The National Geographic Magazine 1905-02: Vol 16 Iss 2

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0 WV ® Gie NATIONAL EOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oC y) Vol. XVI FEBRUARY, 1905 No. 2 CONTENTS PAGE Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projection, 25 by 45 inches. Supplement Russia. By Hon. Charles Emory Smith, eer. Minister to Russia and Ex-Postmaster General . . 55 Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the ‘World. By George W. Littlehales. With Map. . . 63 The Wonderful Canils of China. By U. S. Consul George E. Anderson, of Hangchau, China . . . 68 Geography and Culture ety With, a ee oC Tides in the Bay of Fuady. lissaeieee: grax’ 73 The French Conquest of the Sahara. By ee a Rabot. Ilus- ™ trated Observations on the Rais Viobitie War in ee and Man- churia. By Dr Lowis Livingstone Seaman ..... 80 Helping the Farssest, ceeeeates 65 6 6 a a National Geographic Society . ig ees aaa oo Ratt Ty Geographic Notes 87 Geographic Literature 838 Published by the National Geographic Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year REPRIN1 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter proelsal

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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC iy MAGAZINIE & N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the A NationaL Gerocrapuic Socigty, at Washing- ton, D. C._ All editorial communications should be addressed to the Editor of the Nationau GrocraPruic Macazine, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, | Bg Be 2s CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY 0. H. TITTMANN Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army W J McGEE Chief, Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Depariment of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Depariment of Agriculture DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 0. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral Resources, U.S. Geological Survey IDA M. TARBELL Author of “Life of Napoleon,’’ “Life of Lincoln,” etc. CARL LOUISE GARRISON Principal of Morgan School, Washington, D. C. WASHINGTON, D. C.

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¢ “ i ‘i iF Bee et ae

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HYOROGRAPHIC OFFICE

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Iwu > Fi > a) / oMuladen -~ / Esashi Fuk. iat

Tientsine oa” / Sakat ~ t

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4 rkonaiskote (SAKHALIN Harbin J p o,f | . Y al Rurecscvverk =e te 1 | Fad Viladiystok nm PSS ee Nemure aye a Aue

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Chart of the World o

Lo Go

a De Pe | “o™ b ° ann Wp). WKRANGE LI it / | } = ae Jit... a x Q : r \ Ta +6 Lk a ee i eee n as (eA L | auilical Miles to Statute Miles } eer , “yn se w ' LSC EEE SA REGNT ATE eo NY 8 ¥ a y St Muantical Miles | Statute Mile Canes wsacat|| Ds ™ ae bf SE ER RCeSR EE ENess A nN ~. ie T x’ 4 A ‘ ss | \ . oe oh (* Listourense Sai Se i “a | ab | " i. | | ad . ee ¥ } | ie ae ; “2D | 1] zs | {C y o~ a re tv i % : a f =~ 3 be Kast CS - 7 “A i i J ®. fir by, . ’. wo “wee jan t “ x& ; UR, ot Wales bg : 5 P Ran Thu. , oor S&S > a at rr / ‘ = vd | uU x on "y Te & — Wy ?) | L ; ANA DUIUTIR ® cSYaur7an se ia a ei i aie \ ~ j AS | slats . » ) | \ i Yoni york Se j \ St Lawrence Ss ~4 ~~ oi | S tu) o! + Po wf ok i Yy y pF OSTULN pr UF wy 2” —™ Navan e ‘| 4 S ; ~~ 4 LZ y y S$ ik Zw . po yy v Z \ Mattlyetw A = y ——_____——_-- —— + }- -— = ar- a ———— _— —— N alk Dae, ? a f fr JK a onskil ’ , ' , awe . Cc~~ ~ i f , a sauaics & Valsad cg Be £ avOG S ££ A Anshke™ wes q f Vv . rot P i Rrista a x C.Overniui feats S v } ' J - Pribalot ts f yz . f fa Si Kamchatka at IOTSK SEA [ ME ¢ | ie L BY, Komandorski } ee ads, das mid Ky, NY r Le a 6 \ fh Pp. c r ~~ i a) ” ; | CaN mure J* > iwn rhe ee wo Al ps wy eee tee shay \ j “a } 2 ¥ - \ 170 oo 70

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Chaxt of the World on Merc

Go 70 oo 70 1GO Page ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Se Sl sae) ‘ WRANGE LM ff 2 gama, A A a ah \ 7=s , ‘ 2 Mile ‘ | ot ne y a ts pastel . “38 “= Sarr eee, ae ~ | Cae . 64 De, ‘a ae)? or aa yy ( ‘J % Pa ee. tT ~.

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ay, | sh a a at | ro Kast (Ss A ye 1 Wy } 9 : > ee a man LC Prot Wales es { . > ty si a , oe | ) 2 we St, f- ie Se> a Ny | _¥ / G \ ~ rv | ir\re a: g Sa an ge . , ol no v eal AY a \¢ \ ° ® ~~ wwe } | af Te a ee ee « LNORTON |. xy — ) : Pas he wo yal NO a aaron A j \ St Lawrence By ¢ “i ts 7 & a ol ah Pan Bo ORY { OR Ss, ° ft YS vy il SVU Navarin Pies pA .. t y —\ uS Mz it uve! w | As ¢ / } ’ mS, r ; We La ie a +——$- —. Po, 2 ‘ —_ ( ‘ ee & , ; SANS ie® oa J Muotsken f - Sate Og x okt 4 » ws | > avr SS ", , »* Leth punski , . . yah . A % th \ sc Veet Near Sp ALEUTIAN ee. hay ‘ \ ONG, lets Ye ) 3 e° hy Hs) } 4 Payy, One %| & SZ 3 el if si ff 'VSk fi, hs FoF \s A ~ P i“ he ov S oh Ts ‘And ven)

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‘reator’s Projection, showing S Ino 40 30 20 le) LOO a es = a hu - oa ——_- zz S—_ sete a ia Soom _ oe in m- . ae) — ‘vena — = aa ae Oh, he a2 Lae \ VA Z a Wns a a i ae ~My ; fat a ae, | Pa re id ee \ ~ | L “eps esas Bose ons LAND oe ri ee | yy Se S a s m,, Ls a “~ a ws ar. é ‘ i | ap 4 SS ne ia nln “hapa | The .e ~“ Bane et a | eae | f a, + es al atl. | gn “gy | ’ y A ee yt “ be? Are) $e eZ | - Y sat v “\e-? 7 a + N | mY I tYukon | | : gi | 1 | 4 te. \ ar : 1 | dag “ EGON ‘ow K, A ty 5 wep \ TE ty : } FAS Ftkgbeit? | : 4 ! e ait ‘ ~ | Dawson Cit, J 332, © ptt 4 ie : id ~P a | Z , | > Ft. Sel kirk t ; e Pe ; z Z3 " ey iV a |; eo Pa 3 aes } : R, ae , \ 4 “ y \ i Land v. iJ iy ’ v4 us / r ait St.Paul GCILIE OF ALAN KA \womt Ag ~ a Way \ Vv) | J u Ze g | | f 2 > yl ony ; > y , CPPAKRLOTT EY SS ve hs ' the \ Prox i ) | ‘ ioe C a A WTP Oat) /osyy Ser \ fe | l } ash’ j ‘ ¢ New Westi Lister is ie at, ee ra OVEN peewes a coe Wish | PUTO w tise ud hose tile —_— Tacorb. ‘ ¢ = lve ui pria tour Asforine Vaaeunnves Vor tigre ° “ 4 i \3 | ‘ 2 | Erva poise | ry > | ~— 3 Vv > O YBureka 2 ‘ : ° L a | ’ r ’ , ‘ md . =. Sis: saiedigieia othe a Salt Lakedity tl] NT "P-E bt SJ 4 Denver i _ \ \ ° - , eOukland UM

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Denver ee y i we he a ~ % Vay ; me a ‘ fag o : " eng , | NP\ gp | poe ee Raye ed i a Baum aan QP] Ce —~—=xa, SY eel eee : oat Cat $ Sy Pigs WL? , , ey e: NW + = — eb SZ \. f Nn. all } | Sones whe 5A YMELNV ILE “hye . QS \ | ; . ) 2 eee ; Projection, showing Submari

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COCKBURN 4 ] A MOTILLA : ( oo % aye Ms’ MENT * ‘ 4 S | ye “ ie Fd c oe es “S ys “ aan, be 5a} Noe . { _ ‘ fo =e na ; > hr bios. ‘ sad SOuUTHAMPT >’ * i ~- 27 oat HWYDSON BAY 4 r A yn pat oO A Ww . —E— EE = R “hy 7 a ' ~~ , ' } ¥ >> mae ee, a ee f . ii SVLEK 109 Wrarliethyo We . “se ‘ sY os a * EG td > Ys ! , DH AT YY i | es (>, / | Xo ry \ 2f | yy} (if Milwatikee?/ J /,. 2 ~ 2 S ) Detroit -— Chiuteavol “4 2S pM ° Toledo 4 o Pitts 5 Cineapuati XUM

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rine Cables and Connections, a

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5 Baltiinores a ‘oo ~ apieuati

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ables and Connections, and al

1 Monel NEW — 2 Sy ait , ‘ Sy Z . * , as m g po. r ‘ ; Vecedes .. fF of 7? T a ys pre © mya tie uty itent ‘ : ss

{ . A - = , ee pe rattan teary? A : alhouts re ene Sig Aa shins : FF = | 70! sa ry : afl, 4 sete SE =, 5 Ca Ne sonotaux 38 - a , “ 2 me ; : rn - BOROS Z , 3 : fptl—— 02a ' ey x > p He -w ORS , —_ ec) ’ ' ‘ co : as } is \ — Ps ‘ hy Relfastofer: °7 iy 5 y idler ; ; 3 bd + Port barrrdogiet’s Rye Beat : S itnaiiliaee z “ Dy tL VERE A - ale ‘4 et = Pr Many pox le SLA Td) el Ero nn 36 Hoe . = Soe Ze New Hlavs ee a = ; ~ ae : F — ™

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also Tracks for full-powered St

20 10 7 10 20 ot por es ay ee a rr a — —S eg | fant =|> NI I = z [Zz G LON( 2 air | alesus e : \ . : [LE 4 \ = Her aie ay" e © 1 Sundsvalley Le o> (a e be 4

a~ W RAE ROE Is : | 4q ADS ™ { Se s Riornebor ‘ a JS "* ” F> / , a ' / Get'leo ° " eT tse Fi: eywi mn a Py me - 3 >, / D Thurs, %8 Kirkwah &

ee We A b keryitid Aremna4 a7 4s ners; 7) > ; es f, a * - tI oy aint Fa - z eee! Le - 5 fs PR IE Aberdesn /Krishe” Pete Py Avia ts Wa TH — ——— a rr —_—— o c Pa4 ' ’ a 3 utah, Wdinbuars Ise. YAR Jormtern tor TE =~ ANewe ie , arhisle

Stettim > / ° ° eeruneyh Saeed | R Canda® “4 « a } { . ‘ ° siege dada Ss X ° i Bu Lime “6 oo We ist — = ~V: ue tai ee 27?R A

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Page 12

and also Tracks for full-power

30 20 10) () lO as ay po an a oe F | Ces,

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/ | eHersiindye i x ri — “Statnown “fh : ~ ee AME, ee rw ess — a ‘ HE EBKIDES@ Peterhe 7 = = tee: anes farsivav® ae) neal iy Z hy P ~ as poe 2108 bs Bh LE eisiant 2 BERLIN SL ° - ‘ = Y May terdam b) \ ~~ \ 44 i ~ ° « iene? Kuen Sot = wee Fag wip CRAVENHAGUE »s e o ° SS a get, .” Dove J sco x ge ps . 4 ‘ ° rm SG ntiag. ° ish BRUSSEL wg —" ‘ a7. 5 aS ‘ a me \ 4 “\ — Ge Pe tise : . G&S ‘ > e . Vora - . - 1 St tte i \ \ ° 5 — ee ee eek ieee fs “ ‘a ees dh eer F M ’ / © ° > ” 5 ae 5 as es emt Fut” is st Maly PARIS ’ Ve Jo o —aeE 2 e Pg ™ as as / Pe fees oVIENNA ‘ od yeu PON 5 MUNICH Py fr WAaz AQ \ ‘ . es re \ ¢

‘Nantes 2 BERNE ~ ad Pal ° = ’ . ry a of Nes Ae FRAN Cok ere is ,? A U/S\T RI A 7 ty : “oud 4 / Rochetes tae Ew ° sa A / S SS Lyone * ~ °/ Trieste f puma —— a? ee 7. 9 Pola BELG RADE ( a og ; Sy, e) ‘ : A v4 BON) Sebe nico NZ at ~ pare spal fang © RV 1A 6 yen / N Feif 4 », & Mu Corn heen ei “ Ya btsayontte ge xR he le _o puVs ° ZN | OG Mok. ' a ae i / ° . . . y z vA a: “says a . = chi f Je ( atato® > hte, ° “ mY re ; “e eos?

