The Mechanic Arts Magazine (April, 1899)
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THE CHANIC ARTS , Nap we Tas Se We CISISADIPAPAE WIIAIISIS ES SEZ =~ EEE <3! ioe STATS z \ \\ q . Wy : / : et wey Cee = . 4, — ay y Aa (\— : Z J Sane. SS Wrinil | 3 4 Dy’ Vek ey nd wy) e airy Sis yj Wy yp. ; a 3 oh A me jj : | afi f bey / Wi i , N XY “a = Hci aN x ay m, yi h ATA i a ee ni aN il 4 1 ‘ , \ 1); I) i) iy) | ‘ J iM | WY "i =a SY — - cet er et ——_ Sie a Ose La ieee ED NT ae ii ty M) } 3 We Wf i | | Ne 7 AB ti! i \' ! GN. f j eT Ihe : e “fh eM INN tie. 4 i fh WMMLALZZ LA Yy he ih ak # ; : SCRANTON. PA.|/47 Fy S eS SS|_OLLQgQ}AAGKY ~ ~ FG = — = y Sw Published Monthly. Copyrighted, 1899, by Taz CoLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. Ca
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ENGINEERING NEWS Established 1874. Published every Thursday. Subscription Price $5 a Year. If you are interested in any branch of Engineering you will find in ‘‘ Engineering News” articles of special interest and value in your particular line of work. You may also find much matter in which you are not so directly concerned. But a general knowledge of what is going on in all branches of engineering practice is most important to every ambitious engineer, and the reading of '* Engineering News”’ gives just this knowledge. The Construction News supplement and the proposal advertisements in ‘‘ Engineering News”’ are read each week by prominent contractors and manufacturers of contractors’ supplies in every part of North America, thus insuring an interest in work reported or advertised in this paper which often results in large savings on contracts. We also publish books on engineering and allied subjects. We have specifications for viaducts and bridges of various kinds, steel roofs, buildings, struc- tural steel, grading and masonry, cross ties, track-lay- ing, dams and reservoirs, wiring for electric light in buildings, etc. A sample copy of ‘‘ Engineering News,’’ or a com- plete list of our books, will be mailed you free if you mention *‘ Mechanic Arts Magazine”’ in your request. The Engineering News Publishing Co., 220 Broadway, New York. There are Some Lelit! Those who want one or more copies of the 50th Anniversary Number of the Scientific American should write for them without delay. - It is practically a beautiful book of reference on the history and growth of Science and the Industrial Arts during the last 50 years. It is profusely illustrated, printed on beautiful paper, and consists of 72 pages. The price is z5c. a copy. It has received high encomiums from the public and flattering editorial notices from more than three thousand contemporaries;-on account of its fine appearance and the rare excellence of its contents. It will be recognized in the future, as it is now, as a standard authority on all scientific subjects concerning the last half century. Sent to any address on receipt of 25c. Address, MUNN & CO., Publishers. 361 Broadway, New York City. An Improved Storage Battery, Light, Enduring and Efficient, Motocycle Batteries a Specialty. Croftan Storage Battery Company, J. K. Pumpelly, Manager, ut 327 Dearborn Street, Chicago, IIf, The Technical Supply Co., - -~ - ASMUGS OBS. - STARRET?’S /) Capacity, One Inch. 293350 See No. 3 SPEEDED-SCREW MICROMETER CABIPER. Measuring by Ten-thousandths. Price, $6.50. Scranton, Pa. Agents Wanted To secure subscriptions for our publications. dress, Manager, Circulation Dept., Ad- THE COLLIERY ENGINEER CO., Scranton, Pa. 4459
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ee ee So THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. "HHH HH HSH HHH HSH HHH HHH HHHHHHSHSHHHHSHSHHSHSHHHHSHHHSHHHHHHHSHSHHHHH HHH HHS K> aoa 4 PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY The Colliery Engineer Company, : T. J. FOSTER, . ‘ . ; : p ; MANAGER AND TREASURER. SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A. t . 7 pcaiet san: J. HAYES, : é ‘ : ; ; a hay . Chief Illustrator. a SOS G. HERBERT FOLLOWS, M. E., EDITOR. : remit to us in P. O. or Express Money Orders, or in ‘Bank Checks, Drafts, or Registered Letters. Money in letters is at sender’s risk. TERMS :—Subscription, $1.00 a year in advance; single numbers, 10 cents. Subscribers may COMMUNICATIONS relating to the Editorial Department of The Mechanic Arts Magazine, ) including questions for answer in the ‘‘ Answers to Inquiries’’ Department, should be addressed ) ** Editor of The Mechanic Arts Magazine, Scranton, Pa.’’ LETTERS relating to Subscriptions or Advertising should be addressed ‘*‘ The Mechanic Arts Magazine, Scranton, Pa.’’ EXPRESS and P. O. Money Orders, Bank Drafts, and Checks —e be made payable to the order of T. J. FOSTER, Treasurer. { yd Content for Apel $899. a ) PAGE. THE ALPHABET, AND THE ART OF LETTERING, Part I, Chas. J. Allen . SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER, Louis Allen Osborne IN THE WORKSHOP, H. Rolfe . SLIDING FRICTION, G. Herbert Follows : e DEVELOPMENTS, OR LAYOUTS, D. C. Rees ) WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELLS, Alex. T. Gibson . oo SUBMARINE MINES, Ernest K. Roden .. . Ae r STEPPING STONES IN THE ART OF COOKING, Ms. Henry isha ) CURRENT TOPICS—TRANSFORMED AFRICA, Part II, Mrs, Frederic R. Honey c lie a ee TRADE NOTES. ... OPiS ERR ee a eee — RE a i ae aa ee 2s yu ps ei a Syl i lt ne oA ayn Iden igtte Nalhe Cine Se Me te Bi ince Pech on EET BG wi Copyrighted by The Colliery Engineer Company, 1899. All rights reserved. Articles must not be republished without permission. K
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Tue MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. VoLIV. APRIL, 1899. No. 3. THE ALPHABET, AND THE ART OF LETTERING. Chas. Jd. Allen. THE ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET—PICTURE WorDS OF THE ANCIENTS—EGYPTIAN HIERO- GLYPHICS—DISADVANTAGES OF THE CHINESE ALPHABET—How To READ. PART I. THE SPHINX AND THE GREAT PYRAMID IN EGYPT. S IT foolish to hope that, when the reader sees the title of this article, he will not turn over the page in search of something more interesting? Of course, if he knows ‘all he cares to about the twenty-six little signs that he learned, when only about ‘‘so high,’’ to repeat from A to Z, it will be natural for him to leave the article alone; but there are so few people who know any- thing whatever about them beyond their mere position in the alphabet, that we ven- ture to hope he will have patience and stay with us for a few minutes, while we endeavor to interest him in their history. No one will deny that the ability to read and write is of vital importance ; and it will be admitted at once that it is absolutely necessary to know what the words, either read or written, mean. Yet there are com- paratively few people who know why a word means what it does. Take the word litho- graph, for instance; how many recognize, every time they speak it, read it, or write it, the two Greek words from which it was derived, namely, lithos, ‘‘a stone,’’ and grapho, ‘‘I write’’? And so with the letters of the alphabet: how many, when looking at the letter a, recognize in it the Greek alpha, and then remember that this was derived from the Hebrew aleph, meaning 6c ox 9 ? It is because we earnestly wish those who Copyrighted, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company.
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98 THE ALPHABET, AND THE ART OF LETTERING. are interested in practical lettering to know , more than merely how to formthe letters that — we begin with a brief account of their origin, not attempting to deal separately with each individual letter, but to tell in a general way of the various stages in. their development, and to show that the letters now used. are’ the result of a slow and gradual growth that began thousands of years ago. Consider for a moment how closely the growth of the alphabet has been connected with every advance in the general intelli- gence of man, until now practically every- thing that is known is written down in one form or another, and that so plainly and by means of so perfect an alphabet that the child may read and understand. Compare this condition of things with that of the ancient Egyptians. If their work had not been left in the form of imperishable monuments of stone—like the pyramids and obelisks—of metal coins, of pottery, and so forth, we would now be in utter ignorance of the early forms of writing, for it is upon them that we find the hieroglyphic records of ancient his- torical events. Fortunately, the inscriptions upon these relics of antiquity are sufficient to form way-marks through the centuries, and to tell us in brief the history of those times. It isa generally accepted fact that writing began with rude pictures of objects, made for the purpose of conveying sequences of ideas, and hence termed ideographs. ‘The word ideograph is derived from the Greek idea, which means the same as it does in English, and grapho, ‘‘I write.’’ The pic- tures used gradually became mere conven- tional signs, and finally the letters of an alphabet. But we are going too fast; the process of development was exceedingly slow. In speaking of the writing of the ancient Egyptians, we have used the word hiero- glyphic ; this is derived from the Greek hieros, ‘*sacred,’’ and gluphein, ‘‘to carve,’’ and means literally ‘‘ sacred carving or writing.”’ The Egyptians used hieroglyphics to repre- sent either objects or sounds, or a combina- tion of both. This led, as will be shown, to the phonetic alphabet now used. The word phonetic is derived from the Greek phonos, ‘‘sound,’’ and means ‘‘representing articu- late sounds, or speech.’’ Here, the various signs have.in themselves no meaning what- ever ; they merely indicate particular artic- ulate sounds—the number of possible combinations of them, and therefore the number of words that it is possible to make with them, being practically infinite. At the present time there is one great | nation that has never advanced beyond the - ideographic -period, and this nation—the Chinese—instead of now possessing a con- densed alphabet, have, by gradually adding character to character, accumulated a stock of over 40,000 different and independent characters, each representing a single sense of a word. To show, by comparison, the advantage of our system: A boy of 12 years in an’ American school reads and writes English with a facility that would take a . student of Chinese twenty-five years to acquire. The changes that gradually transformed the first ideographs to the letters now used were of course very gradual, and the earliest of them we know nothing of; indeed, we are satisfied to carry the reader’s mind no further back than the hieroglyphic period of the Egyptians. There are positively no records, either in the form of inscriptions on monuments or otherwise, to show that any development of the ideographic towards the present system began before the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. This carries us back to the year 1491 B.C.—3,390 years ago— and we must remember that prior to this was the hieroglyphic: period. We are indebted to the Phcenicians—a people that occupied a narrow strip of country northwest of Palestine, bordering on the Mediterranean—for the marvelous developments that finally led to the alpha- bet of today. On account of their maritime knowledge, the Phoenicians advanced beyond the arts of the Egyptians, and gradually developed from ideographs and hieroglyphics certain phonetic signs or letters, the one system drifting almost imperceptibly into the other. For the benefit of those that are not. familiar with ancient history, the mention of a few important events will serve to make this article of more profit and interest. After the exodus of the Israelites in 1491 B.C., we come to an independent alphabet given by the Hebrews; this was followed a few centuries later by the Greek alphabet, as gradually evolved by the Pheenicians. About 540 B.C. the empire of Babylon was estab- lished, and between that time and the beginning of the Christian era there followed the Medo-Persian, Grecian, and Roman empires. During these five centuries the policy of the nations was aggressive, as opposed to the tranquility of what may be termed ‘‘hieroglyphic Egypt,’’ and great changes were made in the forms of writing.
