law of Nature, while combination is the invention of the mind of man, is doubted by Mr. Henry Far- quhar. The position, he says, is “ difficult to reconcile with even the most hasty con- sideration of ruminants feeding in herds, ‘where, instead of a tumultuous crowding for the occupation of the best places, we see some individuals taking posts in which they can be of service in warning the whole herd of impending danger—or of the wolves that prey upon them in co-operating packs. It is not to be rashly claimed that mind . . . is ab- sent from the conduct of the ant and her colo- nies ; but surely their example is convincing evidence that the lesson of the economic su- periority of concert over cutthroat individual competition is one that has been well taught and learned in realms of Nature widely sun- dered from ours. . . . If not with man as a self-conscious being, where in the course of evolution does an implicit recognition of the wastefulness of indiscriminate competition a

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4 i ‘ .? s begin? Not even, I think, with the first appearance of gregarious animals. It is found at the point where parents first begin to care for their feeble offspring. . . . We may go back further yet—much further. It is an application of the same principle es- sentially unchanged when the organic cells, which are in the lower organisms independ- ent beings, first unite in filaments to form an aggregate of the second order, each cell giving up a part of the strength with which it could carry on a rivalry with its comrades, for a power of co-operation which makes the aggregate far better able to sustain itself than as many separate rival cells could ever be.” The Biloxi Indians.—The title Biloxi, as applied to the Biloxi Indians of Louisiana, said Mr. J. Owen Dorsey, in a paper read at the American Association, was probably a corruption of the name they gave themselves, Lakes or Lakeau, meaning the first people. They lived in 1669 at Biloxi Bay, Mississippi. In 1763 they moved to Louisiana, where their number has been reduced to seventeen. De- scent among them is in the female line, A Biloxi can not marry his wife’s brother's daughter or his father’s wife’s sister, wherein they differ from the Sioux, but a Biloxi man can marry his deceased wife’s sister, and a Biloxi woman can marry the brother of a deceased husband. They believed that the spirit of a deer revived and went into another body, and this could be repeated thrice; but when the fourth deer was killed the spirit never revived again. The thunder being is very mysterious and must not be talked about in cloudy weather, but only on a fair day, when thunder stories may be told. When the Biloxi see a humming bird they say that a stranger is coming ; and the hum- ming bird, they believe, always tells the truth. The crackling of the fire is supposed to be a sign of snow or rain, and a nuthatch pecking the house a sign of coming death. If a child tops over a grindstone its growth will be stopped. Snipe must not be killed or eaten, because the bird always gathers deer fat, and is the sister of the thunder being. ‘Playing with Electric Eels.—A writer in the London Spectator has described his ex- periences in handling the electric eels in Re- POPULAR MISCELLANY. 285 gent’s Park, the largest of which is about four feet and a half long, and weighs be- tween sixteen and eighteen pounds. “When grasped in the middle of the back, there was just time to realize that it had none of the » ‘ lubricity’ of the common eel when the first shock passed up the arm with a ‘ flicker,’ identical with that which a zigzag flash of lightning leaves upon the eye, and, as it seemed, with equal speed. A second and third felt like a blow on the ‘funny-bone,’ and the hand and arm were involuntarily thrown back with a jerk which flung the water backward on the pavement and over the keeper, who was kindly assisting in the enterprise. This slight mishap recalled a far less agreeable result of a shock inflicted ~ on a previous inquirer, whose recoiling hand had struck the assistant a severe blow in the face. Unwilling to be baffled by a fish less in size than the salmon which form the common stock of a fishmonger’s window, the writer once more endeavored to hold the eel at any cost of personal suffering. But the electric powers were too subtle and per vading to be denied. The first muscular quiver of the fish was resisted; but at the second the sense of vibration set up became intolerable, and the enforced release was as rapid and uncontrollable as the first. The smaller eel was neither so vigorous nor 80 resentful as its fellow ; but though the first and second shocks did not compel the grasp to relax, a third was equally intolerable with that given by the large fish. The electrical power seems to increase rapidly in the heavier eels.” The writer thinks that the eel controls at will the power of its electrical discharge. The Earliest Man.—In his public lecture at Madison, Wis., during the meeting of the American Association, on The Earliest Man, Prof. D. G. Brinton said that science in- clined to the belief that man originated in one spot, and that all others descended from one first pair. Some eminent men of acience believed that man was on the earth even in the Tertiary period. What is called the pres- ent period was divided many thousand years ago by the Glacial period; and it was prob- able that in certain parts of the world man lived during the ice period, which would place the antiquity of the race at least 100,- 000 years. Man could not have first appeared