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ered Steam Vessels.

y “e por 40 50 60 a om * (a = i eS oe | le =o oMezen

\ \ ‘ ° Brahestad gArkhanyel Soumski Possadd& ° Pd a oT R le he ° ° °Tobolsk

e } eLibauo 4 ; id « ° ° ° ° - ° ¥ c { - y ° PMeme! =e 9 \ oOscow ° \ - ™ j° ° Q \ 4 © | 6 Tonigs burp > ° oe) é 5 iss fal " ° | ° | ° . t ° ° ° ° ° zig ° " ¥ MW ° a ° Q be 7 ° é ° ° ° ° | ° ° ° / \ ° 2 6 ° ° | ” 4 ° | ° a’ ‘6 P ° ° ° ° ° 6 i * o ? ° ° ° . v 9 co mi ° ° ° Sa oO 4 N “vs ° 5 ° ° ~ . ° ° ~ ° 4 ey ° c \ ° ° ° \ a od ° j é c ! . ° ~ a ¢ gf ° ° ge eKou] Koudouk oKasalhinsk

Page 14

powered Steam Vessels. AY 50

ar 20) > abr -oVia eS ee

a Meze n

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"Ni cus gs pay i? é ‘ i ° oT

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a ae AU -! Trieste

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Brenc Ryn Dap PLechoyn '

No» . MEW A Maptlrelo nia ove ples > &

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o Bakup, ~ ( Krasnovodsk ©

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Page 15

7 ) k V j °Tobolsk ; . ° ‘ e ° Tomsk ° ° ; ° ° ° ° ° J ~~ % | / N | © j \ | Irkutske F ae ae - T . ° © c ak ~ ° i | \ \ ne ° Po " S ° eee | | ] | | | ° \ ) | ° / co Koudouk di > mieten it ? ' Jinsk y ao? e ° " e ° co JM

Page 16

GO| | | ee \ \ : — at a \ é H mu Pe \ é || war? sano eo N | , > 4 | \o fs) ° | a al | ‘ jo f } ; f

“+ OKRHOTSEH 5 Sa te yt 2 °} coe ag ~, rs kolfievsk ° Alexandrov sike = 6

ba widrovek Ra cols kale Ravk — 7 eo uy nee tr Wann 43

: aSo Harbin as 9 Lh i. ad v, . 1: \ ;\ c | . \ A Se af | | HUOKUSHEC YANG mure | } ° Iwan Mi: Hee | | \C~ Tey ee | Psi ashi | wy TE to | > Pukyyaey a 9% cf org .: . ~ 40 AHashinohe | > | re KING cs a } OF SAPAL 4 Akity . Kamaishy a } Mientsinos mine + ; | . cAw: %\ 3 u » "Seudai ™ r kK, aS; - | ° ° & a i o| ' / A - © Gakna » ° 7 Sh: ngaee i ile A © ° CREAR T | z \ 130 ° ah} nA a7 \ on An 5) tint >» 3 “ \ “ ° . fen / Ana yi PRhimag * / fc Y aK \ " | nia Dr Sta we BONIN sng ARE EN : | me gh wv Nuxgahyikyu | fs oh 2. VoLe ANO. mah | ISLES . | ‘shat, SJerfia . tf } FORMOS Wanfy | ) \ \2 | > wf 9 x ad \A ‘ Patalton 1 N - ° Na uicinhe he \c} cle Pajaros* \ | 20 a o - i 2 — Ese —e ajaro ex \s ; ¢ : Cc Engan , 2 \ parrt } MARPIANA\ OR 4UE “. etna n sue FV vaniytias ee od PALER EE IUlE] Ub obet ' SM apa tateg 1

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BORNEO NUADRONE a Ge iS SN tert Aree ile (’ ARG) XUM

Page 17

Pa wl vty wa AIC. Navarin uf 2 Ne ty VE NJ a , : a Us pa tabihee | be rT | ee. I + nal C OVimtorsk %

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\ ars " \ / s \ 4 a’ \ ; / + " WA kK 7 Z EP : | (a \ E i \ / y : >= i f J eNGmure - Ye / ALCO \ / 7 \ 1 \ ; \ | bs ] S ‘ J 4 \ , X r | {/f \ > ein EM A oN GAS i ae ah 2 eee oe eee . | \ 7 | - \ 7 \ + oe \z s/ 4 ’ | — re / / VX | H ; / f Y \ MS \= A / y \> A : / \ j 4 : x O— RK TT /H Y P ‘ ~ * ; ; = _ : X Pd 4 iD a ™ \ r a**' — _ - XS / P —_ i nhs \ / Y é a \ — : \ / P = i A \ } a il | i ot j / / - = pe lasianski l- is s . na ? ore “ “ ~ \ «Marcus | mn, 0! > <at) . | , Ge — ee \ ne oS ea | \ po eo \ yes a —— . con ~S ne — — Te een Lorne’) “A\\ Desecweesemees Y BP emer + = —_ - + . Wake \, a F — 4 j {\ NA\ OR , : \ oe “* Johns tort | ~ f NE is a » Pl : , . * (ras par Rice a \ we I Ldiddan Bniwetok ot \ Brown ts1 rity \ ‘ —\. MARSHALL IS lamestown Hr A TRON ISLA. “= satuite= Nf, Y ePalroyrat | “ eTalanl ay . tA Washiugton Ie 4 ekatt } a f Py ‘ : eHowland / GIRBERT IS.» . | -Nantucket

Page 18

Valdez

ae P Ty , Pm ai \ ‘ # — . ares F 7 ls | ‘dread’ / 7 ae —— ney 4 Y r j/ / > ~ , | j/

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yHOE NIX 1 ef ons tn

Page 19

5 1

vars . ° °

Ne “w Westitimuster

ac ‘oipa | . © . , R eee ° : ° | ° 0 Purliathoave Yancouvere . > a 0 : a | j ¢ , ¢ %, fo) ° | 2 ° ° 9s > >) ( & , a ° of se “ ° " ° ¥ / }

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of Matd moras,

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Tuxtlae

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VoL. XVI, No. 2 WASHINGTON FEBRUARY, I905 “Ik THE # NATIONAL GEOGRAPIHIC MAGAZINE “= y= RUSSIA* By Hon. CHARLES EMory SMITH FORMERLY MINISTER TO RUSSIA AND EX-POSTMASTER GENERAL T the very outset I shall throw myself on your kind indul- gence. I hope you will not think me one of that rash company, more numerous in enrollment than po- lite in name, that rush in where angels fear to tread. Believe me, I know full well the difficulty and the delicacy of my venture, and have known it from the start. Theonly excuse that can be pleaded in extenuation of the hazard is that the persuasiveness of your commit- tee, if not greater than the restraint of my warning good sense, was at least more potent than the firmness of my resolution. Russia just now is at the best a tempt- ing but perilous theme. MHalfa century hence it will be possible to look back through the clear perspective of years and measure the true relations of the events of today to a new career of prog- ress and greatness. But in the present hour we see the portents without the promise, and Russia is shadowed by the gloom of the clouds without the gleam of thesun. The inherent difficulties of the subject are enhanced by the per- sonal position of the speaker. ‘There are phases on which it is becoming that I should speak with reserve—perhaps, to use an Hibernianism, with silence— on the principle, ‘‘the wisest word I ever said was the word that wasn’t spoken.’’ It is true that the diplomatic trust was laid down some years ago, and the easier, if not higher, diplomacy of American free speech was resumed ; and you will permit me to amend the words of the poet and say: More true joy returned Marcellus feels Than exiled Minister with a Senate at his heels. 3ut there are obvious proprieties which follow the minister even in retire- ment; yet while they should be re- spected, there is still large room for free expression. I did not hesitate to say in St Petersburg, looking out from the Foreign Office upon the broad Alexan- der Place, from the center of which rises the stately and splendid memorial shaft to the first Alexander, that there were things in Russia which we of the United States, in the best spirit of sin- cere friendship, could wish otherwise, *An address to the National Geographic Society, January 20, 1905.

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56 and I do not hesitate to say it here. Russia does not resent honest criticism. She criticises herself. Her statesmen are sensible of her relations to the spirit of the age and are conscious of her diffi- culties and shortcomings. She only asks—and does she not rightly ask ?— that judgment shall be pronounced in good faith, and with an honest purpose to be fair. She is often silent when in justice to herself she ought to speak. To my mind it is a mistaken policy, for while it avoids answer where answer would sometimes be difficult, it leaves a hundred misrepresentations to pass un- challenged ; but, mistaken or not, it is the tradition of a power which meets political hostility or thrifty sensational- ism with disdain. And certainly, if there be a grateful sense of invaluable service, we of Amer- ica ought at least to seek to be fair. We never can be deaf to the call of humanity. Wecannot be blind to the errors Which have followed unfortunate counsels. We must deal with living issues and with present events as truth requires ; but we can and we ought to fulfill the obligations of duty and speak the voice of judgment in the spirit of honest and manly friendship. For Rus- sia was our truest friend in the hour of our supreme trial. Tradition has handed down this impressive truth, and both the public archives and the un- written records confirm it. You know that in the critical period of the civil war, when we were threatened with French and English intervention, the Russian fleet appeared in the harbor of New York. The testimony is not wanting which discloses the inspiration and the purposes that placed it within that friendly and protecting proximity. There has been some dispute over this question, and the attempt has been made to discredit the sympathetic atti- tude and the actual service of Russia, but the evidence is clear and sive. conclu- Tue NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Shortly after the war began in 1861, the Secretary of State, Mr Seward, addressed the European governments, setting forth the American position. Prince Gortchakoff, the great Russian chancellor, wrote these words in reply : ‘‘The Union is not simply in our eyes an element essential to the univer- sal political equilibrium. It constitutes besides a nation to which our august master and all Russia have pledged the most friendly interest, for the two countries, placed at the extremities of the two worlds, both in the ascending period of their development, appear called to a natural community of inter- est and of sympathies, of which they have already given mutual proofs to each other.”’ That unequivocal answer, made at the very beginning, plainly indicated the friendly attitude of Russia. Through the Russian government, with its spe- cial sources of information, President Lincoln’s administration was kept ad- vised of what the other governments of Europe were meditating and proposing. Official France was hostile. The French people were sympathetic, as they had been from the days of the American Revolution. But Louis Napoleon, who was then on the throne, had his own designs, which were disclosed in Mex- ico. Official England, unlike the off- cial England of these later years, was also hostile. A large proportion of the English people, many of whom in Lan- cashire deeply suffered on account of our war and the deprivation of cotton, were right in theirinstincts. The great and good Queen was our steadfast friend. 3ut Palmerston and Lord Russell, and even Mr Gladstone, whom we have all so greatly admired and honored, looked on our struggle with unkindly thought. In the early days of the war Secretary Seward was apprised, through the lega- tion at St Petersburg, that the French and English governments had come to an understanding for joint action re- XUM

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RussIA specting the American war involving the possible recognition of the Southern Confederacy. When, soon afterwards, the French and English ministers ap- peared at the State Department together his information prepared him to meet them. Knowing their object, Mr Seward politely evoided receiving them jointly and adroitly turned one off with a dinner invitation while he saw the other alone. But the joint movement of the two gov- ernments went on. Joint action on neutrality pointed the way to joint ac- tion on intervention. Who could meas- ure the dangers of such a portentous step? Would Mr Lincoln’s government, already absorbed in a life-and-death grapple with a giant rebellion, also ac- cept the gage of war with the ‘united strength of the two great nations of western Europe ? Could it hope to pre- vail against these combined perils, or would the unequal struggle leave the Union irretrievably divided and broken ? That wasthe startling menace. Rus- sia’s feeling was known, and before the blow was struck it was important to know what Russia would do. Louis Napoleon took steps to ascertain—I have reason to believe through an auto- graph letter to the Czar, Alexander II, advising him that the French and English governments believed the time had come when they ought to mediate or intervene between the North and South, and inviting him to join in the movement. The Czar declined to do so unless Mr Lincoln’s government should request it. But the menace continued, and thereupon the Russian fleet steamed into the bay of New York and cast an- chor within sight of Trinity spire. All the world knew what that act meant; Louis Napoleon knew. and the threat- ened intervention never came. This chapter of past judgments does not justify any misjudgments now, but it does impose the obligation of seeking to pronounce present judgments in a fair and just spirit. Russia is engaged 57 at this hour in a foreign war which has thus far been full of surprises and dis- asters, and she is at the same time in the throes of a domestic agitation which, let us hope, will lead to a great advance forthe Empire. No treatment of the general subject can ignore these phases, and they will be the better understood if we look at them against the back- ground of the national structure and organization and character. Russia is a country of extraordinary contrasts ; of imperial splendor and of widespread poverty; of the magnifi- cence of the court and of the squalor of the moujik; of the stately grand- eur of St Petersburg or the pictur- esque orientalism of Moscow, and of the dreary, dead level of dull and end- less plains; of the highest culture and the broadest ignorance; of the boundless treasures of the unequaled Winter Palace, with its 500 opulent rooms, or of imposing St Isaac’s, with its malachite columns and its golden dome, and of the boundless destitution of almost uncounted millions; of the literary geniusof Poushkin and Gogol, of Tourgenieff and Tolstoi, and of the dense illiteracy of the masses; of the pictorial wonders of Verestchagin and of the most primitive agricultural and industrial arts—in a word, of the high- est development of grace and culture in social life and of the deepest penury and hardship on the broad national field. And as it is a country of extremes in condition so it has been portrayed in extremes of opinion. On the one hand it has been painted in the blackest of colors. It has been pictured as a land of Tartar barbarism and of Muscovite tyranny, where the Siberian exile is the expression of al] cruelty and the Jewish proscription as the embodiment of all intolerance and persecution. Its gov- ernment has been described as a des- potism tempered by assassination. On the other hand it has been delineated in some quarters as a benign and patri-

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58 archal system, where the sole thought of the Little Father is the welfare of the millions of his people, and where the ac- knowledged grace of the throne is ac- cepted as the proof of the general prac- tice. It is easy to produce striking effects with strong pigments. There would be a ready and startling sensa- tionalism in a vivid picture of terrors and in a flaming outburst of rhetoric. But, as generally happens, the truth lies between the extremes. It is not all black or all white, but it has its lights and its shadows, and the faithful de- lineator must sacrifice the bold outlines of a fanciful sketch for the more sub dued tones of historic verity. The character of autocratic rule man- ifestly depends very much on the char- acter of the autocrat. It is true that in these modern days even the autocrat is largely the creature of conditions. Im- perial will is molded and cireumscribed by historic tendencies, by overmastering public opinion, and by the spirit of the age. But, on the other hand, the cur- rents of national development fall into the eddies of personal impulse. With the vast machinery of a great modern nation autocracy becomes bureaucracy. But the autocrat makes the bureaucrats, and so determines the trend. There are settled traditions and tendencies in Rus- sia, but they are affected and modified by the dominant temper and influence of the hour. When Russia passed from the scepter of Nicholas I to that of Alex- ander II she advanced from the virile and robust imperialism of an iron dic- tator to the progressive and expand- ing liberalism of an enlightened ruler. When she passed from the control of Alexander III to that of Nicholas II she went from the secure, harsh, rigor- ous sway of a firm, self-poised, austere monarch to the turbulent reign of a kind, well-meaning, and uncertain sov- ereign. The present Czar is conscientious and devoted in public purpose and amiable Ture NatTionaL GeocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and exemplary in personal life. He has been surrounded by conflicting influ- ences, and each of the opposing forces has appeared at one time or another to be dominant. The Czar’s disposition and tendency have been liberal, as was indicated in the noble impulse which convoked The Hague Conference. If at times there has been a backward move- ment it was because reactionary elements outside of the throne gained a tempo- rary ascendancy, and if lamentable er- rors plunged the empire into a war for which she was so illy prepared, it was because irregular influences, outside of the ministry, that were mistakenly trusted, gave evil counsels. Asa rule, Russian ministers are not per- sonal favorites, but are often able states- men, marked for their places by capacity and fitness. Their commission comes, not from title of nobility, but from the higher title of brains. Curiously as it may cross the prevailing conception of the Russian system, many of them have sprung directly from the ranks of the people. M. de Giers, the astute Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, who succeeded Gortchakoff and who so long guided the foreign policy of his country, did not inherit rank or fortune. Equally with- out rank was Vishnegradski, the Min- ister of Finance, a remarkably able man, whose range of vision covered the finance of all nations, who carried on his table the first free-silver bill just as it was lying on the desks of the American Sen- ate, and whose acute and profound ob- servations, if they could have been prop- erly reported, would have instructed and startled the American people. His successor, de Witte, who was so long the master spirit of the Russian government, who then fell into disfavor, and whoin the present crisis appears to be again rising into favor and ascendancy, is no less a man of the people. He made his first mark as a subordinate railway official, and was rapidly pro- moted until he became the most power- XUM