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THE ALPHABET, AND THE ART OF LETTERING. . 99 Through all the changes, however, the permeating influence of the Hebrew is dis- tinctly traceable. The early Hebrew char- acters were rounded—quite different from the present square characters—but the names of the letters were the same as they are now, each letter having a significant meaning. Where we, in our alphabet, have a, ), ¢, d, the Hebrews have aleph (ox), beth (house), gimel (camel), daleth (door); the similarity between the Hebrew and the Greek is very noticeable ; thus, in Greek we have for the above, alpha, beta, gamma, delta; but these, unlike Hebrew, have no significant meaning. It would be impossible in a magazine article like this to show by means of illustrations how various ideographs or _hieroglyphics were gradually changed until they became letters of our alphabet. Indeed, it is not pos- sible to separate and definitely trace to their origin the numerous forms of writing that have existed, people who claim to see posi- tive identity between even the hieroglyphic and the Hebrew characters having to draw largely upon their imagination. One thing, however, we do know: the great change from a language consisting of thousands of . independent picture words, to one having as a complete key a simple alphabet of twenty- six letters, was accomplished, and we, with- out having done anything but take what was ready prepared for us, constantly benefit by it. We have only to look at China to see the fatal consequences of clinging to the ideo- graphic form. And in this connection it is interesting to note in how many ways we do even now make use of ideographic charac- ters; for example, $, £,%, %,=,Y, +,— xX, +, @, are ideographs; so are the three balls over the pawnbrokers, the striped pole by which we know the barber’s shop, the Indian outside the cigar store; so are the flags of the nations, family crests, trade marks—all of them, ideographs. It is as well therefore to hesitate, before we smile at the ignorance of the Egyptians or pity their ina- bility to write in a manner that is at once intelligible to us. Their language is one of words, ours is one of letters; and therein lies the secret of our ability to flash a eable message telling those in the western hemi- sphere news of the Orient, so that we may read of an event in the morning paper at an earlier hour in the solar day than that of its actual occurrence; it is these letters that make it possible for the mere tick of a key and sounder to be translated into words and sentences, and thus into a message that the whole world may partake of simultaneously. One thing every one should guard against, and that is, looking upon words as mere signs or pictures, and forgetting the importance of the syllables and letters. Every word has a derivation, a history ; a few derivations have been given here. It should be the aim of every man to know the meaning of every word he uses or reads, not simply ‘‘by heart’’—that is, from memory—but intelli- gently. Read what John Ruskin says in his famous lecture on books and how to read them: ‘‘And, therefore, first of all, I tell you, earnestly and authoritatively (I know I am right in this), you must get into the habit of looking intensely at words, and assuring yourself of their meaning, syllable by sylla- ble—nay, letter by letter. For though it is only by reason of the opposition of letters in the function of signs, to sounds in function of signs, that the study of books is called ‘literature,’ and that a man versed in it is called, by the consent of nations, a man of letters instead of a man of books or of words, you may yet connect with that acci- dental nomenclature this real principle—that you might read all the books in the British Museum (if you could live long enough), and remain an utterly ‘illiterate,’ and unedu- cated person; but that if you read ten pages of a good book, letter by letter—that is to say, with real accuracy—you are for ever- more in some measure an educated person. The entire difference between education and non-education (as regards the mere intel- lectual part of it) consists in this accuracy.” A CASAR AUGUSTUS PENNY BELONGING TO THE WRITER.
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SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER. Louis Allen Osborne. THe ACCURACY OF THE CYCLOMETER AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT—METHOD oF TAKING Notges—LANDMARKS—PLoTTING THE Map From THE NOTrTEss. T IS probably safe to say that, as an edu- cator, no machine ever invented has equaled the bicycle. Men, women, and even children have become amateur mechan- ics on a small scale through their efforts to effect temporary roadside repairs or adjust the bearings of their wheels; while the farmer, impressed with the reports of the several cyclists who daily ‘pass his house, has finally come to acknowledge that even his method of reckoning dis- tances does not produce’ such uniform results as the cyclometer. yy NN 79) CE Of the hundreds of x(K)/ thousands of bicyclists, whether they ride for recre- ation or from necessity, there is not one who is not interested in the distance he travels, and in the grade and material of the road. To that extent, therefore, all may be said to become students in geography, sur- veying, and geology. For long rides through un- known territory, road maps and explicit directions are necessary ; the grade and quality of the road will determine the time required to complete the journey, while the geological char- acter of the districts trav- eled will materially affect the condition of the roads during extremely dry weather and after heavy rains. For instance, in a sandy dis- trict, after a week of dry weather, bicy- cling is decidedly hard work ; but two hours after a rain the same roads are in the best of condition. On the other hand, a clayey road is slippery, soft, and often unridable, immediately after a rain, but remains as hard as a pavement throughout the dry sea- son. Ordinary loam roads lie between these, being unridable both in rainy and extremely eK i) jy Ye hy i Wier dry weather, but excellent in ordinary weather. All of these may be considered as geological details that are of interest to the wheelman as a surveyor, and important to him as a tourist. : Unfortunately for the traveler, road maps do not, as a rule, give all this information, and far too often they lead the rider off the track by being inaccurate in scale and dis- tance. These inaccuracies are due to errors % ZR IAG ; Lay AN Gy IONS OO —————= | za WZ Za BZ : \\ My ass SS C7) \) 7 Y 4, ) - = Zz he AY WY g Wit}z$pis Vy a one Cm ZZ YAU (7) 0 i" 0) awe of different surveyors and draftsmen in ma- king their surveys and plotting their plans, and can be easily corrected if the importance of the work demands it, which, as a rule, it does not. Now, every man who rides a bicycle, and has attached to it a cyclometer that registers the distance traveled, possesses sufficient instruments to measure and lay out a map of the country over which he travels, and thus, should he so desire, to make a surveyor of himself. 100
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SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER. True, this map will not be sufficiently accurate to serve as a guide in laying out farm lands, but its distances expressed from town to town will be far more accurate than the traditions preserved among the farmers them- selves. Fig. 1 is a map of a portion of Luzerne County, Pa.; it was made from the United States Topographical Survey, and is as accurate as possible in every respect. Such a map, although it costs an enormous sum to produce, and though complete in every detail, is almost useless as a prac: tical road map, because its network of roads and cross-roads and contour lines causes as much confusion as assistance. Besides this, there is no way of telling the number of miles from one place to another without considerable scaling, while information as to the quality of the road is entirely lack- ing. The chief commendation for this style of map, then, is its accuracy. In Fig. 2 is shown a map of the road from the city of Wilkes-Barre, Pa., to Shawnese Lake, drawn from notes and measurements made with no other instruments than a bicycle and a cyclometer. A comparison of this road between Wilkes-Barre and Dallas, with that shown on the map in Fig. 1, will illustrate the degree of accuracy such a survey may attain; and, for all practical purposes, the map shown in Fig. 2 is just as good and in many ways better than the government sur- vey. Besides, Fig. 2 is more up to date than Fig. 1, as it was made four years after the government survey, and could as a matter of fact be measured, noted, and completed before a survey such as shown in Fig. 1 could be measured around the first square “mile. Now let us consider the method of pro- cedure by which the bicyclist may become a surveyor and thereby able to convert the results of each trip over a new road into a permanent record for future use. In the first place, a word about the cyclometer and its value as a surveying instrument: A cyclometer is not what mathematicians would call an instrument of precision, like the transit, the level, or even the surveyor’s compass. It will record with an error of about 1 per cent. when working at its best, and under certain circumstances the error will be increased to 3 per cent. This error is due to the relation between the diameter of the bicycle wheel and the number of revolutions which will cause the cyclometer to record 1 mile. The usual cyclometer, designed for a 28-inch wheel, requires 720 revolutions of the wheel of the bicycle to 101 cause it to record 1 mile; but, owing to the deflation of the tire and the weight of therider, the wheel may be but 27.5 inches in effective diameter, and the cyclometer will record 1.019 miles for each mile ridden, or 101.9 miles for each 100 miles traveled. In addition to this error, the bicycle actually travels farther than the true length of the road itself, owing to the fact that the rider con- tinually crosses and recrosses the road in SHAWNESE LAKE Ty Sign Board on Tree F1aG. 2. order to select the best parts for cycling, and this error, varying as it does according to the character of the road, will amount to about 2 or 3 per cent. more. Therefore, before we start on our survey, we will assume that our cyclometer measurements will all be 5 per cent. in excess of the actual distances traveled. If the bicycle surveyor be an experienced rider, his map may be so plotted that grades and conditions of road may be readily expressed, and other