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286 on any small island nor in such cold regions as would expose him to death from that cause, nor anywhere where the remains of the highest animals below him were absent. This reasoning excluded Australia, all of America, South Africa, South India, north- ern Europe, and northern Asia. Nor did it permit the acceptance of the ancient Atlantis as that sunken land which Haeckel named Lemurea. It left only, in fact, the southern slope of that great mountain chain which began on the east with the Himalayas and extended to the farthest west of Spain. There also were found man’s very oldest remains and weapons, and the oldest of them all in western Europe, in France and Spain. On the present evidence it must be said that man originated in western Europe or north- ern Africa. The earliest man was of the average height of men of to-day, muscular and strong, walking not always erect, but stooping forward. His skin was hairy, of a reddish color, and the women were some- what smaller than the men. His forehead was low, but his brain was fairly well devel- oped. He knew the use of fire, how to make weapons of stone, bone, and wood, traps for animals, and some kinds of boats. Then he used some sort of shelter; he lived in com- munities; he had a language; he loved his family and took care of the sick, but he did not seem to have had a religion. He was brave in battle and loved to roam. All this can be proved by a careful study of his re- mains, It was concluded, therefore, that the earliest men were of the same spirit and soul with ourselves, endowed with like faculties and with a similar capacity to advance. Inheritance Taxes.— Mr. Max West, in his study of that subject (Columbia College Series in History, Economics, and Public Law), finds the recognized origin of the inheritance tax in its imposition by Augustus in Rome, 6 4.D.; but thinks it probable that the Romans borrowed the idea from the Egyptians. There are evidences that Egypt had an inheritance tax, probably of not less than a tenth, from which even direct heirs were not exempt. A papyrus has been found which relates that a certain Hermias was sentenced in a heavy penalty for failing to pay the tax on suc- ceeding to his father’s house. Another in- scription records a sale of property by an THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. old man to his sons at a nominal price, ap- parently for the purpose of evading the in- heritance tax. Mr. West’s review of the history of the tax in different countries and through its various phases leads him to the conclusion that it is pre-eminently an in- stitution of democracy. It is found in nearly every civilized country, but it is only in the most democratic countries—Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Canada, and the Aus- tralasian colonies—that it reaches its fullest development, with high and usually progress- ive rates, and becomes an important source of revenue. The United States seems thus far to be an exception to this rule, but the increasing popularity of this mode of taxa- tion, and its rapid extension from State to State, indicate that at no distant day it may be general in America. In the assessment of the tax a graduation according to relation- ship is nearly universal in practice. Direct heirs are in many cases exempted, and in others are taxed very lightly, as compared with collateral and distant heirs. A progres- sion in the rate of the tax corresponding with increase in the amount of the estate is some- times adopted. Bequests for public, benevo- lent, and educational purposes might well be exempted, for in such cases, if the gift is wise, the whole amount accrues for the bene- fit of the community. The question of what to regard as inheritances for purposes of tax- ation is sometimes a difficult one. A bequest of freedom toa slave has been held to be taxable. A succession is sometimes defined as any beneficial interest in property accruing in possession or expectancy on the death of any person. The English law includes in- terests accruing by survivorship in the case of joint ownership, by general powers of ap- pointment, and by the extinction of deter- minable charges; but life insurance is ex- cluded. That the inheritance tax is regarded as something more than a purely fiscal meas- ure is shown by frequent proposals to use the proceeds for benevolent or educational purposes. Such proposals have sometimes borne fruit in legislation. Fish Culture in America and Europe.— It appears from a statistical review of fish cul- ture in Europe and North America, prepared by N. Boroiline, of the Russian Association of Pisciculture and Fisheries, that the eighty eae tees Eearaeet 3 Sani PPA} he esi Gi Me RORAIEA Sh RRO: 15 we