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Russia minister of the empire. Many ful others might be named to illustrate the same truth of high individual advance- ment without title or favor and solely Russia has ministers, but no ministry. There is no united, coher- ent, responsible governing body. Each minister acts only for himself and is re- sponsible only to the Emperor. Often- times ministers antagonize and intrigue against each other. Witte and Plehve were at swords’ points. Thus the bu- reaucracy lacks unity, cooperation, and efficiency. It is disorganized and dis- cordant. Sometimes an individual min- ister shows tremendous energy in the administration of his department, but the coordinated work which’ gives united force and strength is missing. Below the chiefs the system has the vice of venality. It is this which has sapped the strength of the navy and impaired the efficiency of the army. It is this which has provided the gun of inferior range and imparted structural weakness to the battleship. Russia has prodigious resources and almost un- limited power, if it can be made avail- able. She has the giant’s strength, but the giant’s strength enfeebled by a system amd an improvident sloth. There is personal valor and symptomatic defect. There is the bril- liant dash of the daring Makaroff, but a strange paralysis and fatality of the fleet. There is the skillful generalship of Kuropatkin, with the patience of Fabius and the fight of Marius, but a want of preparation which leaves him always with inferior numbers. ‘There is the intrepid courage of the heroic Stoessel and his fire-tried troops at Port Arthur, which has excited the admira- tion of the world, but there is at the same time the lack of equipment which crippled his defense. The fighting quality and the latent power are there, but reconstruction is needed to bring the fruits. In some directions Russia has made on merit. vicious 59 remarkable advances in recent years. The energetic and far-reaching policy of Witte as Finance Minister, with its striking results, has been the subject of great praise and great criticism. It had two central and fundamental con- ceptions. The first was to make Russia wholly self-sustaining and industrially great by a system which should protect and foster herown manufactures. The second was to concentrate all power and control in the hands of the government by substituting state for local taxation, by the promotion of state ownership of railroads, and by the creation of great state monopolies, like those in spirits, drugs, and kindred articles. The fruits have been tremendous, though possibly in some directions open to question. The industrial progress of Russia in the face of serious obstacles has been signal. Within ten years the number of hands employed increased from 1,318,048 to 2,098,262 and the value of the output more than doubled. The chief industries are textiles and mines and metals. Cotton manufactures have been rapidly developed. The consump- tion of cotton has increased in little more than a decade from 117,000,000 kilograms to 257,000,000, and the num- ber of spindles in operation is about 7,000,000. In iron manufacture Rus- sia holds the fourth place among the nations, ranking next to Germany and ahead of France. From 1892 to 1900 the annual production of metallic arti- cles rose in value from 142,000,000 roubles to 276,000,000. The advance was so rapid that after 1900 there was a reaction, followed by an industrial crisis. In his report on the budget for 1902, M. Witte ascribed the depression to a succession of bad harvests and a withdrawal of foreign capital, caused by the Boer war and the resulting stringency in the European money markets. Doubtless also the extraordinary development had engen- dered speculation and overproduction,

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60 The great growth had come in spite of deficient transportation, of ignorant and debilitated labor, and of the meager purchasing power of the mass of the people. Russia has made much head- way in recent years in remedying the first defect. From 1892 to 1902 more than 17,000 miles of railroad were opened. Within the Russian Empire, not including Manchuria, 4,100 miles of railway were under construction in 1901. With his early training, M. Witte naturally made railroad develop- ment a vital part of his great and vig- orous policy of national upbuilding—a policy which was largely instrumental in this industrial and commercial ex- pansion. In ten years the passenger traffic on the Russian railroads has mul- tiplied almost five-fold and the freight traffic more than eight-fold. But there is a deeper and more rad- ical difficulty. It is suggested in the observations of Prince Mestschersky, the bold and brilliant editor of the Grashdanin, of St Petersburg. Writ- ing in 1901, he said: ‘‘It would be more logical for the development of mills and works to begin with the de- velopment of the people, so as to create a consumer, than to begin with the de- velopment of factories, mills, and rail- roads for a people wanting in the very first elements of prosperity.’’ His con- ception is that the hope of Russia lies in an improved condition and advance- ment of the peasantry. The weakness of the Russian system is in the back- wardness of agriculture. The agricult- urists constitute 78 per cent of the population, and for the most part are surrounded by the most unfortunate conditions. Their implements are of the most primitive character. The crop yield per cultivated dessiatin is lower than in any other country in Europe. Be gium, which ranks first, produces anlaverage of 128.5 poods of grain per des siatin, a pood being equal to 36 pounds, while the Russian average is Tue NatTionaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE only 38.8 poods. Even this disparity does not indicate the full gravity of the case, for Russia produces less grain per head than is consumed per head in other countries, and at the same time she is the second grain-exporting country in the world. This fact tells the story of her own deprivation, and it is emphasized by some particular inquiries. It is esti- mated that the people on the farms re- quire from 20 to 25 poods of grain per head for their support and that of their live stock during the year, and these figures are much below the consump- tion in other lands. Yet it often hap- pens that in a considerable number of provinces the harvest is far less than even this meager requirement. The result is that Russia is frequently af- flicted with famines, that the consump- tion of bread has fallen off about 70 per cent, and that the number rejected from the military service through physical disqualification has increased 14 per cent within seven years. During the great famine of 1891, which extended over ten provinces, more than a million horses perished, leaving many of the peasants with no means of cultivating the land. The crop failure of 1898 did not cover so wide an area, but it was even worse where it prevailed. It left over 12,000,000 people in abject desti- tution and more than 8,000,000 suffer- ing from actual famine. In 1900 and 1901 famine again desolated the land. All this entails chronic impoverishment. The arrears in the redemption of the land on the part of the former serfs are constantly increasing, and the economic conditions which affect them are grow- ing worse. The amelioration of this situation lies at the foundation of the present agita- tion for political reform and enlarged freedom. Undoubtedly, the popular restiveness has been quickened by the war and its demonstration of the defects of the existing system; but the recent XLIM

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RussIA striking manifestations are only the sud- den culmination of a movement which has been in progress for some time. To understand it we must grasp some fun- damental elements of the Russian pol- ity. Russia presents a curious paradox. Theoretically it combines the most ex- treme autocracy with the most extreme democracy. The great body of the people are divided and organized into ‘*mirs,’’? or communes. The mir is what we would call the township organ- ization. Land is held in common and is apportioned for cultivation among the families of the mir according to their respective needs. The communal assembly makes the apportionment and the periodical redistributions ; it gov- erns other questions relating to the land, the harvest and other local affairs, and its government is more like that of the New England town-meeting than any- thing else. As far as it goes, it is a perfect democracy. All the people as- semble on the village green, under the presidency of the starosta, or village elder, and determine all questions within their scope by a majority vote. The mirs are grouped into cantons or districts, and the districts elect repre- sentatives tothe zemstvos, which are the provincial assemblies. Without going into minute details, all classes are repre- sented. The ultimate elective bodies are not large in proportion to the total population, but they are distributed among peasants, individual landholders, merchants, nobles, and urban electors. In 361 district assemblies, with 13,196 members, 38 per cent were peasants, 35 per cent nobles, 15 per cent merchants, and the remainder officials or priests. The provincial assemblies or zemstvos have over 1,200 members in all, and they operate chiefly through executive comiittees, of which the nobles consti- tute far the larger proportion. The mir deals with the land, farming, and the immediate local concerns. The dis- trict assembly, which corresponds more 61 nearly with our county organization, looks after roads, schools, sanitary mat- ters, and like questions. The provin- cial assemblies have the care of prisons, hospitals, charities, main roads, mutual insurance, and other subjects of more than local range. The zemstvos were among the reforms instituted by the liberal and enlightened Emperor, Alexander II. They were created in 1864, and sprang from a com- mission appointed for the purpose of ‘‘conferring more unity and independ- ence on the local economic administra- tion.’’ Theoretically they went far to- ward establishing a system of local autonomy, but practically they have been largely nullified by the overruling power of the provincial governors, who stand for the bureaucracy. ‘Their au- thority and independence have from time to time been curtailed. Nevertheless, in their form as local representative assem- blies, even with their limited electorate and scope, they furnish the basis and nucleus for wider representative insti- tutions. Their liberal spirit and inde- pendent purpose have been the most characteristic features in the new re- form movement. In January, 1902, the present Em- peror created a Central Committee of Agriculture, under the presidency of M. Witte, to consider the measures nec- essary to meet the existing difficulties. This body was supplemented by local advisory committees, which, rather by local choice than by central design, were made up largely from the zemstvos. The majority of these committees made somesignificant recommendations. They urged that elementary education should be increased ; that zemstvos should be established in provinces where they did not exist, and made more representative, with larger powers; that the system of village communes should be recon- structed so as to give the peasants equal- ity with others, and that free discussion of economic questions should be allowed.

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62 A little later a memorandum was pre- sented to the Czar recommending that their old powers should be restored to the zemstvos, that they should be ar- ranged in groups, and that these groups should elect delegates to a central or national zemstvo. The effect of these various demonstra- tions was seen when in February, 1903, the Czar issued a manifesto holding out high promise. He declared that the fun- damental principle of property in com- mon must be held inviolable, but he said that relief for the individual must be found, and added: ‘‘A reform is to be effected by local representatives in provincial government and district ad- ministration.’’ These assurances were neutralized when the influence of Witte waned and the reactionary Plehve gained more power; but they and the manifestations which led to them were the forerunners of the more impressive demonstrations that have recently been witnessed. The meeting of the zemstvo presidents at St Petersburg in Novem- ber last was in many respects the most remarkable assemblage in Russian his- tory. It was almost like a states gen- eral. It put forth adeclaration of prin- ciples which is equivalent to a demand for a national representative assembly with political voice and rights and with a direct advisory part in legislation and government. It plainly declared that there is an estrangement between the government and the people; that it is due to fear of popular initiative, and that it has led to great wrongs in the arbitrary bureaucratic system which has come between the throne and its sub- jects. It calls for the overthrow of this centralized administration of local af- fairs; for independent legal tribunals for the protection of personal rights; for free speech, free press, and free con- science; for equal civil and political rights for peasants; for the greater inde- pendence and extension of the zemtsvo institutions, and for national represen- Tue NatTionaL GgEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tation through an elective body which shall participate in legislation. These demands are unprecedented in Russia, and their concession would in- augurate a revolutionary change. It was not to be expected that they would all be granted at once. The ukase which the Czar has issued in response to this call marks a large advance. It charges the Council of Ministers with the duty of framing measures to secure equal rights to the peasants; to safe- guard law and unify judicial procedure for the protection of personal rights ; to assure a more independent and complete administration of local affairs through local institutions ; to deal with state in- surance for workmen ; to reduce the dis- cretionary authority which has bred the administrative process;to promote larger religious toleration, and to provide greater freedom of the press. This is a long step in liberalism. It does not es- tablish representative institutions ; it does not provide for elementary educa- tion; but it does look toward a larger local control of local affairs, toward the relief of the peasants from the rigorous conditions which surround them, and toward the removal of the arbitrary re- strictions which now burden the people; and the ukase itself distinctly treats these reforms as the beginning of ‘‘a series of great internal changes 1mpend- ing in the early future.’’ In considering the character, trend, and methods of these changes the pecu- liar conditions of Russia must ever be re- membered. Whateveradvance has been made there uptothis time has come from the top and not from the bottom. The great mass of the people are simple, illiterate, and inert. The disturbances which have occurred from time to time have been mostly on the surface. The greatdeeps have not been moved, though the caldron is now seething as never before. The new industrial conditions of recent years, to which reference has been made, have produced a class of XUM

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Marine HyprocrapuHic Surveys 63 workmen and artisans in the cities who are more alert than the supine peas- antry and who are the source of the present discontent and uprising. The whole fabric of society, it must also be borne in mind, rests upon the church which is the very foundation of the state and to which in its ritual and observances all, from the Czar to the humblest moujik, are supremely devoted. ‘The first need of the people is economic improvement and their re- lease from the harsh conditions of their restricted communal life. The report of Witte on the elevation of the peasant contemplates some reconstruction of the mir and the opening of broader callings and opportunities to those who are prac- tically bound to the soil. It is urged with force that real social emancipation cannot come without political enfran- chisement. The one will undoubtedly promote the other, and under the quicker impulse of these later days the nation is moving forward to both. Russia is passing through the dark valley of deeptrials. Sheis paying the appalling cost of grievous mistakes ; but enormous as that cost is, it will still be cheap if, through these bitter experi- MARINE ences and this new awakening, the great empire shall be put upon the higher pathway of wiser counseis and liberal advancement. The history of Russia isavaried story. It isilluminated with the progressive measures of the great Emancipator. It is darkened with the shadows of Kishinev and the Finnish oppression. ‘The far-reaching reforms which are now dawning on the nation give promise of a new and more hopeful era. Russia has prodigious recupera- tive power. She was prostrate after the Crimean war, but soon recovered her strength. She was humiliated and straitened after the Turkish war, but started again upon anewcareer. Sheis patient, tenacious, and persistent ; she has the traditions and the indomitable faith which have come down from Peter the Great; she has the vast though dor- mant resources of imperial domain and power ; and if through the disasters she is now suffering she shall throw off the shackles of the bureaucracy that have weighed her down and come to share the progressive spirit of the age, she will through present tribulations and final regeneration enter, as we hope she may, on a new and brighter epoch. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE COASTS OF THE WORLD* By GerorcGeE W. LITTLEHALES HE accumulated stock of marine hydrographic knowledge in its availability for the construction of navigational charts of the coasts of the world is divided into four classes for the purposes of this communication. Upon the accompanying world chart the extent of coast line comprised within each of these four classes is indicated by appropriate symbols depicting the coasts that are completely surveyed, those that are incompletely but serviceably sur- veyed for purposes of navigation, those that are explored for purposes of navi- gation, and those that are unexplored for purposes of navigation. It should be made clear with reference to those coasts which are classed as being completely surveyed that, excepting in rare instances, no greater completeness *An address to the Eighth International Geographic Congress, September, 1904.