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102 information never found on thé most accu- rate of maps may be added as a guide to the future traveler. The method pursued in this work is some- what similar to that followed by the army in making military surveys. Odometers attached to the wheels of wagons or other vehicles, pedometers carried in the pockets of marching soldiers, and even cyclometers on bicycles are used at the present time to make surveys of roads and territory for the use of a moving army. In practical work the signal corps and surveyors move one or more days in advance of the army, survey the roads and surrounding country, leaving with or sending to the commanding officer in the rear a reconnaissance map of same. In some instances it has been desirable that the field telephone and telegraph, laid by the signal corps as they march, should be used to com- municate the survey notes back to headquar- ters, where._a preliminary map is plotted. Thus, in military surveying, it will appear that the notes must be extremely simple, and the method of taking them rapid and positive. The method of bicyele surveying here explained is simpler than even military work, as from the former is eliminated entirely the use of surveying instruments, such as the compass, sextant, hand level, ete., which military surveyors depend upon extensively. The notes in this work are simpler, as they appertain almost exclusively to road surveying, while the military map must show other details, such as farm lands, grain fields, orchards, cattle houses, poultry yards, etc., to furnish information of value to foragers, which would not be required by the tourist. The next detail to consider is the note book. This should be long and narrow, with two parallel lines ruled down the center of the page to represent the road. Stenographers’ note books serve the purpose admirably ; these are about 43 inches wide and 8 inches long, and are ruled across the page with lines about 4 inch apart; the two parallel lines down the center of each page can be rtled with either pencil or pen, and the book is then ready for the trip. A piece of board, the same size as the book, should be secured to the handle bars, and the book laid on and bound fast with rubber bands. A bicycle watch on the handle bar is also a great convenience, but by no means a necessity. The arrangement will now look somewhat as in Fig. 3. At a is the cyclometer, the record of which should be easily read by SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER. leaning over the handle bars; at 6 is the note book, and at c is the watch, which will act as a check on the cyclometer and grade notes. Now, we will assume that the bicyclist is out on a trip with a number of other enthusiasts, and, therefore, will be unable to stop and make any individual measurements of the roads and landmarks which he passes. All notes must be made awheel, and information recorded without slackening speed. Before he starts, the register of the cyclometer is observed, and written on the lowest line of the note book and is found to be 2,388.8 miles, as shown ~ ="THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. FIia. 3. in Fig. 4. In recording subsequent cyclom- eter readings it will not be necessary to note the thousands and hundreds of miles, excep when these figures change. ee The surveyor starts out through the main street of Wilkes-Barre, and as he crosses the river he notes ‘that his cyclometer reads 2,389.05 miles, and on the second line from the bottom he marks this record, as shown in Fig. 4, and at the same time draws two wavy lines across the road to indicate that it was while crossing the river that he recorded this reading. Soon he arrives at the Kingston cross-roads, and there turns to the right; his.cyclometer reading is recorded as 90.24, and, branching: from the right of the central column of his note book, he indicates the road he takes with an arrowhead as shown, while on the left he shows a similar cross- road with no arrow. Observe, also, that his note book does not show this cross-road as
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SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER. 108 branching at a right angle from the road he is traveling, but is drawn according to his judgment, at about the angle it actually makes. On the opposite side of the road, on the corner, is an old tavern, and he marks a rectangle to indicate it in his notes as shown. Village streets branch from the main road through Kingston, and these’ he indicates as he passes as shown in the notes at cyclometer readings 90.39 and 90.44. At 90.99 he arrives at the village of Dorrance, takes the left branch, and rides straightaway to 91.85—in the village of Luzerne—where he takes the left branch for a little way and then at 92.25 the road itself turns slightly to the right. This indication of a bend in the road is made simply by drawing, in the central column, two straight lines, intersecting at about the angle of the bend of the road, as shown in Fig.4. In general practice, slight bends in either direction are not considered ; but, where a bend or a branch of the road is but a trifle less or a trifle more than a right angle, this shortage or excess should be indi- cated by a plus or minus sign, as shown on the branches at Kingston and Dorrance 90.24 and 90.99. At 92.70 the road bends to the left, and at 92.80 it turns to the right, while at 93 it turns at right angles as indicated. At 94.15 the road forks, and the tourist takes the right fork, as indicated by the arrow. Soon he crosses a stream, as indicated by the wavy line at 94.58, and +4, of a mile beyond he passes through Truckville, and takes the right fork of the road out of that village. At 96.72 there is a branch road back and to the left, which the rider takes. At 97.93 there isa similar branch road to the left, and at 98.10 there is a branch road to the right in the village of Dallas. We have only considered here the dis- tances and the roads, while on the left of the note book are a number of entries of land- marks that give additional value to the directions when used by some one else than the original surveyor. The cross-hatched line at 92.25 indicates that there is a railroad crossing there. At Mill Hollow is shown a small rectangle to the right of the road, while marginal notes on the left of the page indicate what stands in the place so marked. The time of arrival at and departure from different places, as marked on the left of the page, is also of value, as showing the general character of the roads traversed. For instance, from Wilkes-Barre to Kingston, a distance of 14 miles, covered in 7 minutes, indicates a good piece of fairly level road, and the same may be said:of the stretch PO BE ee ee 9444. Sey S ny. map -- == =~ = SOLE LE BY Seed naa Cbd FoF 2 tr paar papad gins “Style ects |. | pombe eas ied 3 od fa987 Shecaddim he ee i oie nets ssc ai A wa edn ‘a Se si nd nw de tom ions tn ogc De AGF ch 2222.2 eiaia Wee a ee ae Mii Risa Wilke (Learn; 5 : +. PY. Short Court Sprare- Wre;.4: ie
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104 from Kingston to Luzerne ; but the distance from Luzerne to Ice Cave, 24 miles, required 35 minutes, which, together with the fact that a rest of 15 minutes was taken at Ice Cave, would indicate a rough road traveled. The circles with dots in the center indicate the position of the sun, at various points on the road, so that, with the notes regard- ing the time of arrival at different stations, a fair idea of the points of a compass may be obtained. At the start the ¢ sun was directly behind and ~ shining down the street at 9:30 in the morning, which would indicate that the road ran northwest and southeast. From Kingston to Luzerne the sun was on the right, while, before taking the right fork beyond Truckville, the sun was on the left. At Dallas, where stop was made for dinner between noon and 1 o’clock, the sun was in the direction shown by the circle and arrow, which may be con- sidered as due south. Other - details of the notes will be con- sidered during the explanation of the plotting of the map. As a usual thing it is desir- able that the bicyclist surveyor SURVEYING WITH BICYCLE AND CYCLOMETER. continue the right branch until it measures 3 miles from the beginning. This takes us to the village of Dorrance, which is marked in our notes as 90.99, where we turn to the left at an angle slightly in excess of a right angle, as indicated by the plus mark, and plot our road to 91.85; here the road forks to the left, and we continue through Mill Hollow, a small settlement that evidently takes its name from an old mill on the right of the road, as indicated by the notes. Here the road crosses a small stream, turns to the right, and at station 93 takes a sharp turn at right angles to the left, which, with a subsequent half turn to the left, and two half turns to the right, brings us to another small settlement called Ice Cave, 94.15. About 2 miles oe from here, after crossing a Josaze SMall creek, we arrive at (L- Truckville, indicating the creek by a wavy line, and then plot the road to Dallas. G235 The creek may now be con- ones oyeere tinued parallel to and on the pe gees right side of the road and up pee er to 95.68, where it crosses the road to the left side, but recrosses and returns almost should travel homeward by 9458 Mase immediately. When the another road, so as to continue ais J15446 cross-road at Dallas is plotted, his notes and make his round particular attention must be trip a complete survey without 9362 ll 0352 given to its direction, as, repetition; but we will not rig according to the indicated concern ourselves with the brainy position of the sun in the return trip at present, but | notes, this road should run proceed to plot our map from mys north and south, and any his notes here given. eS errors in the previous lines A scale of 1 inch to the mile should here be corrected. is a good size for practical ae SS The rest of the road up to — purposes, and we will proceed the lake is similarly plotted on this scale to draw a map. and the road around the lake It is apparent from our notes i sketched in; then the lake that the road from Wilkes- WY aay hale itself may be drawn, as the Barre to Kingston, 14 miles ates : road extends along its border in length, is practically straight ; therefore, we measure off 14 inches on our drawing paper and lay off this piece of road, marking in small numbers the beginning of it as 2,388.8 and the end of it 90.24, as shown in Fig. 5. Somewhat more than 4 mile out, we cross the Sus- quehanna River; therefore, at 89.05 we draw the river crossing the road at right angles. At station 90.24 we indicate the road branching to the right and left, and and is governed largely by the ~ outline of the lake itself. Thus, a complete and satisfactory survey of the road may be plotted in an hour, from notes which were taken without the slightest loss of time on the trip. Subsequent trips and similar sur- veys of other roads in the vicinity, when plotted, will be found to fit in one with another, and thereby make a most satisfac- tory map, as shown in Fig. 2. The bicyclist is rendered more observing by work of this
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IN THE WORKSHOP. character, he sees every detail, he notes every bend in the road, and in a short time he unconsciously searches for some land- mark by which he can identify a certain piece of road, either for his own or some one else’s use. In making notes on a trip, it is always wise to assume a certain definite angle which will indicate a bend in the road. Where.a road crosses or changes its direc- tion at right angles to the course pursued by the rider, the record is not difficult; and even where the deviation or crossing is at an angle of 45°, there is little chance of error ; but for angles between these it requires a trained eye to judge them with accuracy, and they should be recorded as 45° or 90° turns, according to which they are nearer to; but a slight deviation from a right angle should be indicated where such exists, and a plus or minus sign marked, in order that the figures may plot more satisfactorily. Always note everything possible. On aroad map, a land- mark is often more important than roadbed or distances. At every cross-road, fork, or abrupt turn, identify alandmark. This may consist of an ‘‘ old tree,’’ a ‘‘church,”’ a ‘‘red barn,’’ a ‘‘stone mill,”’ or any object which may in a few words be described as a monu- ment tolocate a particular point inthe survey. Always show streams of water when they run parallel to or across the road, and indi- cate which way they flow, for such details give information as to the grade. Where a 105 . road is through a thick wood, indicate the fact, as such a road is seldom ridable after heavy rains, and is usually in good condition when other roads are dry and sandy. Be sure to show springs, water troughs, etc., as they serve as resting places where refresh- ments may be taken, and at the same time act: as landmarks to assure the traveler that he is on the right road according to his map and directions. The complete bicycle survey of this road, as far as recorded in our notes, is shown between a and b in Fig. 2, together with other surveys made of neighboring roads. Note the location of streams and connections from streams of one survey to similar ones in the next, thus completing these little waterways and showing the grades of the locality. All of this may seem a great deal to do when a man is on a plea- sure trip, and, to a certain extent, it is; but it gives him educational as well as recrea- tional benefits from the trip, and he is putting his efforts to practical use. Inaride of 18 miles it certainly will not require much effort to make two or three note-book entries each mile, when the book is strapped in front ready to receive them, and yet that is about what the entries average in the accompany- ing illustration. Let the scheme once be tried, and, after an honest effort at making a bicycle survey, few men will give up the work, as it possesses a fascination second only to bicycling itself. IN» THE WORKSHOP. (Continued from the March, 1899, Number.) H. Rolfe. REMEDIES FOR A SLIPPING BELT—CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEeLTING—Hair Versus FLESH SrIpE oF LEATHER—UNSTEADY RUNNING—TAKING UP FOR STRETCH. 