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SRR MeN F' 3 : 4 ; ti eae ES 5.5 fish-hatcheries in North America (sixty-six in the United States and fourteen in Canada and Newfoundland) produced in the year of their last report 1,616,027,192 fish hatched ; and four hundred and sixteen hatcheries in Europe, 277,973,016 young fish. The North American hatcheries are all governmental ; most of those in Europe are in private hands. The average production of one hatchery is 668,000 in Europe and 13,400,000 in North America. In Europe the largest amount of money for fish-cultural works is spent in Germany—the most by the Deutsche Fisch- erei Verein. France, which has contributed more than any other nation toward the de- velopment of piscicultural work, now ranks behind several other countries, Italy has recently begun piscicultural work under the control of the Government. The appropria- tions for this work by the Government of the Netherlands are small, while none are made by Austria-Hungary. The appropriations of the British, Russian, and Swedish Govern- ments are also small. “When,” says Mr. Borodine, “we compare the total amount of $37,032 spent for piscicultural work by all European countries with the appropriations of North American countries, we shall not be surprised at the enormous difference in the amount accomplished in the Old and New Worlds. Europe originated and developed the methods of fish culture, but it has be- come an industry only in America.” NOTES. Tue Primitive Woman as a Poet was the subject. of a paper at the American Asso- ciation by Prof. A. F. Chamberlain. Lalla- bies, the aathor said, are known in every land, and the folk poetry of all people is rich in whose text and whose melodies the tender mother has herself imagined and com- posed. But not alone cradle-songs are the product of the genius of the woman. As in modern so in primitive times maidens in- spired by love have vented their feelings in 3 We find such poetesses the Arabs and Bedouins of the desert, in Poly- NOTES, 287 special songs which are never imparted to the men, and it is very difficult, often impossible, for a traveler to obtain the text of such songs. Ix a paper on Indian Migration, read at the American Association, C. 8. Wake endeavored to trace the migrations of the tribes from their traditions. An examina- tion of these traditions, the author said, showed that besides the Algonkins, Iroquois, and the Cherokees, the people of the Sioux- Dakota stock also dwelt at an early date near the St. Lawrence. Probably all the people thus brought her in the neighborhood of the Eastern lakes had a common the place of which may have been north of the St. Lawrence. The primitive long-headed Indians of North America spread over the continent from some part of the northwest coast, or the foreign element to which they owe their special characteristics was introduced there. This element has its nearest re tative on the American con- tinent in the Eskimo, The Eskimo skull ap- — the type found — Caro- e islanders, the Fijians, and a nes of Australia. The long-headed tribes of North America may thus find their oldest allies among the islanders of the Pacific. M. Maney has found, from his continued studies of animal locomotion by means of instantaneous photography, that the modes of progression of the viper and the eel are much alike; that the postures of batrachians in water (after they have acquired their limbs are much like those of men swimming, that lizards trot like horses. A par of catbirds ha a honeysuckle vine on the °. W. Shufeldt, he took the pains to their habits. The built a nest in f Dr. R. H 2 g : 5 ls re 4 4 | g5gE iBING An sagt? HE E gfe g28 J oF gis z Fe ei fer rap ee & > ree ait ii g 5 E i rid ef § fi : : é . : F i i $F cf ;