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64 Tue NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | | wf z BERMUDA | - le } . 3 | | ‘ t%"VOLCANC eas “4. 20»— ay a t o> hed ee ; ELADRONG 1, HAWAIIAN I « ' l« Pes SEA HIL UPPINE) . ‘. Vey 1 ven ahaa ke is 4 * MARSHALL a : one ee BORNEO a Week Ye gs . % * Fixe CARNE + %. iS ae | 0 at Sy) Sp syeu4, GILB «| 4: SAPHOEN | Cos, 1S 4 oe A | } . y + | VRS i a | & C HATHAM Z ¢ | | | | | a ey oS anced | P| ANTARCTIC CONTINENT ) a i a = . o 60° 186" ae ad. 2 eee Map showing the Condition of the Coast Surveys of the World has been attained in the portrayalof the time to disclose the altered conditions forms and characteristics of the strip of that are produced by natural agencies the sea bottom which borders the coast and artificial developments. than is yielded by measurements ob- It will not escape attention that while tained by dropping a sounding-plummet there is a comparatively small total ex- at close intervals, and that nearly all tent of completely surveyed coast which coasts and harbors, whatever may bethe bounds the world’s seats of enlighten- initial completeness of the surveys, re- ment and wealth in the Northern Hemi- quire reéxamination in the course of sphere, the extent of coast that is unex- XLIM

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MarINE HyproGRAPHIC SURVEYS 100° ORTH Wes> | — eA ATLANT/C 40 ,—— 60" 40 . | ‘ BERMUDA | %, re AS) ’ N oa’ 20 my | my th gay’ ARABIAN SEA | Sc oe T wo tc mee . ! ASENSION | ; | | INDIAN OCEAN ® i | ST.HELENA | * _ — — 5 ouTHA | AT\LANT IE | an Se Tee Sarees a Sa g Craw | | | | | | FALKLANO | | | Ly. \5 | : S. GEORGE | | v.*| + | | SANDWICH | oe SEK LOR eS | ee _—_—________|________} 60 _a [ EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS ost | wee complete/y surveyed” y { 4 | wuuuincompletely but serviceably surveyed Sor navigation. } so! | xxxx exp/ored Tor purposes of pawigarion. | ee H } a—~ unexplored for purposes of navigation | | | | ; | os Saree | " ; go - 60° 40° 20° °° 20° 40° 60° 80 a Map showing the Condition of the Coast Surveys of the World plored for purposes of navigation is yet smaller and is almost confined to the frozen regions of the earth, which are unvisited by commerce and unpeopled. A prominent feature of the investigation and one which can not fail to bring a realization of the great responsibility resting upon navigators and the skill and caution required of them in the naviga- tion of coastal waters in nearly all parts of the world is the immense extent of the coast line which, while sufficiently known to be approached, can not be navigated with security. It isin general useless for the nautical surveyor of the present day to devote himself to the rapid reconnaissance of a coast in the manner that proved so ac-

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66 ceptable in the middle of the last cen- tury, for such a survey would not now prove beneficial with reference to any but the unexplored regions. The parts of the world that have been completely surveyed and the parts about which, from the standpoint of the ma- rine hydrographer, nothing is known are equally beyond our concern at pres- ent, for on the one hand the needs of commerce and navigation have been met and on the other hand commerce and navigation have as yet no needs. It is to the vast extent of the coasts of the world concerning which marine hydro- graphic knowledge exists in varying de- grees of incompleteness that we should address ourselves with a view of direct- ing attention to the faults which may be corrected and to the wants which may be supplied. Leaving our own completely sur- veyed Atlantic seaboard, we come at once among the oldest colonies in the Western Hemisphere and in a sea of great present and prospective impor- tance, upon coasts concerning which there is no adequate information for the construction of chartsand the guidance of shipping. The coasts of the Island of Haiti, outside of the more important ports and harbors, are very imperfectly charted. Our knowledge of the har- bors of Cuba has been lately much im- proved, but the sections of coast con- necting these harbors is not yet well represented. No better portrayal of the north coast of South America from Panama to Trinidad has ever been af- forded than that which resulted from a cursory examination made in the early part of the last century. ‘There are doubtless many places along this coast where future surveying operations will develop useful anchorages for the im- provement of commerce and the safety of vessels. The ports leading to many of the important maritime centers of Brazil have been efficiently surveyed, but the general approaches to the coast Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE are not completely developed. In the Rio de la Plata navigation has been ren- dered fairly safe, but of the intervening coast, until the Strait of Magellan is reached, it may only be said that, be- yond several isolated local surveys lately executed by the Argentine government, nothing has been done since the general examination in 1830. The efforts of British and Chilean hydrographic sur- veyors have effected much improvement during the last generation in the charts of the Strait of Magellan and through- out the waters of Chile, although the whole labyrinth of channels in southern Chile is still inadequately known for the purposes of the many steamers that are continually passing through; and with reference to the entire western coast of South America, the efficient surveying operations have clustered around local developments that were taking place here and there, leaving no general sur- vey of the whole coast by which it can be laid down in sufficient detail. The surveys of the immediate ap- proaches to Panama, although imper- fect, are serviceable ; and the same may be said of the Central American and Mexican coasts which connect the Re- public of Panama with the completely surveyed Pacific coast of the United States. Of the coastal waters in the northeastern Pacific much more is known in relation to the waters of the British dominions than with reference to the Alaskan coasts. Indeed the ma- rine hydrographic surveys of Alaska are as yet very incomplete, especially in the Aleutian Islands, where many coasts remain barely explored. Russian Si- beria and Korea have for the most part only been hydrographically explored ; but nearly all of the coasts of the Em- pire of Japan have been completely sur- veyed and charted, and the coasts of China, together with the China Sea, where British surveying ships have worked continuously for fifty years to put in their right positions the multi- XUM

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MarINE HyproGRAPHIC SURVEYS tude of rocks and shoals which encum- ber this region, are now well known. Much, however, yet remains to be done on the eastern and southern confines of this sea. Only the most important har- bors and sections of coast in the Philip- pines and the Dutch East Indies have been well charted. Parts of Tonquin and the southern, and especially the eastern, passages into the China Sea need much additional examination in detail. Australia and New Zealand are envel- oped with good nautical charts, which are constantly being amended as new developments give rise to increased needs for more detailed surveys, and most of the important harbors and the thickly inhabited maritime sections have been quite completely done. The Coral Sea, or what is termed the outer pas- sage between Australia and the Indian Ocean, is now much improved beyond its former state, owing to the necessity of providing more direct routes than those which were formerly followed, and most of its dangerous reefs are now set down in the charts. British India is better surveyed than many other parts of the best-known coasts of the world, and the shores of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean have been minutely sur- veyed excepting in a few parts where minor details are not now important. Of the coast of Africa, aside from that portion which fronts on the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, the most vaguely charted portion is that of So- maliland, and the most completely charted parts are embraced in that well-surveyed section, including Mada- gascar, which extends southward from Zanzibar around the Cape of Good Hope to the regions of Table Bay. The whole of the west coast can now be laid down with closeness to its true position on the face of the globe, and while some parts of it have been merely explored by the nautical surveyor, many other parts are better known, and some of the 67 harbors and off-lying islands have been surveyed with considerable approach to completeness. The coasts of Europe, excepting the Spanish peninsula and those parts bor- dering on the Arctic Ocean, are com- pletely surveyed, and an important cen- ter of activity in marine hydrography has for many years existed in Great Britain, resulting not only in elaborate surveys of the waters of Great Britain and Ireland, but in meeting the demand for reliable nautical charts in every part of the British Empire and in whatever other parts of the world British trade has been active or springing up. Nearly a century has now elapsed since the close of the era of discoveries among the vast groups of islands and coral reefs with whicb the immense area of the Pacific Ocean is studded, and the chaotic state of geography at that time, in which it was sometimes impossible for discoverers to return to the islands discovered, has given place to a state of order at the present day. The ships of all the great maritime na- tions have contributed in a greater or less degree to this advance by fixing the correct geographical positions of individual islands, by surveying har- bors and anchorages in the various groups, and by disproving the existence of many supposed rocks and dangers which were set down in the older charts from reports of former navigators, often doubtless based upon misleading ap- pearances of the sea. But important as is the surveying work that has already been accom- plished in the Pacific, it is only the beginning of that which is to come. There is scarcely an island group in the whole of Oceania that is completely charted. ‘The great work that remains to be done here ought to progress more rapidly in the future, since all these lands have at length been parceled out among leading nations of the world.

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THE WONDERFUL CANALS OF CHINA By U. S. Consut GeorGe E. ANpERsoN, HANGCHAU, CHINA HERE are several features in the canal system of China, especially of the Imperial or Grand Canal, which can be studied with profit by the people of the United States. One of these is the use of the canal for the production of food in addition to its uses as a means of transportation. Allied to this is the use of the muck which gathers at the bottom of the waterway for fertilization. Another is the use of every particle of plant life growing in and around the canal for various purposes. The Chinese secure a vast quantity of food of one sort or another from their canals. To appreciate the exact situation with respect to the waterways, it must be realized that the canals of China cover the plain country with a network of water. Leading from the Grand Canal in each direction are smaller canals, and from these lead still smaller canals, until there is hardly a single tract of 40 acres which is not reached by some sort of a ditch, gen- erally capable of carrying good-sized boats. The first reason for this great network is the needs of rice cultivation. During practically all of the growing season for rice the fields are flooded. Wherever a natural waterway can be made to irrigate the rice fields it is used, but, of course, from these to the canals or larger rivers there must be water- ways. Where natural streams cannot thus be adapted the Chinese lead water in canals or ditches to the edge of their fields and raise it to the fields of rice by the foot-power carriers which have been described so often by tourist writers. However the water is supplied to the rice, it is evident that there must be a waterway leading to the field and back to a principal stream, which is gen- erally a branch canal. These water- ways naturally take up a considerable portion of the land, and the Chinese make as profitable use of them as of the land itself. The first use of the waterways is for fishing. The quantity of fish taken from the canals of China annually is immense. The Chinese have no artifi- cial fish hatcheries, but the supply of fish is maintained at a high point by the fact that the flooded rice fields act as hatcheries and as hiding places for the young fish until they are large enough to look out for themselves. In the United States this fish propagation annex to the canals is probably neither possible nor needful in view of the work done by the state and national bureaus ; but in China it is nothing less than providential. Along the canalsin China at any time may be found boatmen gathering muck from the bottom of the canal. This muck is taken in much the same man- ner that oysters are taken by hand on the Atlantic coast In place of tongs are large, bag-like devices on crossed bamboo poles, which take in a large quantity of the ooze at once. This is emptied into the boat, and the process is repeated until the boatman has a load, when he will proceed to some neighboring farm and empty the muck, either directly on his fields—especially around the mulberry trees, which are raised for the silk-worms—or in a pool, where it is taken later to the fields. From this muck the Chinese farmer will generally secure enough shellfish to pay him for his work, and the fer- tilizer isclear gain. ‘The fertilizer thus secured is valuable. It is rich in nitro- gen and potash and has abundant hu- mus elements. This dredging of the XUM

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JM THe WonDERFUL Canals oF CHINA 69 canals for fertilizers is the only way by which the Chinese have kept their ca- nals in reasonably good condition for centuries. The fertilizer has paid for itself both ways. Recently there were complaints filed at Peking that the ashes from the steam launches plying on the canals were injuring the muck for fertilizing purposes, and the prob- lem has been considered a serious one by the Chinese government. In addition to securing fertilizers from the canals, and thus keeping the eanals in condition, the farmers help keep them purified by gathering all floating weeds, grass, and other vege- table debris that they can find upon them. Boatmen will secure great loads of water plants and grass by skimming the surface of the canal. The reeds growing along the canals are used for weaving baskets of several grades and for fuel. In short, no plant life about the canal goes to waste. Where there are so many canals there is more or less swamp ground. In China this is utilized for the raising of lotus roots, from which commercial arrowroot is largely obtained. There is no reason why much of the waste swamp land in the southern portion of the United States should not be used for a similar purpose, and the commer- cial returns from a venture of this sort in that part of the country ought to be satisfactory. Where the canals of China widen, by reason of natural waterways or for other reasons, the ex- panse of water not needed for actual navigation is made use of in the raising of water nuts of several varieties, espe- cially what are known as water chest- nuts. These nuts are raised in immense quantities. They are, strictly speak- ing, bulbs rather than nuts. They are rich in arrowroot and are prolific, an acre of shallow water producing far more than an acre of well cultivated soil planted in ordinary grain or similar crops. These nuts, also, could be pro- duced to advantage in the United States where there is land inundated for the growing season to a depth which will give ordinary water plants a chance to thrive and which is not capable of being drained for the time being. The nuts or bulbs are toothsome when roasted, and are wholesome, but probably would be more valuable in the United States for the manufactured products which can be secured from them. There are duck farms all along the canals in China. These are profitable. Chinese canals, as a rule, considering the population upon them and their varied uses, are cleaner than canals in the United States. There are few if any factories tocontaminate them. The Chinese use of certain sewage for fer- tilization also prevents contamination to agreatextent. ‘The canal water is used for laundry, bath, and culinary pur- poses indiscriminately. A canal in the United States could never be what it is in China, but the Chinese have a num- ber of clever devices and ideas in con- nection with their canals which can be adopted in the United States with profit. The Grand Canal system in China has existed in almost its present shape since about the time Columbus discov- ered America. The Grand Canal itself, extending from Hangchau to Pekin, is about athousand miles long. Much of it is banked with stone, and all of it is in such condition that with the expendi- ture of a little money the system could be put upon a modern and effective basis. As it is, the canal handles prac- tically all the internal trade of China, and this trade is far greater than its for- eign trade. The coming of railroads will affect the canals somewhat, but not so much as may be imagined, for the railroads will very largely build up a trade of theirown. A little money will make China’s canal system in the future what it has been in the past, the greatest on earth.