66 E WERE talking the other day,”’’ said Tom (continuing the conver- sation recorded in our last), ‘‘about wrought-iron pulleys whose rims were in bad shape. I should think that, where a rim was hollow or where its diameter was greater on one side than on the other, the pulley might be made serviceable by gluing around it a piece of leather, of such width and thickness as to correct the error in the rim itself; after the glue has set, the leather could be pared down so as to have the proper profile.’’ ‘*Well,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘in a case like that, always figure the cost first ; if you think it will pay, why, do it; if not, get another pulley. Where a rim is exactly the right shape, a leather covering, to increase the driving power, is all well and good; other- wise, it’s a botch job; and as a general rule the most economical thing to do—in the long run—is to put up a new pulley.”’ ‘* Yes, sir, I guess that’s so. By the way, about cleaning and caring for belts: you promised to give me some pointers in that direction.”’
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106 ‘* Well, I’m glad to see you haven’t for- gotten it, for there’s lamentable waste in some shops through neglect in that direction. A belt, after being in use for a time, acquires a hard, smooth surface. Then, naturally, it begins to slip, which makes the surface worse. Then the man in charge tightens it up. The improvement, if there is any, is only tempo- rary; so, very soon, more tightening is resorted to. But this tightening of the belt means more pull on the bearings—both when working and also when running on the loose pulley, and this means a waste of power and. oil—an especially unnecessary waste when the belt is on the loose pulley ; it would be a good thing, in fact, if the’tension could then be released altogether.”’ ‘* Why not make the loose pulley a trifle smaller in diameter than the fast one?’”’ ‘* Well,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘as a matter of fact, that is done on some jobs. You will find an instance on the traveling’ crane in the erect- ing shop. The belt pulleys for traveling, cross-traversing, and hoisting are arranged in that way. The loose pulleys are all 16 inches in diameter ; while the belt is on one of them, it is comparatively slack ; the fast pulleys are 16} inches in diameter, and are beveled down on the inner edge, 80 that the belt shifter has no difficulty in sliding the belt on to the larger pulley, where it imme- diately becomes taut enough to take hold of its load.”’ | ‘* But don’t you think it’s a bad thing for the belt itself to vary the strain on it in that way? Wouldn’t it last longer if kept at the same tension all the time? Take the case of a fiddle string: it doesn’t do to let that down every time you stop playing. I hap- pen to know that, because my brother, who tortures the catgut under the impression that he’s making music, used to slack his E string down before putting the instrument away for the night, and soon found that the next time he played he was sure to have trouble trying to keep that string up to con- cert pitch. The only way to make it hold its note was to keep it right up to pitch all the time.’’ ‘That may be so,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘but a fiddle string isn’t a leather belt; we don’t want to keep a belt in tune; the object is to make it last as long as possible, and I’ll bet dollars to doughnuts that a leather belt will last longer if slacked off when not in use. This might or might not be so if there was merely a straight pull throughout the length of the belt; it is the continual bending and unbending around the pulley that wears the IN THE WORKSHOP. belt out, and the less the pull the less this bending effect ; in any case, however, there is a saving in oil, and less wear on the bearings. But we are getting away from the subject. I was speaking of the very bad practice of continually tightening up a belt to make it do its work. Now, instead of doing this, you should take the belt itself in hand, and restore its proper surface. Any belt, after being in use for a certain length of time, will get smooth and hard. Wait till shutting- down time on Saturday afternoon; then wash the belt well. Use warm water, with a little soda, and let it soak well into the surface of the belt. You’ll find that the dirt and stuff will come off readily enough, and leave the surface of the belt clean. Let it dry thoroughly, and on Monday morning, before starting up again, give it a good coat of dubbing. Belts that run in warm places, such as engine rooms, will naturally get dry sooner than others, and will be all the better for a coat of dubbing every three or four months. Dubbing to a dry belt is like water to a parched soil. Sometimes you are bothered with oi/ on a belt ; maybe the cup on a loose pulley leaks and lets the oil down the arms on to the rim ; or it works out of a bearing and travels along the shaft and so reaches the pulley. Dynamo tenders could weep with you on this score. A dose of powdered chalk will mend matters; don’t put it on with a shovel, though ; keep it in a tin can that has half a dozen holes punched in the lid. ‘‘Tt always pays to look after belts, — especially those that have continuous hard work to do. About every eight or nine months, give every belt a coating of dubbing, and then put on two or three coats of boiled linseed oil. The dubbing preserves the leather, and keeps it soft and pliable; the oil oxidizes and forms a gummy surface on the belt—a sticky, clammy surface which holds on to the pulley in great shape. You can easily picture to yourself how such a surface lies down upon and clings to the face of the pulley, coming in close contact every- where, like a boy’s leather sucker on a brick.”’ ‘Talking of surfaces, what is your opinion, sir, about running the belt with its hair side against the pulley, instead of the flesh side?’’ ‘*Well,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘it always seems to me wrong to run the hair, or grain, side next to the pulley. It’s working against nature. If you take a piece of leather and bend it first one way and then the other, you will find that it bends much more easily when the flesh side is inwards, and it is perfectly
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IN THE WORKSHOP. natural that it should, too, for that is how it had to bend when it was on the cow. No, I’m talking seriously. Take a thin strip of leather, and stretch it forcibly ; then lay it down on the bench and watch it; soon you will see it begin to curl up with the flesh side inwards. All this points to the pro- priety of running the flesh side next the pulley, so that the continual bending shall be in the direction that is natural to the leather itself.’’ ‘‘That seems plausible enough,’’ said Tom, ‘‘but I’ve heard that the driving power is greatest with the hair side next the pulley— - as much as 30 per cent. more, some say.’’ ‘‘ Well, perhaps so, but I can’t see where the extra holding power of the hair side comes in, unless, being smoother and more even, the contact is more perfect. But the tensile strength of the belt is reduced by bending it against the grain. Then again, by a proper use of dubbing and boiled linseed oil, as already explained, the flesh side can be very much improved ; the treat- ment ‘kinder’ fills up the cracks and uneven places, and produces an A-1 surface. Anyway, whatever else you may do, keep the resin keg under lock and key and have a savage dog alongside to guard it.””. = “All right, sir,’ said Tom, laughing at his foreman’s emphatic utterance. ‘‘ By the way,’ he went on, ‘‘I was in the North- works the other night—they were working overtime—and I noticed that the main dri- ving belt in the turnery ran very unsteadily ; the slack side had a kind of wavy motion, up and down. Whatdo you suppose caused it to run like that?”’ 3 ‘*Well,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘there are, in the main, two things that will cause it: the engine doing irregular work ; and the off-take of power from the driven shaft being uneven. We'll take the engine first: If one side of the piston is getting more steam than the other, impulses will be generated that will give the flywheel an uneven speed—unless the wheel is heavy enough to counteract the tendency—and this ‘snatching’ action will be communicated to the main shaft, and so cause the belt to undulate on the slack side, ’ and sometimes, if severe enough, on the tight side too. | ‘Then, with regard to the driven shaft, if this is belted up to a machine that takes the power off at successive intervals instead of continuously—as, for instance, when dri- ving a circular cold saw where the saw is out of true and cuts during only a part of each revolution—the belt will soon begin to undu-- late, and the only way to prevent it is to true up the saw.’’ ‘‘T see. But with regard to the engine, why is one end of the cylinder allowed to do more work than the other?’”’ ‘‘Itshouldn’t be. But getting more steam doesn’t necessarily mean doing more work, unless it’s the front end of the cylinder that getsit. You see, the crank-side of the piston has less effective area than the front, owing to the presence of the piston rod. Now, by an unhappy coincidence, it is this very side that gets the least steam, owing to the fact that the action of the connecting and eccen- tric rods effects an earlier cut-off at the crank-end, the piston’s motion being slower and the valve’s quicker than at the front end. This can be, and of course is, remedied by the valve setter; in fact I always used to give a little more steam at the crank end to make up for the piston rod’s being there— a proceeding doubly necessary in a vertical engine, where the moving parts have to be lifted every time. ‘*But there is still another thing that will cause a belt to undulate, and that is an unbalanced pulley. A pulley should be perfectly balanced before it is put up, other- wise, in attempting to rotate around its own center of gravity, it will cause the shaft to wabble and the belt to run unsteadily.”’ ‘* How about the stretch of belts, sir? Our belt tender says that it doesn’t matter who you get them from, they all need frequent taking up for the first month or two.”’ ‘*'Yes,’’ said Blunt, ‘‘they’re all alike in that respect. A leather belt that won’t stretch is about as great a rarity as an all- wool shirt that won’t shrink. The fact is, the only way to stretch a belt is to run it on pulleys and do work with it; so, whatever the makers may say about the belt being ‘non-stretchable,’ you must expect to have to take it up after two or three days’ run- ning, and then at intervals for the next few months. Link belts are particularly . bad offenders in this respect ; you see, every one of the numerous pins ‘sets’ a little in its link, under the pull, the aggregate amount being considerable. In an 80-foot link belt, you will be lucky if, during the first two weeks, you don’t have to take out at least a foot of stretch. There’s one thing, though, it’s easier to shorten a link belt than an ordi- nary one, which again goes to prove that ‘there’s a bright side to everything,’ even to a leather belt.’’ ( To be Continued. ) 107 .