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ably true that those which are sent by the manufacturers are carefully selected and therefore far more reliable than the average of those sold without certification. Never- theless, the testers are obliged to reject twenty-five, fifty, and even seventy-five per cent of those sent them. As a rule, these are not rejected without receiving double the time and care required by the large majority of those to which certificates are granted. * Tue course of instruction in naval archi- tecture recently established at the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology provides for a thorough training in the theory and methods of devising and building ships, together with a study of the properties requisite for safety and good behavior at sea. It is arranged to occupy four years, and leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science. It is intended to cover the-same ground and accomplish the same results as the English and French Govern- ment schools for training naval constructors, and to give, in addition to professional and technical training and equipment, a good sci- entific and li education. Hrruerto disorders observed among workmen in hemp have been regarded as originating wholly in mechanical causes, as in the inhalation of vegetable dusts. Dr. L. Salomon, of Savigné |’Evéque, France, who has studied two cases of such disorders, at- tributes them to intoxication by the active principles of hemp, similar to those produced by hashish. Tue Laboratory of the Psychological In- stitute at the University of Géttingen—de- scribed by Prof. W. 0. Krohn as in many respects the best for research work in Ger- many—owes its excellent equipment to a liberal gift from a private person, the state contributing only a pittance to its support. — is a former student of Prof. Tue Report of the Division of Entomol- ogy (Bulletin No. 29) on the Boll Worm of Cotton (Heliothis a ) covers in the first part observations le by Mr. F. W. Mally upon the parasites and natural enemies of the insect, and presents in the second part bacteriological e. ments made by the same observer with certain insect diseases affecting it. The paper also contains ob- servations of the depredations of the larva upon corn, and upon the use of corn as a trap for it. Tue courses of instruction in the Depart- ment of Geology of Colgate University, while to give such knowledge of the sev- eral subjects as a scheme of general educa- tion requires, are so arranged as to provide two years of continuous work to those who may wish to teach geology or pursue it as a The instruction is given by with text-books for su tary reading, oral and written reviews, and labo- THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. ratory and field work. Besides the general collections of minerals, and in geology a dy- namical collection, illustrating weathering, glacial action, the work of springs, under- ground waters and the ocean, the results of volcanic and mountain-building forces, the work of organisms, and various structures, with specimens illustrating lithology, and a systematic collection of fossil remains have been begun. In economic geology sample blocks of building stone have been acquired. OBITUARY NOTES. Tue death is announced of M. Daniel Col- ladon, of Geneva, one of the most eminent of the former generation of physicists, in the ninety-second year of his age. He was born at Geneva in 1802; became an engineer; studied physics and mathematics in Paris; returning to Geneva, performed in co-opera- tion with Sturm, in 1827, his famous experi- ments on the propagation of sound in water. The two also studied together the resistance of materials and the compressibility of liq- uids. In 1829 he became Professor of Me- chanics in the Centrale des Aris et Manufactures in Paris; later, professor in the academy at Geneva. Near the begin- ing of his career he studied the properties of liquid veins, and executed the remarkable experiment of the transportation of Juminous waves by a column of water, which is the basis of the curious luminous fountains. One of his most important discoveries was that of the use of compressed air as a me- dium for the transmission of energy—a dis- covery which has found practical application of great value in apparatus for perforatin tunnels. He was also an earnest student o meteorological phenomena, and made many observations on lightning and hail. Like most students of broad minds, he took much interest in the popularization of science. Henry J. Pumporr, a writer who had gained considerable distinction in the discus- sion of economical subjects, died of consump- tion in Niles, Cal., September 24th. He was a resident of Iowa; had been en in editorial work in that State; aud gone to California as a last resort for the possible benefit of his health. He was prominent in the organization of the Free- ie move- ment in Iowa; was interested in the work of the’ Society ‘for Political Education of this city; and published many bright and forci- ble papers on the subjects he held near at heart. He contributed to The P Sci- ence Monthly articles or letters on Joint- Snake Idiocy (vol."xxx); Social Sustenance (vol. xxxi); Origin of the Rights of Prop- ny vol. xxxv Arid a Novel mi We ten Booler (vol. xxxvi); A a Boy’s Game with a Ball (voi. xxxvii); and Almond Culture in California (vol. xii). F % we a a BGs gs P Res oo Sate

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