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GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE* T has been often remarked how much the various wars of the past ten years have educated the people in geography. Southeastern Europe,South Africa, the West Indies, the China coast, Japan, Korea, and Siberia have in their turn been ‘‘ discovered ’’ by mil- lions of people who had previously en- tertained very hazy notions as to their existence on the face of the earth. Yet, rather singularly, there are more com- plaints today concerning the ignorance of geography among all classes, high and low, than ever before. The universities, colleges, and schools are under more criticism than hitherto for their alleged failure to give to geog- raphy, broadly considered, its proper place in their courses of study. A year or two ago Mr Bryce delivered an ad- dress betore a geographical society in England in which he emphasized the importance of geography in any scheme of education or culture. Lord Salis- bury, not long before he died, surprised his countrymen by saying that many of their misconceptions concerning inter- national questions originated in the misleading scales of the maps of differ- ent countries and continents. It needs but a moment’s reflection, indeed, to be convinced that while people in general have lately increased their stock of geographical knowledge, owing to these sensational wars and the closer jostling of the nations, we have only begun to realize how ignorant we are concerning the earth we live upon. The great extent of the average per- son’s real ignorance of geography is almost invariably shown whenever he begins to probe into some question of history or international politics. Very soon he discovers, rather to his surprise, that the whole matter may rest upon some simple fact of geography. A classic illustration is the discovery of America, which was the immediate result of the closing of the old Mediterranean trade routes to the Orient by the conquering Turks. Most people have a general idea that Columbus was seeking a new way to the Indies when he made his historic voyage, yet they never get far enough along to understand clearly why he was seeking that route. They donot know anything about the ancient routes through Asia Minor and around the Black Sea and what the Turks did to them. History cannot be intelligently understood, of course, without a clear knowledge of the geography of history. Huxley believed this so strongly that he never read a book of history or travels or international politics without an atlas by his side for constant reference. Yet most of the histories that are published even in our time are singularly deficient in good maps, and, strange to say, the great Cambridge series of modern his- tory, planned by the late Lord Acton, contains not a single map in the first four volumes already printed. Certain facts of geography account for very much of what goes on in our owntime. The Boer war cannot be thor- oughly understood unless one knows the peculiar relation that South Africa bears to India and Australia from the British point of view. The war between Rus- sia and Japan is an insoluble mystery until one observes the position cf, Korea . and the Sea of Japan with reference to the Russian outlet upon the Pacific. Why is Russia today such a despotism ? Even that question should be answered in the light of the geography of the Russia of Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great. What makes Ireland so poor? ‘The climate, due to the island’s geographical position with reference to the trade winds of the Atlantic, cannot be ignored in seeking an explanation of Ireland’s position the past sixty years. * From the Springfield Republican, December 18, 1904. XUM

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TIDES IN THE Bay oF FuNnpy Why does Japan wish to expand in ter- ritory? We need only study the phys- ical character of Japan toknow. Why is Nevada such a backward state, and why is Arizona such an unpromising candidate for statehood? Here again geography can give an answer. Why did the negro race in central Africa re- main for ages in an isolated, uncivilized, undeveloped condition? To answer that fully one must take account of the Sahara desert on the north and the great forest belt which follows in a wide, deep margin the west African coast. Yet geograph, with most people, has always been a ‘‘dry’’ study. Just why this is so might be discussed, perhaps, so as to yield interesting conclusions. Possibly, as taught for so long in the past, it was too unreal, too make-believe, too artificial to arouse interest, especially the interest of those with little imagina- tion. The north was always up, the south down, the east at the right and the west at the left of the page. To be sure, the earth was round, with flat- tened poles, because the book said so ; yet what one in a thousand, since the globular condition of the earth was accepted as a fact by the civilized world, has easily comprehended the sig- nificance of the great and small circles TIDES IN THE HE accompanying plates of high and low tides in the Bay of Fundy are enlarged from pho- tographs taken by Mr Roland Hayward, of Milton, Mass.,in the summer of 1902. The views are of double value—first, in showing tides of unusual strength, and, again, in being taken from the same points for both high and low tides. The following general statements are from an article by Chalmers in the Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1894 (1895): ot as to distances over continents and oceans ? Then, too, the misconceptions one may draw from the ordinary maps are enormous, as Lord Salisbury inti- mated so strongly. We are so accus- tomed to large maps of our little corners of the earth that when we see maps of Asia, or Africa, made of the same size, our ideas as to the extent of those re- gious go hopelessly astray. When some one comes along and tells us how many Frances or Germanys or Englands could be embraced within the boundaries of Tibet, we are well-nigh upset. When President Roosevelt talks about ‘‘ the mastery of the ‘ Pacific,’ ’’ notone Amer- ican in 500 can conceive the proposition in terms of geography, and geography has a tremendous lot to do with inter- national politics. It is said that geography is still largely a monopoly of the German schools ; in England, they are poorly off, according to the complaints lately made in the London press. It isencouraging, how- ever, to note a growing insistence every- where upon fuller geographical knowl- edge and more nearly correct geograph- ical ideas. No one can be a man or woman of real education and culture in the future to whom geography, in no narrow sense, is virtually a closed book. BAY OF FUNDY The mouth of the bay is 48 miles wide and from 70 to 110 fathoms deep. The bottom rises at a rate of 4 feet toa mile for 145 miles, to the head of the bay. On the coast near the mouth the spring tides vary from 12 to 18 feet. Within the bay the spring and neap tides are as follows: Digby Neck, 22, 18; St John, 27, 23; Petitcodiac River, 46, 36; Cumberland Basin, 44. 35: Noel River, in Cobequid Bay, 53, 31. The last named is, according to Chalmers, the greatest tidal range authentically

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‘setuid still — aan - — * ae Low Tide on the Gaspareaux River, Woifville, N. S. XUM

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‘SN ‘OTPAJOA\ ‘AATY Xnvaiedseyy ay} uo apry, ys

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76 ‘Tue Nationa, GreoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE reported for any part of the bay. At the head of the bay high tide is about 20 feet above mean sea-level. Low tide is as much below. The tidal bore is seen in Maccan River, entering Cum- berland Basin; but it is stronger in Petitcodiac River, entering Shepody Bay. It is best seen at Moncton, where the first pair of views is taken. Mr Hayward gives the following de- tails: The Petitcodiac River turns at Monc- ton from a northeast to a southeast course, then entering the northwestern branch of the bay. The mud flats are three-quarters of a mile wide at Monc- ton. The retiring tide leaves them cov- ered with ripple-marks. The low-tide view was taken at 10.05 a. m., August 9, 1903, looking easterly. Here the foaming and roaring bore advances against a swift fresh-water stream, ris- ing rapidly. Its height was about 3% feet ; its progress was 5 miles an hour. High water, as shown in the second view, is reached about three hours after the arrival of the bore. The second pair of views was taken at Wolfville, on the eastern arm of the bay near the mouth of the Gaspareaux River, on September 7 and 8, 1903. The piles in the pier are stated to be 60 feet high. The great inconvenience attend- ing so strong a range of tide may be imagined. It may be well to recall a feature of the Bay of Fundy tides set forth by M.S. W. Jefferson a few years ago in his articles in this magazine, to the effect that the Fundy tides are practi- cally synchronous fiom the mouth to the head of the bay, while the Chesa- peake tides, for example, are progress- ively later and later from mouth to head ; but the estuaries at the head of the Bay of Fundy have progressive tides, asin the Petitcodiac. The synch- ronous ‘‘ swash”’ tides of the bay may be easily imitated in a model of an irregu- lar shore on which a shallow sheet of water lies. Tide-like oscillations in the water may be made by an oscillating plunger ; and when the proper period of oscillation is chosen, the tide in a funnel-shaped bay will have small range at the mouth and great range at the head, and the time of high or of low tide will be essentiaily synchronous all along the bay sides. At the same time a neighboring bay of different form may have progressive tides whose advancing waves may assume the form of a bore if the proper variation of breadth and depth of channel is given. W. M. D. FRENCH CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA* By CHARLES EDITORIAL SECRETARY OF OF SOCIETE O traverse the Sahara from north to south, to join Algeria to the Sudan through the great des- ert of North Africa, and to subjugate the nomads who wander through that immense region has been one of the principal aims of France in recent years, ‘*LaA GEOGRAPHIE,’’ DE GEOGRAPHIE DE PARIS RABOT MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL and one which she has at length attained at the price of long and persevering ef- fort. The hostility of the Touaregs was foralongtimean obstacle. Established in the oases scattered over the Sahara, these Berber fanatics and brigands were accustomed to scan the whole desert, and * An address to the Eighth International Geographic Congress, September, Ig04. XUM

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FRENCH CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA as soon as they spied a caravan to fall upon it toroband massacre. Often, too, they were wont to attack the tribes of the extreme south of Algeria, who had already submitted to French influences. After the disaster to the Flatters mission in 1881 and several other out- rages committed by the Touaregs, the French military authorities had post- poned for a while all further desire to penetrate into the Sahara and remained simply on the defensive. During this period of official inac- tion, M. Foureau accomplished a series of very fruitful expeditions in the desert regions south of Algeria. From 1883 to 1897 he traveled no less than 13,200 miles, of which 9,600 were in regions entirely unknown. Not only did M. Foureau notably augment our geographic knowledge by this journey, but he inaugurated a mode of traveling which has been very fruitful for the exploration of the Sa- hara. Instead of being accompanied by a heavy caravan, lixe preceding mis- sions, this traveler adopted the mode of life and transport of the natives, taking with him only a few faithful Arabs. His little troop was mounted ‘on ‘‘ me- haris,’’ used by thé Touaregs—rapid camels, which are to the ordinary cam- els of the caravan what race-horses are to cart horses. Thanks to the mobility of his caravan, M. Foureau could per- form long raids without being attacked by the Touaregs. Meanwhile, from 1890 to 1892, a French officer, Colonel Monteil, accomplished the crossing of the Sahara from Tchad to Tripoli by the caravan route. The French, however, had never aban- doned the idea of a junction of Algeria to the Sudan. In 1896 a member of the Geographical Society, M. Renoust des Orgeries, encouraged this idea by giving the society $50,000 to organize an expedition to carry out this program, and in 1899 M. Foureau received per- mission to traverse the Sahara and to 77 make his way through the desert to the French possessions in Central Africa. To ensure the safety of his caravan and to compel a respect for the French flag from the brigands of the Sahara, the government gave M. Foureau a numer- ous military escort, commanded by Major Lamy. This Foureau expedition started from Ouargla (in South Algeria) at the end of October, 1898, and a year later (No- vember 2, 1899) arrived at Zinder, at the northeast extremity of French Su- dan. In the April following, after having gone round Lake Tchad by the north and east, the expedition had ef- fected a junction with the French troops upon the Chari, the principal affluent of the Tchad. The march of the expedition was very slow and painful in consequence of the enormous caravan track behind it. Part of its camels soon succumbed to the fatigues of the journey, and it was im- possible to purchase new beasts of bur- den from the nomads. ‘The Touaregs, confident of their strength, threw them- selves at various times against the little troop; but, having learned in these en- counters that they could not be victori- ous, they abandoned active hostilities and limited themselves to creating a complete dearth of supplies around the explorers. It was only through the energies of M. Foureau and of the mili- tary chiefs that the expedition was able to get along at all. The slowness of this journey has had very favorable results from the scientific point of view. It has permitted M. Fou- reau to acquire a very complete knowl- edge of the country and to collect a very rich harvest of observations of interest to all fields of geography. A great work setting forth these scientific obser- vations is in course of publication and is being offered to all important geo- graphic societies. The Foureau mission opens a new era in the French penetration of the Sahara.