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SLIDING FRICTION. G. Herbert Follows. A CONSIDERATION OF THE WELL-KNown Laws WuHicH GOVERN RESISTANCE DUE TO SLIDING FrictrioN—How To Usg A CoEFFICIENT OF FRICTION. RESS. together the palms of your hands, then try to slide one palm over the other. ‘You find that before sliding begins you have to overcome a resistance, and that the more forcibly you press them together the greater the resistance is. As every one knows, this resistance is called friction. To distinguish this particular kind of friction from others—such as rolling fric- tion—it is called sliding friction. The purpose of this article is to point out in a practical manner the influence that sliding friction has on the design and efficiency of machinery. There are few books on ma- chine design that do not describe some kind of winch, or crab, as an example in leverage. Fig. 1 is taken from a well-known text- book in which it is explained that the leverage obtained by the combination of crank, gears, and drum shown is 150, and that, therefore, ‘‘ neglecting friction,”’ a force of 10 pounds applied at the crank will raise a load of 1,500 pounds suspended from the hook. Now this is quite true, and, as an example of what leverage does for us in machin- ery, it is excellent. Unfortu- nately, however, many beginners find this part of their studies far too easy, and pass over, as of but slight importance, that little clause © ‘‘neglecting friction.’’ Later on, they read that friction varies directly as the pressure between, and is independent of the areas of, the surfaces in contact, and so on—getting possibly a fair idea of what a coefficient of friction is, and then passing on to other studies. But the time comes when the young stu- dent is engaged as a draftsman, and is asked to ‘‘put some figures’”’ on, say, a hoisting mechanism. Then he refers with feelings of diffidence to his Nystrom, Haswell, Traut- wine, or Kent, for a coefficient of friction ; and then—to use a little slang, he gets ‘‘ all THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE Fig. 1. balled up.’’ Some of the figures that have been put on hoisting mechanisms are truly wonderful in their simplicity. Here is a _ favorite way of calculating the lifting capac- ity of the winch shown in Fig. 1. Neglect- ing friction, 10 pounds at the crank-handle will raise 1,500 at the hook; coefficient of friction for steel on cast iron—taken from a table in one of the note books aforesaid—.10 ; loss by friction, 1,500 & .10 = 150 pounds ; actual lifting capacity, 1,500 — 150 = 1,350 pounds ; whereas, in all probability, 10 pounds at the crank-handle wil] not raise morethan 1,000 pounds. But we shall return to this prob- lem later ; there are many things we must understand before we can hope to solve the problem correctly. First of all it is necessary to know just what the laws already referred to mean; because, although the laws, as stated, are true, they are frequently misun- derstood and misapplied. Here, a few very simple experiments will help: In Fig. 2, a is acast- iron block; p is a cord, by means of which, and through the spring balance s, the block may be dragged about over the | cast-iron surface m. The weight of a is 10 pounds, and the con- dition of the surfaces in contact is supposed to be such that a force of 1 pound—as indicated by the spring balance— is just enough to overcome the frictional resistance and thus to move the block in the direction of the pull. In Fig. 3, there is the same apparatus, but a block b, also weighing 10 pounds, has been placed on top of a; it is now found that a force of 2 pounds is just enough to move the blocks. Thus, doubling the pressure: between the surfaces in contact doubles the frictional resistance. In Fig. 4, another 10-pound block has been added, and, as indicated by the spring balance, the fric- tional resistance then becomes 3 pounds. In 108
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SLIDING FRICTION. other words, trebling the pressure between the surfaces trebles the frictional resistance. This direct relation between the pressure and the friction is the meaning of the first of the laws under consideration, which is: Friction varies directly as the pressure between the surfaces in contact. The second law is: Friction is independent of the areas of the surfaces in contact. A mis- apprehension of what this law means has led many a good draftsman into trouble, and the reader is therefore asked to follow with care what is said about it. When describing the experiments repre- sented in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, no mention was 109 causes it. Thus, in the first experiment the resistance is 1 pound; the pressure that causes it is 10 pounds, and the coefficient is 75 = .10; in the second experiment (the surfaces in contact being the same, the coeffi- cient should be the same), the resistance is 2 pounds; the pressure that causes it is 20 — pounds, and the coefficient is .24,—.10, as before. A coefficient is used in the following manner: If the pressure between two sur- faces is 500 pounds, and we know that for those surfaces the coefficient of friction is .07, we ascertain the frictional resistance by multiplying the pressure by the coefficient, and we get 500 .07 = 35 pounds. Coeffi- Fig. 4. made of the area of the surfaces in contact ; this was because the point then under con- sideration had to do merely with pressure and resistance. Throughout ‘the experi- ments, the block remained resting upon its two narrow feet, and evidently the size of these feet had nothing whatever to do with the three results obtained. But suppose we turn the block over, so that it rests on its large flat surface, as in Fig. 5; what then? Well, if the smoothness of the large surface now in contact with m is exactly the same - as the smoothness of the two feet, the force. required to move the block will be precisely the same as it was before. And that is what the second law means; but we have not finished with it yet. Before going further, however, something had better be said about coefficients. A coefficient of friction is the ratio between a frictional resistance and the pressure that FIG. 7. cients of friction are found by experiment, -and cannot be determined in any other way. To return, now, to the second law: An experiment with the 10-pound blocks b and c is represented in Fig. 6; the pulling cord is attached to b, and c is placed on top of 0; but ¢c is restrained, in the manner shown, so that it cannot move in the direction of the pull on b. The condition of the surfaces in contact is supposed to be the same as before; the coefficient of friction, then, is .10. Bearing the second. law in mind, what fractional resistance will there be? Well, it might at first sight be supposed that, as the total pressure on m is 20 pounds, the resistance would be 20 * .10 = 2 pounds. But the spring balance indicates 3 pounds; and it is right, for the following reason: There are two distinct and separate resistances, because there are two distinct and separate pairs of surfaces in contact, namely, bottom surface
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110 of b with m, and top surface of b with c. Between the first of these pairs, b and m, there is a pressure of 20 pounds; this pres- sure produces a resistance of 20 « .10 = 2 pounds. Between the second pair, b and ec, there is a pressure of 10 pounds, which pro- duces a resistance of 10 « .10 1 pound. It is the sum of these two amounts that con- stitutes the total resistance, and this equals 2+ 1=83 pounds, which agrees with the spring balance. In Fig. 7 a similar but still more striking experiment is illustrated. There are the same 10-pound blocks b and «, both of which, however, are prevented from moving in the direction of the pull; between them is a sheet of tin d, supposedly so thin as to have noappreciable weight. The coeffi- cient of friction is again taken at .10. What force will it require to slide d in the direction DEVELOPMENTS, OR LA YOUTS. of the pull? It might at first be supposed that, as the pressure between b and ¢ is but 10 pounds, the resistance would be 10 .10 =1 pound; but the spring balance indicates 2 pounds, before the sheet of tin begins to move. The explanation is the same as before. There are two separate pairs of sur- faces in contact, namely, top of d with bottom of c, and bottom of d with top of b. Between each of these pairs there is a pressure of 10 pounds, thus producing two separate resist- ances of 1 pound each, or a total resistance of 2 pounds. This multiplication of the pairs of surfaces in contact must on no account be confused with the areas of the surfaces that are in contact; the experiments already performed prove that they are two very different things. ( To be Concluded. ) DEVELOPMENTS, OR LAYOUTS. ( Continued from March, 1899, Number.) D. C. Reuseh. FurRTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE OF ROLLING, WHEN MaAkin@ Layouts oF CURVED SuRFACES—THE AcTUAL GEOMETRICAL LAYOUT OF A CARDBOARD LAMP SHADE. O OBTAIN the layout of the curved sur- - face of the cone in Fig. 7, we proceed in a manner similar to that already explained in connection with Fig. 5; that is, we place the cone so that the diameter a6 is vertical, and imagine it rolled until the other end of the diameter reaches the paper. It is evident that, while rolling, the cone describes part of a circle around the center c; the THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia. 7. dimensions of the surface thus rolled over are easily obtained ; with radius ac or bc, draw upon the paper a circular arc ba, and make the length of it equal to halfthe circumference of the base of the cone; then draw straight lines from the ends of this arc to the center c. The surface thus outlined is the layout of one-half of the curved surface of the cone, and the other half is obtained by simply repeating the operation on the opposite side of the center line bc. We see then that, so long as we have to do with symmetrical bodies from which no parts have been removed, it is quite easy to make all necessary constructions and cal- culations, and thus to obtain layouts of their surfaces. But when a body is no longer symmetrical, when certain parts of it have been cut away, the necessary constructions seem rather difficult. In reality, however, they are quite as simple—though, it is true, a little more extended than before—and if the principles explained in reference to Fig. 6 are fully understood, no serious diffi- culty will be experienced. In Fig. 8 we have an example of this kind—a cylindrical pipe from which certain parts have been cut away, the openings left being clearly marked abb,a, and a,b, b, a, in (c). As shown at (0b), the distances Gd, A My, A, 4,, and a, a, are all alike, being each equal to one-eighth of the circumference of the pipe. To make the layout, we proceed at first as if the pipe were complete, and find the points a and ¢ on the paper which the cylinder, if rolled, would mark out. Then we draw lines Pa,c,, a), etc. at distances apart equal to those on the cylinder. (The