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78 At the moment when this expedition was setting out the French government gave up the defensive attitude, and, abandoning the merely defensive policy observed since the Flatters mission in 1881, decided to extend further south- ward the zoneof *rench influence, which then did not pass , »° latitude north. On the 28thof December, 1899, M. Flamand, a‘naturalist, was instructed to make a study of the region which it was pro posed to annex, and was attacked at In- Tue Nationa, GreocRAPHIc MAGAZINE Mediterranean to the northern curve of the Niger at Timbuctoo. This military advance has had inter- esting results from the point of view of geography. An excellent map on the scale of 1:250,000 has been made by Lieutenant Nieger of the whole region of Touat and Tidikelt, hitherto im- perfectly known. Moreover, M. Fla- mand has published interesting notes on the morphology and geology of this part of the desert. ‘To ensure protection of i Ae ia * Scenes on Lake TI‘chad Sala. Immediately the French troops advanced on their ‘‘meharis,’’ com- manded by Captains Germain and Pein, two brilliant Sahara officers. Some months later the French occupied the chain of oases of Gourara, Touat, and Tidikelt, more than 300 kilometers in length, which runs along the subter- ranean courses of rivers descending from the high plateaus of Morocco and Al- geria. In this way the French had ad- vanced nearly half the distance from the the oases thus acquired against the in- cursions of the Touaregs, the military authorities recognized the necessity of abandoning the old mistake of simply remaining on the defensive. In order to assure the tranquillity of the country, it was necessary at the first attack from the brigand tribes to pursue them vigor- ously through the desert, and not to give up until a sharp lesson had been inflicted. This result could only be obtained by XUM

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FRENCH CONQUEST OF THE SAHARA a very mobile and acclimatized troop. It was decided therefore to undertake the creation of troops mounted on ‘‘meharis’’ and composed of natives under the command of French officers. This organization was inspired from that of the famous ‘‘dromedary com- panies’’ instituted by Bonaparte in Egypt, and by that of the ‘‘ camel corps’’ recently adopted in the Sudan by the British army. Since that time the French troops have been on an equality of speed and mobility with the Touaregs, while their superiority of arms ensures victory even against superior numbers. These Saharan troops once organ- ized, the officers commanding the ex- treme southern posts upon the Algerian frontier undertook long raids into the Sahara, traversing and surveying vast unknown regions and at the same time acting as a vigilant police. On March 26, 1go01, the Touaregs having come to rob the people of Tidikelt, Lieutenant Cottenest started with 130 native troops and reached the mountain mass of the Hoggar and inflicted a severe lesson upon the brigands, returning to In- Sala after having traveled 1,000 miles in 62 days in a country entirely hostile. The same year, from the 16th of May to the 15th of June, Major Laperrine explored the Mouydir, a plateau sur- rounded by valleys from 200 to 300 meters deep and containing an abun- dance of water, wood, and excellent pasture. Some time later, in 1902, Lieuten- ant Guilho-Lohan returned to the Hog- gar plateau and pushed south to 22° latitude north. In 1903 Lieutenant 3esset effected a raid of 750 miles in the south, and some months later Major Laperrine, accompanied by Professor Gautier, directed a new reconnaissance in the Mouydir and the Ahnet. At the same time Captain Pein effected a raid round the Temassinine in the region situated farther east. 79 These different expeditions have com- pleted and transformed the situation of the Sahara. The Touaregs, finding themselves chastised for the smallest act of rapine and always overtaken in their haunts, have now given their submis- sion to Captain Metois, commanding at In-Sala. Only the tribe of Azguers, which wanders in the eastern Sahara, has as yet refused to accept French domination. Accordingly a new and decisive oper- ation was undertaken. At the com- mencement of February, 1904, Major Laperrine, quitting In-Sala at the head of a troop of ‘‘ meharistes’’ and taking his route south, succeeded in travers- ing the Sahara and meeting a second troop of ‘‘meharistes’’ which had set out from Timbuctoo. In this way was effected the junction of Algeria with the Niger, previously accomplished by M. Foureau, but now by a more eastern route. In this expedition Major Laperrine was accompanied by an astronomer, M. Villate. From a geographical point of view these raids have had very im- portant results. The officers who have commanded them have brought back precise methods and numerous obser- vations of interest. Asa result of the reconnaissance in which he took part in 1903, Professor Gautier has made a geological map of Mouydir and Ahnet, in the very center of the Sahara. The junction of the parties from In- Sala and Timbuctoo took place on April 18, at the well of Tioniaoune by 20° 10’ north latitude. The party from Algeria, under Commandant Laperrine, had come through Inzize and Timissao. After he succeeded in joining hands with the southern party, the commandant pushed a little farther south, as far as the well of Tin Zaouatem by 19° 57’ north latitude, but soon resumed the journey northward to In-Sala, follow- ing afreshitinerary. Scarcity of water and the heat (it was in May) made the ce

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80 homeward journey very trying, part of the men having to travel as far as 320 kilometers with hardly any water. News received from this expedition points to the extension southward of the volcanic formations discovered by M. Gautier in Mouydir. Thanks to M. Foureau and to the officers commanding the posts of the extreme south of Algeria, considerable progress has been accomplished by the new method of exploring the Sahara by the employment of ‘‘mehara’’ (sin- gular of ‘‘mehari’’). This camel can bear, besides his rider and his arms and accoutrements, 30 days’ victuals and two skins of water. With this load he can march from 3 to 3'4 miles an hour and amble at a pace of 5 miles. In the raid executed in 1903 by Commandant Laperrine and Professor Gautier 69 miles were traversed in 29 hours. Tue NaTionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE One has no need for anxiety as to feed- ing the mehari; the desert flora suffices for its food, and in summer it can endure 5 days without drinking, while when plants are green it can go without water for 18 or 20 days. By this method of penetration in the Sahara, M. Foureau and these French officers have there accomplished pro- gress as important as that effected by Nansen in his Arctic exploration. By adopting the means of locomotion and of existence of the Polar peoples, the Nor- wegian explorer gained a memorable victory. In the same way, by borrow- ing from the inhabitants of the Sahara their mode of life and locomotion, the French have triumphed over the obsta- cles which the nature of the soil and of the inhabitants had set against the ex- ploration of the great desert of northern Africa. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR, IN JAPAN AND MANCHURIA* By Dr Louts HE Japanese soldier has been taught how to treat his intes- tines, and consequently his in- testines are now treating him with equal consideration. His plain, rational diet is digested, metabolized and assimilated. It is not an irritating, indigestible, fer- menting mess, acting as a local irritant and producing gastritis, duodenitis, en- teritis, colitis, hepatitis, and the long list of inflammatory intestinal processes with which we were all so familiar in the hos- pital wards at Camp Alger, Chattanooga, Tampa, Cuba, Porto Rico, Montauk Point, &c., in 1898. The great hospitals are there, interne, * Abstract of an address to the National desiring further information on this subject recently published by D. Appleton & Co. LIVINGSTONE Geographic Society, December 9, 1904. are referred to Dr SEAMAN contagious, and infectious departments, their conspicuously empty beds voicing more eloquently than words the most important lesson of the war. A few cases of diseases of the respiratory sys- tem are found—colds, bronchitis, and an occasional pneumonia—contracted through exposure in fording rivers, ex- haustive marches, and bivouacking on wet ground, a few more of typhoid (1 saw only three in Manchuria), occasion- ally one of dysentery, and a number of cases of beri beri, that former scourge of oriental armies. But of all the many thousands gath- ered in these institutions there were but ve Those Seaman’s instructive book XUM

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE a few medical cases, and of these scarcely a baker’s dozen came under the heading of ‘‘ Diseases of the digestive system.’’ Therein lies one of the greatest secrets of the Japanese success. Napoleon never made a more truthful statement than when he said: ‘‘An army fights on its belly.’’ The Japanese have that belly, and they take good care to keep it in fighting order, not by insulting it three times a day by cramming it with mate- rial totally unsuited to the soldier’s ne- cessities, thereby exciting irritations and disease, but by supplying it with a plain, palatable, easily prepared and easily di- gested ration that can be thoroughly metabolized and converted into the health and energy that make its owner the ideal fighting machine of the world today. The organization of the medical de- partment of the Japanese army and navy is modeled after that of the Germans, with many added improvements. Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon the medical department of the army and navy for their splendid preparatory work in this war. The Japanese are the first to recognize the true value of an army medical corps. The medical officer is omnipresent. You will find him in countless places where in an American or British army he has no place. He is as much at the front asinthe rear. He is with the first screen of scouts with his microscope and chemicals, testing and labeling wells so the army to follow shall drink no contaminated water. When the scouts reach a town he immediately institutes a thorough examination of its sanitary condition, and if contagion or infection is found he quarantines and places a guard around the dangerous district. Notices are posted, so the ap- proaching column is warned, and no soldiers are billeted where danger exists. Microscopic blood tests are made in all fever cases and bacteriological experts, fully equipped, form part of the staff of every divisional headquarters. 81 Russo-] APAN eEsE War The medical officer is also found in camp, lecturing the men on sanitation and the hundred and one details of per- sonal hygiene—how to cook, to eat, and when not to drink, to bathe, and even to the direction of the paring and cleans- ing of the finger nails to prevent danger from bacteria. Up to August 1, 9,682 cases had been received at the reserve hospital at Hiroshima, of whom 6,636 were wounded. Of the entire number up to that time only 34 had died. It is the rule of the Japanese surgeons at the front to do little or no operating except in cases of extreme emergency or where hemorrhage threatens immediate death. All cases are treated by the ap- plication of the first aid dressing and then sent to the rear as quickly as pos- sible, thence by hospital boat or trans- port to the base hospitals in Japan. If the testimony of those conversant with the facts can be accepted, supple- mented from my own limited observa- tions, the loss from preventable diseases in the first six months of this terrible conflict will be but a fraction of 1 per cent. ‘This, too, in a country notori- ously insanitary. Compare this with the fearful losses of the British from preventable diseases in South Africa, or, worse, with our own losses in the Spanish-American war — where, in a campaign the actual hostilities of which lasted six weeks, the mortality from bullets and wounds was 268, while that from disease reached the appalling num- ber of 3,862, or about 14 to 1, or 70 per cent—1 per cent against 70 per cent. Naturally one asks, Were these re- sults anticipated? As an answer, the statement of a distinguished Japanese officer, when discussing with me the subject of Russia’s overwhelming num- bers, is pertinent. ‘‘ Yes,’’ he said, ‘“ we are prepared for that. Russia may be able to place 2,000,000 men in the field. We can furnish 500,000. You know in every war four men die of dis- ease for every one who falls from bul-

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82 That will be the position of Russia in this war. We propose to eliminate disease as a factor. Every man who dies in our army must fall on the field of battle. In this way we shall neutralize the superiority of Russian numbers and stand on acomparatively equal footing.’’ Japan is the first country in the world to recognize that the greatest enemy in war is not the army of the invader, but of a foe more treacherous and danger- ous—preventable disease, found lurking in every camp. If wars are inevitable and the slaugh- ter of men must go on—and I believe wars are inevitable and that most of them are ultimately beneficial—then, for the love of God, let our men be killed lets. Tue NatTionaL GreocraPHic MAGAZINE legitimately, on the field, fighting for the stake at issue—not drop them by the wayside by preventable disease, as we did in the Spanish-American war—1,400 for every 100 that died in action. Itis for the 1,400 poor devils who are sacri- ficed—never for the too who fall gal- lantly fighting—that I offer my prayer. The state deprives the soldier of his liberty, prescribes his exercises, equip- ment, dress, diet, the locality in which he shall reside, and in the hour of dan- ger expects him, if necessary, to lay down his life in its defense and honor. It should therefore give him the best sanitation and the best medical super- vision that the science of the age—be it Japanese or Patagonian—can devise. HELPING THE FARMERS In the January number of this Magazine considerable mention was made of the work of the Department of Agriculture during 1904. The following paragraphs give information on certain lines of work which were not then described for lack of space. RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS HE Secretary of Agriculture re- ports much progress made dur- ing 1904 on the alkali reclama- tion tracts established during the year previous, and indications point to the complete reclamation of the lands under experimentation at an early day. At the inception of the work on a 4o-acre tract near Salt Lake City, a soil survey showed the first 4 feet of soil to con- tain more than 6,650 tons of soluble salts. In May, 1903, eight months after, there had been removed by drain- age nearly 50 per cent of this immense total, and in the following October only 1,221 tons remained in the entire tract. The progress of similar work on a 2o0- acre tract at Fresno, Cal., has been no less gratifying. The Secretary declares his full confidence in the final success of this work anda firm belief that it will lead to individual or concerted action on the part of those most interested, with the result of greatly benefiting both the agricultural and stock-raising in- terests. GROWTH OF CUBAN SEED TOBACCO In the line of tobacco investigations which are carried on by the Bureau of Soils the most important work during the year was the experimental growing of Cuban seed tobacco on certain soils in Texas, Alabama, and South Caro- lina. Samples of tobaccos grown in 1903 were submitted to the trade, and the Texas leaf was found to have con- siderable merit both in regard to flavor and aroma. Some have pronounced it to be superior to any filler yet grown in this country. The Alabama filler leaf is considered fair. Final judgment of the success of this venture, however, must await further advices from dealers and manufacturers. Growing of the XUM

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HELPING THE FARMERS Cuban type of filler has also been tried in Ohio. The most important work in Ohio, however, has been the further in- troduction of the bulk method of fer- menting cigar tobaccos. Over 655,000 pounds were fermented in 1g02, over 4,000,000 in 1903, while in 1904 the quantity so fermented exceeded 10,000,- ooo pounds. Considerable demand has been made the past year upon the Bu- reau to assist the growers of the heavy export types. Experiments have been undertaken to grow the tobacco with different fertilizers and under different methods of culture to see which will give the best financial results. Itis yet too early to give the results of the pres- ent season’s work. SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO In 1903 the Department of Agricul- ture had practically ceased its work in Connecticut in the production of shade- grown tobacco, but in 1904 it conducted an experiment at Tariffville, Conn., where a crop has been produced on a 4-acre plat. Tobacco of this type was exhibited at the I,ouisiana Purchase Exposition and received a grand prize as a leaf of the highest excellence for cigar wrappers. The Secretary presents a table which shows that 134 bales of Connecticut shade-grown tobacco have been sold for domestic use at an average price of $1.26 plus, the highest price obtained being $1.75 per pound for light wrappers. One hundred and forty-four bales were sold for export at an average of $0.34. EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN COMBAT- ING THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL The most important work of the Bu- reau of Entomology during the year has been its combat with the Mexican cot- ton boll weevil. Under the provisions of the special appropriation of $250,000, made available January, 1904, this work was greatly enlarged. Overa thousand acres, divided among thirteen experi- mental farms, were devoted to experi- 8 3 mental work, and it is believed that the cultural system these farms were de- signed to illustrate has so far proved to be the only practicable means of con- trolling the weevil. This is the out- growth of several years of experimenta- tion. COLONIZATION OF THE GUATEMALAN ANT The discovery of the Guatemalan ant and its colonization in Texas is a feature of distinct encouragement. ‘The emi- nent danger of the spread of the weevil, however, to other States indicates the necessity of continued active and ener- getic work on the part of the general government. MEANS OF COMBATING THE BOLL- WORM Field experiments have demonstrated that the cultural system of control rec- ommended for the boll weevil furnishes the very best means also against the bollworm. Spraying and dusting with arsenical potions and the value of truck crops have been made the subject of careful experiments, and the depart- ment is now able to recommend meas- ures which will greatly reduce damage from this pest. BENEFICIAL INSECTS The possibility of keeping injurious insects in check by the introduction of their natural insect enemies is a popular subject with fruit growers and farmers, and notable success has been achieved in this direction. INSECTS DAMAGING FORESTS STUDY OF The general information gained from the study of insects damaging forests, carried on both in the field and in the laboratory, has greatly advanced the knowledge of forest insects and the means of controlling them. An expert has been placed in charge of investiga- tions of insecticides, and fumigation

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84 experiments with fruit stock and build- ings and granaries are now under way, as well as cooperative work between the 3ureaus of Entomology and Chemistry on the composition of insecticides. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY The work of the Biological Survey has been continued along three princi- pal lines: First, investigations relating to the geographical distribution of ani- mals and plants, including biological surveys and the determination of the lite and crop belts; second, investiga- tions of the economic relations of birds to agriculture; third, supervision of matters relating to game preservation and protection and the importation of foreign birds and animals. In carrying out this threefold mission the Biolog- ical Survey is divided into three sec- tions—that of geographical distribu- tion, that of economic ornithology, and finally one of game protection and in- troduction. IMPORTATION OF BIRDS AND MAM- MALS Constant vigilance is necessary to pre- vent the introduction into the United States of birds or animals likely to be- come pests. The permits issued during the year numbered 318, and included 1,470 mammals and 250,000 birds. ENFORCEMENT OF GAME LAWS Six convictions for illegal traffic in game were secured during the year under the Lacey act, making 42 convic- tions secured in cases passing through this department. In Alaska the game law has accomplished two main objects— the shipment of deer heads has been stopped, and the export of heads of big game as trophies has been curtailed. PUBLIC ROAD INQUIRIES Object-lesson roads have been con- structed with the cooperation of the office of public road inquiries in Arkan- sas, Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia, and THe NaTIonAL GeocrAPHIC MAGazINE West Virginia. These were mostly first- class macadam roads. It has also coop- erated at several points in the South in constructing experimental roads of a mixture of sand and clay. In the ab- sence of stone and gravel, this mixture may be used to great advantage. Much has been accomplished during the year in the development of good roads by the state-aid plan. The main features of this plan as now adopted in several states are a state highway commission, appropriations from the state treasury to pay a portion of the expense, the bal- ance being divided between the counties, towns, and the owners of property along the improved roads. Since 1890 eleven states in all have provided, in a greater or less degree, the state aid. Much time has been spent in study- ing the physical properties of clays in an endeavor to devise methods by which they can be utilized in road making. Of 228 samples of road materials re- ported during the past year, 35 were clays. Clinkered clay has been suc- cessfully used for some time past as a railroad ballast. Experiments were made with samples of the so-called gumbo clay from the Yazoo district of Mississippi, and following these ex- periments the Office of Public Road Inquiries built an experimental road in Yazoo City, which has been reported successful. The Division of Tests has not confined itself to investigations of clays in their use as road material, but to their useful properties for any pur- pose, with a view to developing the use of native clays, of which the produc- tion already exceeds $2,000,000 an- nually, while of foreign clays over $1,000,000 worth are imported. OILS AND ASPHALTUM FOR ROADS The suggestion of the Division of Tests to road builders throughout the country to make experiments with mix- tures of crude oils and crude asphaltum in road building has resulted in some cases very satisfactorily. XUM

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JM HELPING THE FARMERS 85 A SCHOOL FOR ROAD BUILDING RECOMMENDED In connection with the subject of road materials the Secretary of Agriculture urges the desirability of a school for road building in connection with the department, the studeiits to consist of men who have already received degrees from reputable engineering schools. EXPERIMENTAL WORK IN ALASKA Many interesting experiments have been carried on in Alaska. Distribu- tion was made, moreover, of vegetable and flower seeds to some 1,500 persons, many of whom report success, and con- firm the possibility of raising hardy veg- etables in nearly all parts of the territory south of the Arctic Circle. In general, the experimental work in Alaska has shown that live stock could be success- fully maintained at many points. Sheep raising has not proved successful, and the Secretary expresses the opinion that Alaskan grass lands as a whole can be most profitably used at present through dairying. ‘The Secretarysaysitisdoubt- ful if equally good opportunities for dairymen can be found in the United States today. PUBLICATION WORK The publication work of the depart- ment is a faithful reflex of its activity and growth. The number of publica- tions issued during the past year aggre- gated 972, of which 379, comprising 23,000 pages of matter, were new. The number of copies of all publications printed during the year amounted to nearly 12,500,000. Of farmers’ bulle- tins, of which 6,500,000 copies were is- sued during the year, nearly 5,000,000 were distributed upon the orders of members of Congress. Educational in- stitutions are becoming more frequent applicants for publications, mainly for class work, and the Secretary suggests a plan by which, with the approval of Congress, unused congressional quotas of the department’s publications might be made available. From David Griffiths, U. S. Department of Agriculture A Flock of Goats on the Ranges of Arizona

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UM GEOGRAPHIC NOTES NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HE annual meeting of the National Geographic Society was held at Washington, January 13. Eight mem- bers of the Board of Managers were elected to serve for the three years, 1905-1907, as follows: Alexander Graham Bell, Alfred H. Brooks, Henry Gannett, General A. W. Greely, Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Angelo Heilprin, O. H. Tittmann, and General John M. Wilson. Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, of the Uni- versity of Chicago, was elected to fill the vacancy in the Board caused by the resignation of Prof. Wm. M. Davis, of Harvard University. The report of the Secretary, Hon. O. P. Austin, showed that the present membership of the Society is 3,400, of whom 1.125 are residents of Washing- ton and 2,275 distributed throughout the United States, Alaska, Philippines, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The net gain in membership for 1904 was 789. During 1904 the Society held 12 scien- tific meetings, 16 special meetings, and 4 field meetings. At a meeting of the Board of Man- agers January 27 Dr Willis L. Moore, Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau, was elected President of the Society. Dr Moore has been actively identified with the Society for many years, serving on the Board of Managerssince 1899. At the same meeting Mr Henry Gannett, Geographer of the U. S. Geological Survey, was elected Vice-President. Mr Gannett was one of the incorporat- ors of the Society, in 1888, and with the exception of the year 1903, which he passed in the Philippines, he has served continuously on the Board since the Society was founded. CHART OF THE WORLD HROUGH the courtesy of the Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department, and more particularly of Captain H. M. Hodges, .bydrographer, and Mr George W. Littlehales, the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE publishes as a supplement to this num- ber a chart of the world on Mercator’s projection, showing the submarine cable lines and their connections and ocean routes. Cable and telegraph lines are printed in red and ocean routes in blue. The latest cable lines are shown—as, for instance, the Alaskan cables of the U. S. Signal Corps and the wireless connection across Norton Sound. ‘The tables of distances printed on the bot- tom of the chart will doubtless be found very convenient by many. One table tells at a glance the comparative dis- tances of New York and Shanghai, or Yokohama by the Panama, Suez, and Cape of Good Hope routes. Another table gives the distances of our Gulf ports from the Atlantic end of the Panama Canal (Colon), and also from each other. The chart can be easily detached from the Magazine and hung on the wall for more convenient use. NOTES ON THE PHILIPPINES O NE of the most striking facts in the report for 1904 of Col.Clarence R. Edwards, U.S. Army, Chief of the Bu- reau of Insular Affairs, is the statement that only $5,300,000, or less than 8 per cent, of the $69,000,000 worth of goods entering and leaving the Philippine Isl- ands in 1904 were carried in American bottoms. What a lamentable instance of the insignificance of our merchant marine, which, like our iron, coal, and agricultural industries, ought to be the greatest in the world. During the year nearly 13,000 Ameri- cans went to the Philippines with the in- tention of making their permanent home there. Most of them did not specify the nature of their occupation, but among those who did were 333 teachers, 117 en- gineers, 50 physicians, 47 clergymen, 33 lawyers, 406 clerks and accountants, 186

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88 Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE merchant dealers and grocers, 58 mari- ners, and 18 miners. Many of these had received civil-service appointments from the United States. The administrative acts of the Bureau during 1904 were pre- viously described by Colonel Edwards in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of June and July. ‘The question of labor in the Philip- pines has ceased to be a critical one, says the Collector of Customs for the Philippine Islands in his report for 1904. Despite the gloomy predictions of many thoroughly sincere investi- gators and writers on the subject, the Filipino laborer has conclusively dem- onstrated that he is a practicable and dependable element in the industrial development of the Islands. In the past two years several immense enter- prises have been successfully carried on solely with the aid of Filipino laborers. All goods arriving at or leaving the port of Manila are handled by natives. Dur- ing the past year the operation of the customs ‘Arrastre plant’ has been en- tirely in the hands of native labor, in- cluding the steam tramway and four large steam cranes. ‘‘The Filipinos make good clerks, copyists, typewriters, sub-inspectors, and, in some instances, excellent fidu- ciary officers. Inthe handling of cash, in subordinate positions, they have shown a high degree of accuracy and integrity. As marine officers and engi- neers, especially in the latter position, they have exhibited a skill, fidelity, and courage which entitle them to unstinted admiration.”’ TRANSPORTATION IN ENGLAND A* the present time, when there is so much comment on transporta- tion rates in the United States, the fol- lowing statements from an American consul in England of conditions in that country may surprise some of us:* *W. P. Smith, U. S. consul Tunstall, Eng- land, Consular Reports, January 25, 1905. ‘The carriage for a ton of apples from Folkstone, on the south coast of England, to London, is $5.86, while goods of the same class are carried from California to London for $3.81. It costs $9.73 tosend a ton of British meat from Liverpool to London, while it costs only $6.09 to send a ton of foreign meat to the same market. The Irish farmer who wants to get his produce to London has to pay $22.88 carriage per ton on his eggs from Galway, while the Danish farmer can send eggs into the London market for $5.85, the Russian for $5. 10, and the farmer in Normandy for $4.05. The man down in Kent, who is almost at the London market, has to pay $6.10 per ton to the railway companies for carrying the produce of his orchard to London, while the same class of freight is brought from Holland for half the money.’’ TO OBSERVE SOLAR ECLIPSE R EAR Admiral C. M. Chester, su- perintendent of the Naval Ob- servatory, las submitted a recommenda- tion for provision fora naval expedition in 1905 to observe a total solar eclipse. He proposes to select an observation station among the high hills bordering on the Mediterranean, to work with some ship as a base near Valencia, and another station in the uplands, with headquarters on board a vessel on the northeast coast of Spain. Ranges of Arizona.— David Griffiths is the author of a recent bulletin pub- lished by the Department of Agricult- ure, describing the ranges of Arizona and the measures necessary for their protection. The rangescan carry with- out injury one horse or cow to 50 or 100 acres. The range-owners have lately begun goat-raising with consid- erable profit. The picture on page 85 shows a flock of goats on one of these ranges. Excessive stocking has been destroying the value of the ranges. XUM

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GEOGRAPHIC The Tower of Pelee. By Angelo Heil- prin. With 23 full-page plates. Pp. 62. 9% by 12'% inches. Philadel- phia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 1yo4. $3.00 vet. This exceedingly handsome volume isasupplement to ‘‘ Mont Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique,’’ published by Professor Heilprin in 1902. In it the author discusses the peculiar spine or obelisk which was thrust up the throat of Mont Peléein 1903, rising to a height at times of nearly 85c feet, and which has since entirely disappeared. The series of views of this obelisk taken by Mr Heilprin and published in the vol- ume are remarkably fine. One of them is republished in this Magazine on page 86. Mr Heilprin also publishes several pictures of glass water bottles and wine glasses which show marked deforma- tions of substance without breakage. ‘‘’There are no indications of glass flow, and the only apparent change that the glass has undergone Is au acquired mur- kiness. The substance had evidently yielded to pressure impacts at a time when it was subjected to and softened by great heat. This condition suffi- ciently explains the similar condition of objects found at Pompeii, and does away with the necessity of assuming that the deformation was the result of a slow and steadily progressing molecular change whose workings extended through cen- turies (!)’’ Mr Heilprin believes that Pompeii was destroyed in very much the same manner as St Pierre and not, as has been generally assumed, by ‘‘ simple incineration.’ A Naturalist in the Gutanas. By Eu- géne André, F. R.G. S., F. Z.S., M.S. A. With 34 illustrations and amap. Preface by Dr J. Scott Kel- tie. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1904. This is a real book by a naturalist and explorer of the old type, and from preface to conclusion is full of vivid and LITERATURE sharply drawn pictures. To any one who loves the solitude of the forest or who has felt the charm of the tropical jungle the book must appeal in the same way that Belt’s ‘‘ Naturalist in Nica- ragua’’ or Bates’ ‘‘ Travels on the Amazon’’ have for many years fired the imagination of the youth of America and England; but to the writer the book has an additional reality and an inde- scribable fascination, for it describes the travelsand ghastly hardships of a friend. In 1899, while traveling with Mr Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago, I met the author in the Port of Spain, and I shall never forget the enthusiasm with which Mr Lathrop announced the dis- covery of this unusual naturalist. We traveled with him later from La Guayra to Panama, and the last time I saw him he was running home a charge in his muzzle-loader after a shot at some gor- geous Colombian song bird. To the public at large South America isa puzzle. It reads of the great in- dustrial and railway development of the Argentine, of the immense waterway of the Amazon, of the beauties of Rio de Janeiro, and of the ancient Inca civil- ization of Peru, but there is a silence in the popular literature regarding the im- mense center of the continent, to which these civilizations of the Argentine, Chili, Peru, and Venezuela form the merest fringe. Eugéne André has pushed his way along the watercourses and through the jungles of this greatest of all unex- plored tropical regions of the world, and this book which he has written gives a picture of the extreme discomforts, the real hardships, and the frightful ex- posure to disease and starvation which attends the work of exploration in the uninhabited tropical forest. To a boy familiar with the popular literature on tropical forests nothing could be more delightful than to make one’s way, with hunting outfit and canoes, from Rio to Panama, living on the game and the fruits of the forest. André’s account of