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DEVELOPMENTS, OR LAYOUTS. reader will here note that when, in what follows, a measurement or string of measure- ments is prefixed by the letter P, as in the last sentence, it means ‘‘on the paper’’; similarly, when a measurement is prefixed This will by A, it means ‘‘on the body.”’ FI4. 8. save the constant repetition of explanatory clauses.) Referring to Fig. 8 (a), the lines bb, and 6, bs, being in line with each other, constitute parts of the circle 6 b,; and this circle will roll along the line Pb}, (c), and the intersections of this line with Pac, a, ¢, etc. locate the points P b, b,, b., etc., and thus give the outlines of the openings Pabb, a, and My by bs a3, completing the layout. In Fig. 9,at (a) and (c), are shown a side and a perspective view of a piece of pipe that is intended to be joined at right angles toa similiar-one. It is desired to outline a pattern from which a pipe of this form and size may be made; to do this we again use the _ principles explained with reference to Fig. 6. We select a certain num- ber of equidistant points around the slanting end b/,, and find the position of these points on - the plane of the paper over which the pipe is supposed to roll; this is done in the following manner: Describe, as at (b), a circle representing the end view of the pipe ; divide this into any convenient number of equal parts—say eight—and project the points of division to the slanting end of the cylinder, as shown in (b), thus obtaining the lines af, af), a fo, etc., cutting the edge b, f, at certain points bc, d,e,f,. Proceeding now THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. 111 as ifthe pipe werecomplete: If, through each , of these points, we imagine a circle, as } },, CG, etc., and then imagine the pipe rolled over the paper as before, these circles will imprint on the paper lines b l,, cc, etc., as shown at (c); then all that remains to be found is the location of the points in question on these lines. The point A b in (ce) can lie nowhere else than at b on line Pa/f; point A c,, being the point. of intersection of line A a,f, and circle cc,, must also be the point of inter- section of Pa, f,and P cc, and so on; in this man- ner the points Pb c¢, d, és f,, are located. The curved line passing through these | points completes one-half of the required layout; the other half is a counter- part on the opposite side of the center line. The layout of the curved surface of a cone that has been cut away as shown in Fig. 10 at (a) and (c), is obtained in a similar man- ner, and it should not be necessary to repeat the explanations. It is perhaps as well to point out, however, that the distances between the construction circles, as between aa,andcc,, in(a), must bemeasuredalong the slanting surface, and not along the axis; the reason for this is evident. If the cone rests with line be, in contact with the paper, the distances along this line only should be considered ; confusion is thus avoided. The distance P ac between the circular curves P aa and cc, must therefore correspond
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112 with A a,c, of (a) and not with a,c,. In ‘other respects, Fig. 10 is self-explanatory. In Fig. 11 is shown the construction by which the layout of the curved surface of a ‘cone with a slanting base is obtained. The reader should find no difficulty in following the method employed; the only practical difference between this and the layout of the pipe of Fig. 9 is that with the cone the con- struction circles roll along circular arcs Paa,, etc., instead of along straight lines. So far, the various layouts and construc- tions described have been illustrated with the aid of perspective drawings, the idea having been to represent the subject in a manner intelligible to all. To those who are not familiar with both perspective and mechan- ical drawing, it may not be quite clear, as yet, how an actual constructive drawing should be made; for this reason it isdeemed advisable to take one more ex- ample, and in it to show the whole construction as it would be made in practice. Supposing it is required to construct a lamp shade of tin or paper, and of the form shown at (a), Fig. 12. We consider this shade as a truncated cone—that is, as a cone with its top cut off. It will be noticed that the base is not at right angles to the. axis. We begin by drawing a side view of the shade, as at (6), indicating by dotted lines the outline of the complete cone, — and ascertaining by actual measurement the dimensions that, in addition to those given, are required to make the layout. In previous examples we have in every case drawn a complete end view of the solid under consideration ; in actual constructive work this is not absolutely necessary; a DEVELOPMENTS, OR LAYOUTS. half-end view is sufficient, its sole purpose being to enable the draftsman to locate, by projection upon the side view, lines dividing the surface to be developed into the required number of equal or proportional parts. In the present case, then, we describe a semi- circle on the base of the cone and divide it into the required number of equal parts—say four—thus ob- taining points g,9.93;. By the projection of these points to the base gg,, points A g,9.g3 are located, which must. then be connected to the apex a by means of lines a9, @g., 9s. These lines, it will be noticed, cut the edge cg, in points d,, é, and f;; in order to locate these points on the layout we make use of circles passing through them, namely cc, dd,, ee, ff,. As, at the commencement of the imaginary process of roll- ing, the cone is supposed to rest on the line ab,g,, the correct distances between these circles must be measured upon this line. The actual layout is shown at (c), Fig. 12, and it is made in the following manner: Draw a vertical line aa,—a line in any other direction would, of course, answer the purpose, but when drawing with instruments it is best to make a center line either vertical or horizontal—and set off upon it the length of the side A ag,, namely 16 inches. Then, with compasses, describe the arc g,a,; this arc, being the path of the circle A gg,, marks the extreme limit of the conical surface. As the cone is supposed to have made half a revolution by the time the point A g reaches the paper, the length P gg, must equal half the circumference of a = at the circle A gg, or
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WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELLS. inches ; this length, then, must be measured along the arc g,a,, thus locating the point Pg; joining ag, we obtain the limiting edge. Now divide the arc P gg, into the same number of equal parts as at the beginning we divided the half circle gg, in view (0), and join a with points P g, 9.9; by means of straight lines, as shown; these lines corre- spond with lines sim- ilarly named in view (b). We now pro- ceed to construct the paths of the circles A bb,, cy, etc. It is evident from what has already been demon- strated that these cir- cles will all roll along circular paths around the point a in (c), so that it is only neces- sary to draw circular arcs of the proper radii with point a as center. The circle A bb, will roll along a circular arc of 4 inches radius, which are, therefore, in (c), outlines the upper edge P6b,. The other radii may be taken direct from view (5), and thus the ares P cq, dd, €é,, ff,, in view (c), obtained. We have now done all that is necessary to enable us to outline one-half of the lamp- shade layout; thus, point A c, being located in line A ag, and also upon the circle A cc, 113 [see view (b)], must lie on corresponding lines in view (c), and must therefore be the point where these lines intersect, namely Pc; point Ad, in (a) is on the circle dd,- where it is intersected by the line ag,; therefore, on the layout it is the point of intersection of the corresponding circular arc dd, and the line ag,, in other words, at d, ; inasimilar man- ner, the two remain- ing points e, and f, are located. The curved line passing through these points, namely the line cd,e,f3 9, completes the layout of one-half of the shade, and when this is repeated on the other side of the cen- ter line aa,, the com- plete layout has been made. Other examples might be given, to show that the princi- ples laid down in the first part of this article are applicable in a general way, but enough has perhaps been said to prove that the man whothoroughly grasps the idea of unroll- ing the surface to’ be developed is in a position to make any ordinary workshop layout ; a little knowledge of geometry is, of course, necessary, but this can be readily acquired. WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELLS. Alex. T. Gibson. THE ARTESIAN WELL AS A SOURCE OF WHOLESOME WATER SupPpLy—How Ir Is DriItuep AND LINED WirH Steet Pree—THE MACHINERY AND Toots EMPLOYED. T IS a well-known fact that Nature does not furnish us with pure water. The pure article can be obtained only by distillation. But distilled water is absolutely unknown to most people, and would not be relished even if generally supplied, for the reason that the constant use of water con- taining iron, lime, and other minerals, as well as vegetable and animal matter, in suspension and solution, has so accustomed our palates to the taste of ordinary impure drinking water that, in comparison, the pure water would seem flat and insipid. It is perhaps hardly necessary to state that no water can be purer than the source from which it flows, and that there is a vast dif- ference between the clear cold spring or Artesian-well water and the discolored liquid, called water, that is either pumped, or falls by gravity, from some lake or stream —itself in many cases the trunk line for the sewage of cities and villages thereon, and