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go his explorations dispels any illusions of the luxury of travel in tropical forests and makes the hardships undergone by Wallace in the Aru Islands or by Schweinfurt among the Naim Naim people of Central Africa seem insignifi- cant. The book describes two expeditions, in 1897-1898 and 1g00-1901, from Trin- idad up the Orinoco toward the head- waters of the Caura, with side trips up the Nichare and cross-country expedi- tions cut through the forest to Mounts Turagua and Améha, two of those re- markable mesa-like mountains which are characteristic of southern Venezuela. It isa narrative of daily experiences and observations and sparkles with that humor which is a necessary quality of a good explorer. The observations on animals and plants are unusually vivid and interesting and written with care, yet nowhere prosaic. His ability totake the reader into his confidence and to picture the trials of a naturalist in the tropics may be illustrated by the follow- ing : ‘‘Tf the hornets pay attention to the person of the collector the ants devote themselves to looking after his collec- tions, so that what with having to dodge a being with wings and a sting who means business when he has made his mind up, and trying to devise ways for keeping his property out of the way of an insect that can find a grain of sugar in astack of hay, the amateur naturalist acquires his first real knowledge of the powers of those so-called lower forms of life.’’ It were beyond the province of a re- view to enter in any detail, but as I run over the pages of my friend’s book, to collect the materials for which has twice almost cost him his life, certain of his observations seem most worthy of attention. His observations on the healthfulness of Ciudad-Bolivar,situated on the edge of a swamp into which all the village refuse is dumped, those re- garding the Indians’ confirmative belief THe Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE in the mosquito as a carrier of the ma- larial fevers, and the presence of malig- nant ulcers in certain localities, remind- ing one of the Bagdad boil, have a bear- ing upon recent medical researches. His descriptions of the parasol ants, Oecodoma, and the manufacture of their fungus gardens remind one of Belt’s historic descriptions. His remarks re- garding the power of insects to locate at a distance the objects of their desires and make straight for them is as inter- esting as anything Maeterlinck has written about the bee. The ichthyologist will find valuable observations in the book on the strange cannibal fishes of the Caura,and laugh at the antics of the alligator disturbed by the explosion of a dynamite cartridge in its particular pool. The rubber experts will read with interest of the forests of a new rubber tree discovered on the Ni- chare, a branch of the Caura, and of the Indian method of tapping the rubber tree in thisregion. Those who know the cu- marin perfume of the Tonka bean will be interested to learn that these forests fur- nish the world with the sweet-smelling bean, and that their collection is a lucra- tive business. The geologist will find enough of interest in André’s descrip- tions of the formations of the rocky can- yous and river bottoms of the Caura and mesa-like mountains to hold his atten- tion. The ornithologist will find de- scribed and pictured in cromolithographs at least two rare gorgeous tropical birds and mention of the habits of many other new species, while those ladies who wear egrets without a thought of where they come from will get from these pages the scolding of an ornithologist for assisting in the extinction of the beautiful trop- ical birds from which at their death the graceful egrets are plucked. The ex- citing part of the book to the average reader, however, begins in chapter XVII with a description of the wrecking in the rapids of the boat containing all the pro- visions, clothes, tools, and note books of the party. From this point on, the center XUM

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GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE Q! of interest changes and fastens upon the hardships of this little band of al- most naked men in their weary marches through the tropical jungle. Without shelter from the tropical rains, with no food but occasional game and wild fruits, with fever-racked and emaciated bodies, and with discontent and mutiny among them, they dragged their way, aided by the remaining small canoe, 200 miles through the forest toward the out- skirts of civilization. Twenty-six days can seem a lifetime and proved to all but six of the party of fourteen their closing days. But it would be a mistake if I were to give the idea that the book is a gloomy account of hardships. On the contrary, it is full of a sparkle of inci- dent and vividness of description that makes it stand out from the common- place of ordinary works of travel and worthy of a place on the same shelf of honor of a naturalist’s library with Darwin’s and Humboldt’s travels, Wal- lace’s ‘‘ Malay Archipelago,’’ and Belt’s ‘Naturalist in Nicaragua.”’ DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1493-1898 T is strange that Messrs Arthur H. Clark Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, have not received better support for their magnificent series of volumes on the Philippine Islands. The history of the islands during the first three centuries after their discovery is buried in letters and manuscripts which were inaccessi- ble until the Clark Co. began their pub- lication under the editorship of Miss Blair and Mr Robertson. As to under- stand the Filipinos we must understand their complex past, the publication is patriotic as well as enterprising in plan. The publishers have issued the follow- ing statement : ‘‘The support accorded our publication, ‘The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898,’ has been so inadequate that we are facing a serious financial loss upon it. We have issued the work faithfully from month to month, and ex- pect to complete it and fulfill our obligation to those who have supported it, even at a loss to ourselves. Thus far less than Ioo sets have been placed. in this country, although a larger number have been placed in the important libraries of Europe, India, Australia, the Far East, and the Philippines. Of the sets in this country nearly all are in public institutions ; the remainder are in large private collections, which are not likely to come into the market for many years, if ever. ‘With much regret we are now compelled to limit the edition to the number of sets act- ually ordered. Beginning with volume 22, to be published February 1, 1905, only enough of each volume will be printed to fill orders re- ceived before that date Of the volumes al- ready issued the excess above the subscribed number will then be destroyed, and the work will never be reprinted. ‘©The series is the only work making these sources available in any language, and its use- fulness and importance to public men, stu- dents, and in large private libraries must in- crease from year to year, particularly when the current volumes cover more recent years and when the index volumes make the sources more easily available. “Our interest in the islands must grow greater year by year because of the complex oriental problem, the conflicting claims of other nations in the Far East, the Chinese problem and race question, both in the South and Far East, the educational and religious situation, the failure of Philippine tariff sys- tems of the last four centuries, the comparison of Spanish, British, and American colonial policies, etc. ‘*This set furnishes the final sources indis- pensable for a proper understanding of these problems. Few subjects are discussed so widely, yet so ignorantly, as matters relating to the Philippines. ‘“Only seven sets exist outside of public in- stitutions, and all free sets for review must be discontinued.”’ BOOKS RECEIVED Along the Nile with General Grant. By Elbert E. Farman. Pp. 339. 8% x 5% inches. New York: The Grafton Press. 1904. Out of the Northland. By Emilie Kip Baker. Pp. 165. 534 x 4% inches. New York: The Macmillan Com- pany. 1904. 25 cents. Select List of Books Relating to the Far East. Compiled under the direction of Appleton Prentiss Clark Griffin.

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Q2 Pp. 73. 103% x 7% inches. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office. 1904. Excursions and Lessons in Home Geog- raphy. By Charles A. McMurry. Pp. 152. 7% x 5% inches. New York: The Macmillan Company. 1904. THe NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Students’ Laboratory of Physical Geog- raphy. By Albert Perry Brigham. Pp. 153. 734 x 5% inches. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1905. The Land of Riddles—Russia of Today. By HugoGanz. Pp.330. 8%x5™% inches. New York: Harper & Bros. 1904. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ruary 3 has been postponed until after the adjournment of Congress, as it is believed that official demands will then permit the Secretary of War to ad- dress the Society on this Subject. HE address on the Philippines previously announced for Feb- POPULAR MEETINGS National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. a ie The Evolution of Rus- sian Government.’’ By Dr Edwin A. Grosvenor, Professor of International Law and Modern Government in Am- herst College. February 3.— February 17.— ‘‘ Manchuria and Korea.’’ By Col. W. S. Schuyler, U.S. A. Illustrated. March 10.—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory. Illustrated. March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize of the Orient and its Relation to the Commerce of the United States.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics. Illustrated. March 3{.—‘‘ From Lexington to Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. EIlls- worth, of the Century Company. Il- lustrated. April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll Weevil.’’ By Dr L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. Illus- trated. April 28.—‘‘ Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National Geographic Society. Illustrated. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS Hubbard Memorial Hall, § p. m. February 10.—General subject, ‘‘ Pro- gress in Animal Husbandry.’’ There will be papers by Mr George M. Rom- mel, Mr G. Fayette Thompson, and others of the Department of Agricul- ture, on the work and plans of the Department for producing distinctive American breeds of Horsés, on the An- gora Goat, the Fat Tailed Sheep, the Barbadoes Woolless Sheep, on the in- troduction of the Bos indicus, etc. February 24.—-General subject, ‘‘ The Botanical Investigations of the Depart- ment of Agriculture.’’ By Mr F. V. Coville, Botanist, and members of his staff. March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by Dr George T. Moore and others on ‘‘ In- oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting Municipal Water Supply Systems,’’ etc. March 17.—General subject, ‘Japan.’’ The Geography of Japan. By Mr Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- nese Legation. The Fisheries of Japan. M. Smith. Agriculture in Japan. G. Fairchild. April 7.—General subject, ‘* Forestry.’’ Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and a paper on Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. Fairchild. By Dr Hugh By Mr David

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Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, North 306 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Hubbard Memorial Hall Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. C. WILLIS L. MOORE ; . ‘ ; President HENRY GANNETT . : . Vice-President JOHN JOY EDSON ‘ : ° . Treasurer O. P. AUSTIN ‘ ‘ ; é : Secretary GILBERT H. GROSVENOR ; . Editor ELIZA R. SCIDMORE . ; Foreign Secretary BOARD OF MANAGERS 1903-1905 1904-1906 4905-1907 O. P. AUSTIN HENRY F. BLOUNT A. GRAHAM BELL CHARLES J. BELL C. M. CHESTER ALFRED H. BROOKS T. C. CHAMBERLIN F. V. COVILLE HENRY GANNETT GSORGE DAVIDSON D. C. GILMAN A. W. GREELY JOHN JOY EDSON S. H. KAUFFMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR G K. GILBERT WILLIS L. MOORE ANGELO HEILPRIN A. J. HENRY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL O. H. TITTMANN C. HART MERRIAM R. D. SALISBURY JOHN M. WILSON The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charg> to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for membership Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary Durs: Annual membership, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be enclosed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance fron. Washington, remit by New York draft or post-office money-order. 190 To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.: PIOUS PPODOBB. 2a scnnnnicndc ccna sco cccccsceeensascnecswecsccassoessesssesecsastae=seeeccsosesnassteeseees NOE bos oe cise ct cick nthcncs cunts s passed dacs didnseGaachensekidauccinesthatibarepabetschiesaceeouene for membership in the Society.

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THE TOWER OF PELEE A SEQUEL TO MONT PELEE AND THE TRAGEDY OF MARTINIQUE Being an account of one of the most remarkable structures of the earth’s surface, with further observations on volcanic phenomena. By Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN A work unique in its field—sumptuously illustrated with 24 folio plates. Small folio, $3.00 net; postage extra MONT PELEE AND THE TRAGEDY 0F MARTINIQUE ‘The most thorough account of the Antillean eruption of last yearthat has yet appeared. . . . The book is indeed one of the best descriptions that we possess of an active episode of a long life of a voleano.”’—Z7he Nation, New York. 8 vo, fully illustrated, $3.00 Publishers J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Philadelphia WE MAKE THE HALFTONE PLATES FOR THIS MAGAZINE GaATCHEL & Mannine ILLUSTRATORS AND ENGRAVERS 27-41 SOUTH SIXTH STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Manhattan Press-Clipping Bureau ARTHUR CASSOT, Proprietor NEW YORK (Knickerbocker Building) LONDON COR. FIFTH AVENUE AND 14TH STREET, NEW YORK Will supply you with all personal reference and clippings on any subject from all the papers and periodicals published here and abroad. Our large staff of readers can gather for you more valuable material on any current subject than you can get in a lifetime. TERMS: 100 clippings . . $ 5.00 250 clippings . . . $ 12.00 500 clippings . . . $22.00 1,000 clippings . . . 35.00. os er XUM

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~~ ee HENRY ROMEIKE'S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS 383 Union Square, New York Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given subject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers, WRITE FOR TERMS Back Volumes OF THE National Geographic Magazine The NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE has on hand a few copies of complete back volumes which may be obtained at the following prices: | WO BeNOR ks. et OR: VOL OB, ape os (ie te Woe Ae8 es ROT ra ig a Vol 6, 18065 os i Wil 9 1806 2. ge VOR 12,1001. Wel, 8490 OO 1 Vol, 48 Age oe ee The NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE will pay the following prices for copies of certain back numbers: Vol. 1, 1889, No. 2, $1.00; No. 4, $1.00. Vol. 2, 1890, No. 2, $1.00. Vol. 4, 1892, No. 1, $0.50; No. 2, $1.50; No. 3, $0.50; No. 4, $0.50; No. 5, $1.00; No. 6, $1.00. Vol. 10, 1899, No. 6, $0.50; Index, $0.50. Vol. 13, 1902, No. 1, $0.30. Hubbard Memorial Hall...Washington, D.C.

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SHIRTS TO ORDER W: TAKE IT that you are particular in dress—that you like your shirts made to special measure with extra careful making and “just right” fit. Such men should know of this store’s facilities for turning out perfect-fitting shirts—should know that we employ the most skilled artists, and that we show at all times a most complete line of white and fancy shirtings and guarantee a perfect fit, assuming the entire loss if shirts are not satisfactory. White Shirts, $1.50 to $3.00, the latter being made of English longcloth. Madras Shirts of fabrics from the looms of the leading Scotch weavers, $3.50 each—cuffs attached or detached. WOODWARD AND LOTHROP New York Washington Paris SPECIAL MAPS PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Map of Manchuria and Korea (36 x 42 inches). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of the Philippines (5 feet 2 inches x 3 feet). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of South Africa (46 x 33 inches). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of Northeastern China (36 x 28 inches). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of Alaska (28 x 24 inches). Prerared under the direction of the U. S. Geological Survey. Map Showing Alaskan Boundary Award (12 x12 inches). Prepared under the direction of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. A Series of Twelve Maps on the Alaskan Boundary Dispute. Prepared under the direction of Hon. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State. Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projection (48x27 inches). Prepared under the direction of the Hydrographic Office. Map of Cuba ($8x7% inches). Prepared under the direction of Robert T. Hill. A Series of Twenty-five Full-page Charts, showing storm tracks and methods of weather forecasting. Prepared under the direction of Dr, Willis L. Moore, Chief U. S. Weather Burean, Panorama of the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska. A remarkable picture, showing scores of lofty peaks in an area as large as the State of Delaware. By Mail for Twenty-five Cents Each. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D, C, PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER (Inc.), WASHINGTON, D. C.