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114 heavily charged with animal and vegetable matter and germs of all kinds; or, what is little better, and often worse, water from . dug or shallow wells or water holes—worse, because such water is stagnant and therefore not as well aerated as that which flows from lake or stream. Either kind, however, is apt to be warm in summer—unless ice, which is generally impure, is used to cool it—and discolored at all times—unless filtered, which seldom removes the harmful impurities. The subject of water supply is so broad and far reaching, and so vitally affects every- thing and every condition on this planet, that it can be classed with, or at any rate ranked as next in importance to, the sun and the atmosphere ; and it would be pos- sible to write volumes upon it. But our friend the editor draws the line at a few thousand words and also asks that this article be confined to one branch of the subject—namely, the Artesian well. Even this branch, however, if treated in detail, would fill THe Mercuanic Arts MAGAZINE several times over, so we will endeavor to be as concise as possible. The Artesian well, which derives its name from the province of Artois, in France, was used in both Mexico and China, centuries ago ; indeed, it is known that the Aztecs of Mexico devised systems of water supply that in some respects rival any now in existence. Some Artesian wells flow, that is, deliver the water to and above the surface, while others deliver to within a few feet of the sur- face; but all, when properly made, furnish a good supply of far better water than the majority of mankind is familiar with, and effectually shut off all surface water. A study of the death rate statistics of the large cities of this or any other land discovers a large proportion of deaths directly trace- able to the drinking of water that is unfit for . either man or live stock, even though it is drawn from a nickelplated faucet, and even though it is filtered and iced before being drunk. 3 The appearance and taste of water tell us very little about it; so we have to trust to the good faith of the great water companies. There will, we hope, come a time when the golden rule will prevail, when we shall cease to ‘‘do’’ others because we fear they are endeavoring to ‘‘do’’ us, when every man will understand the laws of health, and when every American citizen will think for himself, vote for himself, be intelligent, healthy, and free, and cease to be in any way a slave. Then, and not until then, will we WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELIS. get cheap and good water, and every other good thing we need. The drilled hole which constitutes the Artesian well is the same, and is made with practically the same machinery and tools, whether it is drilled for water, oil, or mineral, or merely as a test hole for the foundation of a building. The only real difference is in the size and strength of the outfit, or ‘‘rig,”’ as the well-contractour’s plant is called. At the present time a test hole is being drilled in Pittsburg, Pa., which is to be 10,000 feet deep. Do you realize what that means? For a distance of nearly two miles a hole is to be driven through earth and rock! Think of the temperature that workmen would have to endure, and the cost and trouble of making such a hole by ordinary digging and blasting ! There are many first-class Artesian wells that are only from 25 to 75 feet deep ; for many parts of this country 50 to 60 feet would be a very fair average. Such wells are completed in from 1 to 10 days, and cost from $25 to $200, according to the formation to be drilled through. A fair average cost for wells to supply from 100 to 500 people would be from $100 to $150. Think of going on from year to year paying the water rent ‘you do, when your whole neighborhood, farm, or factory could be supplied free— once the small first cost of the well itself is paid for—with nature’s best and purest brew. Or, if you are a farmer or live in an out-of-the-way village, think of the unneces- sary suffering and loss the lack of a plentiful water supply costs you yearly. This good water—not surface water—is to be found at a depth of probably less than 100 feet below the surface of your land. ‘*'Yes,’’ I hear some of you say, ‘‘ but we will have to pump it!’’ Did you ever get something for nothing? You want water on the upper floors of your buildings. Right you are. An up-to-date man should have modern conveniences; we improve by adopting improvements. The water com- pany you now patronize has either to pump the water for you, or to locate its reservoirs at such an elevation—often several miles from the center of distribution—that the ‘*head,’’ or pressure, obtained is sufficient to raise the water the desired height. But the men who constitute the water company are not in business for their health alone, nor from any personal interest in your health, and, considering the quality of the water they supply, they make you pay more than your share of the cost of constructing and
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WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELLS. maintaining the pumping plant or reservoirs and pipe lines. Why not get back to first principles and do for yourself—by means of the Artesian well—what you have hitherto been hiring some one else to do for you? You can do it both better and more cheaply. And if, after you personally, or together with your neighbors, have had an Artesian well drilled, it does not deliver the water high enough for you, put up a windmill to do the pumping; or, if you prefer it, use a gasoline engine or any one of the sev- eral pumping engines that are to be found on the market. Some one asks, ‘Will the water always be cold and soft?’’ For average depths, the tempera- ture the year round will be about 45° Fah- renheit, and you will save the ice bill, and be saved from the ice impurities. If you are a farmer, packer, brewer, hotel owner, shipper of milk, or a member of any one of the many trades where good cool water is an essential, this point alone will pay you hundreds of dollars yearly. As to soft- ness, if it does not come from lime or similar rock, it will be as soft as you could wish. Comparatively few Artesian wells are hard ; but, if you live in a limestone coun- try, most of the water you get will be hard, no matter what source of supply you may use. In many parts of the world, flowing wells are sure at depths of from 50 to 500 feet. In other sections, Artesian wells that flow over the top with any great pressure are rare, though nearly all sections have some examples. Buta good supply that will rise Fie. 1. 115 to within a reasonable distance of the top is now an assured fact the world over. If you have an old dug well that goes dry at times or furnishes a poor supply of poor water, have a 6-inch iron pipe put in the bottom, and drill down until you shut off the surface water and get a supply that is fit to drink. Most dry wells are simply catch- basins for surface water and other im- purities, includingrats, cats, and so forth. A few dollars paid to the chemist for an analysis of your water supply will be well invested and may save the time and expense of a funeral. Many Artesian wells are in use today on the Sahara desert. Oil and gas wells are from 500 to 4,000 feet deep, and cost from $3 to $10 per foot. There is an Artesian well in Seneca County, N. Y., that flows 1,000,000 gallons of water a day. Several in Dakota and other sections flow 4-inch to 8-inch streams with a surface pressure of 150 pounds per square inch, and furnish power to elec- tric-light and power stations, etc., and the water is used for culi- nary purposes and also for irrigation. In one town in Ida- . ho, hot Artesian water is piped through the streets and used for warming the build- ings. Thereisawellin California so capped that the water flows from it in the form of an umbrella 40 feet in diameter. The writer was present at the drilling of a well in Fifth Avenue, New York City, that cuts through 2,400 feet of solid rock, and supplies 700 people with water for all purposes. In our new territory, the Hawaiian Islands, irrigation by Artesian wells is now quite common, and in the AIDST TLE or S ~ :
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116 borough of Brooklyn, N. Y., more than 1,000,000 people are supplied with a total of 50,000,000 gallons a day from Artesian wells. Many small cities and villages have water works that are supplied exclusively by Artesian wells. California: has over 2,500 flowing wells, each of which irrigates on an average 1 square mile of land, or 640 acres. In the same state there is one man who owns 42 such wells. He bought desert land for $1 an acre, drilled wells, planted oranges, raisins, and other fruit, irrigated the land, and now sells it at from $200 to $500 per acre. Did it ever before occur to you what a blessing the Artesian well is to humanity ? The Mormon Church, in Utah, have over 2,000 of these wells, 700 of which flow. In Nevada, at altitudes of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea, there are 67 wells, each of which flows from 60,000 to 100,000 gallons daily. New York City has hundreds of them, and it is estimated that they save $1,000,000 in water rents yearly. While the Artesian well, in its crude form, was made centuries ago, it is only during the past twenty-five years that, by reason of improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel pipes and machinery, it has become a prominent factor in the civilization of the world. The first oil well in the United States was drilled in 1859 near Titusville, Pa., by Colonel E. S. Drake. Since then, well drilling and the manufacture of machinery and pipe for it has been a large and grow- ing industry. — Those who have never made a study of geology can learn much from a practical study of Artesian well-drilling, and not only LY \ about water ‘supply, but N about other riches that Nature has in store under our feet—riches that man by his skill and intelligence is so rapidly developing. Regarding the manner of drilling, and themachinery and tools used in the pro- duction of the Artesian well, something will now be said. In most parts of the world there are from a few feet to several thousand feet of earth on top of the various strata of rock. This earth also lies in layers, or strata, of varying thicknesses. Many of the _ best wells find their supply in water gravel ; others find theirs in rock. The drilling \ SS THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia. 2. WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELLS. machine, as shown in Fig. 1, is placed over the spot where the well will be most con- venient. It will be readily understood that drilling a hole through, it may be, several thousand feet of earth and rock is a very different thing from drilling through a piece of wood or iron. In the latter case the drill Fie. 3. is caused to rotate and the wood or metal is removed by asharp cutting edge. In drill- ing into the earth the form of the tool and the manner in which it is operated depend largely upon the formation to be drilled through ; but for artesian wells the percussive method is almost invariably employed. In this, the drilling tool, or bit, hangs from a hawser-laid rope 1 inch to 2 inches in diam- eter (see Fig. 2) and is alternately raised and let fall, so as to strike a series of sharp blows, and the hole drilled is lined with steel or iron pipe. To cause the flat bit (see Fig. 5) to drill a round hole, the rope is twisted from right to left and from left to right, a dozen or more turns each way ; as it gradually untwists, it rotates the bit step by step, so that the bottom of the hole, while drilling is in progress, is somewhat as shown in Fig. 3, in which the direction of rotation is indicated by the arrows d ande. To hold the bit, to help guide it, to add to the force of its blows, and to release it when from any cause it gets stuck in the hole, there are strung above it certain tools which, with the bit, are known as the ‘‘string’’; this con- sists of rope socket, jars, sinker bar, and bit, put together in the order named. In Fig. 4 is shown a good form of rope socket, by which the rope is very securely gripped ; in another kind the rope is held by rivets passing through it. Thejars are shown in Fig. 6; they are not usually put on until rock is reached; their duty is to prevent loss of the tools when from any cause they become wedged in the hole; the two parts, a and }b in the figure,
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‘ best size for ordinary water wells. WATER SUPPLY, AND ARTESIAN WELIS. _ are linked together like the links of a chain ; if the bit becomes jammed, a few inches of rope are let off the reel, causing the jars to hang loose ; when the engine is started, the two parts come together with a ‘‘jar,’’ hence the name of the tool, and quickly free the bit. Sometimes a loose piece of rock will fall in from the side of the hole, and thus wedge the tools; or, a newly-dressed bit—slightly larger than the worn one it replaced—gets jammed ; the jars will then free the tools where a steady pull would often completely fail. This points to the advisability of not using a bit too long. The sinker bar (see Fig. 7) is added for holes that are more than a few hundred feet deep, the additional weight being then necessary because the very long column of water through which the tools have to drop retards their speed and reduces the force of the blows. Every so often, as drilling progresses, it is necessary to clean out the hole; for this purpose the sand pump (see Fig. 8) is used. Thestring of tools being hauled out, the pump is lowered until it strikes the bottom of the hole; in the act of striking, the pipe falls around the projecting end and raises the valve, and some drillings enter the pipe ; this operation is repeated by simply lifting and dropping the pump until full, when it is taken out and emptied ; on ‘ its way out of the well, the weight of the contents keeps the valve closed ; when it reaches the top, a man detaches it and carries it to a convenient place for emptying, where he sets it on end—valve down— and allows the weight of the pipe to open the valve and the contents to discharge them- selves. By means of alternate drilling, driving, and sand pumping, length after length of pipe is forced into the earth, until the re- quired amount and quality of water is found, or until bed rock is reached. The pipe used is from 4 inches to 24 inches in diameter—6-inch being the This pipe, either of iron or steel, is made in 18- to 20-foot lengths, The several lengths are SSS Y, Uj screwed together as they are driven into the earth. It is made in various weights, the manufacturers furnishing} whatever weight is ordered ; 6-inch pipe weighs from 10 to 30 pounds a foot, according to its thickness. Water is poured into the pipe as drilling and ARTS MAGAZINE. Fic. 6. Fie. 5. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. driving progress, and the drill, which weighs from 300 to 4,000 pounds, is raised by the engine, and allowed to drop, 30 to 80 times a minute. The drill crushes and grinds earth and rock into powder, of which the water makes mud and slush, which is periodically pumped out by the sand pump, as already fully described. As the hole is deepened, more pipe is screwed on and driven, either by a driving maul weighing several hundred pounds or by the string of tools. If the latter method is adopted, the tools are let down into the pipe for a few feet, and a clamp screwed to them so as to strike ona drive cap on top of the pipe; as the tools are very heavy, and are raised and dropped many times a minute, they drive the pipe very rapidly, sometimes at the rate of from 25 to 100 feet a day, depending on the forma- tion driven through. There is a heavy steel shoe on the bottom length of pipe to prevent stones and boulders from crushing it in. Sometimes the drill works ahead of the pipe and makes a hole for it to follow in—that is, if the formation will stand up; at other times the pipe is driven first and afterwards drilled out; the driller must use his judgment about this and many other matters. If satisfactory water is not found before ADF *:.
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118 rock is reached, the pipe is driven hard to make a tight joint with the rock and thus shut off surface water, and the drilling is continued in the rock, and no more pipe used, the rock forming the wall of the well, if the latter is not more than a few hundred feet deep. The water thus obtained is from the veins or seams in the rock. Each driller carries with him a complete blacksmith outfit, and he usually has plenty of use for it. The string of tools is from 15 to 50 feet long, and weighs, as already men- tioned, from 300 to 4,000 pounds ; the vari- ous tools are screwed together so well that it is very seldom they come unscrewed in the hole. When a bit wears, say, 7 to $ of an inch smaller, the tools are drawn out of the well by the engine, and the bit is unscrewed by heavy tool wrenches that weigh from 50 to several hundred pounds each ; another bit, which, while the drilling has been going on, the blacksmith has dressed to full size and proper shape, is put on, the hole sand- pumped, the tools lowered back into posi- SUBMARINE MINES. tion, and the drilling continued. The hole should be kept as nearly as possible the same diameter from top to bottom, and per- fectly straight and plumb. When the proper quality and quantity of water is found, the well is tested by means of the sand pump or by a power or steam pump or ejector; then, if all is satisfactory, it only remains to place the necessary pump- ing apparatus, that is, in case the well does not flow. The speed of drilling varies from a few inches to sometimes 50 or more feet a day, according to the nature and hardness of the formation. In conclusion, it is only just to say that for the illustrations accompanying this article the writer is indebted to the Keystone Driller Co., Beaver Falls, Pa., who are probably the best known manufacturers of well machin- ery. To any one who wishes to more fully investigate this subject, the company would no doubt send their catalogue, which con- tains some important as well as interesting details. , SUBMARINE MINES. Ernest K. Roden. Wry THE SUBMARINE MINE Is A Necessity IN MopERN NAVAL WARFARE—CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION oF Mines—THE CAMERA OBSCURA AS AN OBSERVATION TOWER. EFORE the days of steam power, when a warship attacking a fort was more or less at the mercy of winds and currents, experience proved that one gun ashore was more effective than many afloat. But the introduc- tion of the screw propeller, fol- lowed later by that of armor- plating and big guns mounted on speedy vessels, wrought great and radical changes in this direction, for it left a hostile fleet free, under cover of dark- ness or fog, to move swiftly past shore batteries, and anchor securely in positions from where their fire could destroy the adja- cent city or compel the pay- ment of an enormous ransom. Furthermore, the enemy’s ships—under better control, less vulnerable, and _pos- sessed of much higher speed than formerly _—were to be encountered by guns more THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fig. 1. unwieldy and, in most of the harbors, due to the naturally contracted sites available for shore batteries, much smaller in numbers than those afloat. The defense thus found itself at a great dis- advantage, and as a_ conse- quence the attention of military engineers was urgently directed to the devising of some means of holding the enemy under fire and depriving him of the com- parative immunity resulting from high speed, and so restor- ing to the defense its lost superiority. This vitally important object has been accomplished by the modern -submarine mine, the destructive power of which has made it an essential auxiliary of the land gun. In a judicious system of harbor defense these mines are indeed indispensable, for, while the guns are necessary to develop
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SUBMARINE MINES. the full power of the mines, the latter are no less essential as a protection for the guns. Thus, submarine mines are invariably defended by heavy guns placed in batteries secure against landing parties ; otherwise, the enemy’s small boats could creep for them or else clear a passage through them by exploding so-called countermines. Submarine mines were extensively used by the Confederates during the Civil War, and Germany made good use of them during the Franco-Prussian war in keeping the French fleet from bombarding her ports. Since those times, however, and especially recently, great improvements have been made in the mechanisms employed, and the introduc- tion of high explosives, such as dynamite and guncotton, instead of gun- powder, has immensely in- creased their power and de- structive range. The simplest form of mine is represented in Fig. 1; this is .the contact mine. - YpjZz It consists main- ' ly of an iron case ¢ which. is “= connected by a -s:= cable 6 to the » sinker s, the lat- ter being of suffi- cient weight to hold the mine in place. The case c, in which the explosive charge is stored, is provided with a number of _ project- ing points p, each of which is armed with a firing pin. If any one of these firing pins is struck by a passing vessel, it will be driven in, exploding a percussion cap and causing the charge to burst. The distance below the surface of the water at which the mine is suspended must be so arranged that it is not too near the surface when the tide is low, nor at too great a depth when the tide is high. An immersion of at least 8 feet is necessary to cause the charge to explode with sufficient force to destroy a modern battle-ship ; hence this should be the depth of the mine at low water. between high tide and low tide is very great, it may not be possible to make the contact Fig. 2.—EXPLOSION OF A GROUND MINE. If the difference . 119 mine effective for all conditions; this is a defect, to remedy which numerous devices have been suggested, the main idea being to automatically increase or diminish the length of the attached cable as the tide rises and falls, thus keeping the mine at a constant distance below the surface. In its simple form, the contact mine is dangerous to friend as well as to foe, and, if it gets adrift, it may sink a harmless mer- chant ship; the only reasons for its use, then, are its simplicity and the fact that it can be improvised at short notice. It is evident that the efficiency of this mine will be greatly reduced by a strong current, for it may be forced down so far as to be rendered useless. Where the currents are rapid, there- fore, and in nar- row channels, these mines are usually placed on the bottom, and are then called ground mines—a class which we will describe later. Nowadays, electricity is the chief igniting agent used in submarine war- = fare, because it enables the ob- structed chan- nels to be safely traversed by friendly vessels. The electro-con- tact mine is con- structed on the same gen- eral principles as the contact mine, but some of the weaknesses of the latter are absent. When one of the firing pins is driven in, instead of exploding a percussion cap, it simply closes a break in an electric circuit that passes through the charge, and this does not necessarily explode the charge, for the following reason: There is an electric cable leading from the charge to the sinker, or anchor, and thence to a’station on shore ; at this station there is another break in the circuit, and, unless this latter break has previously been closed, the driving in of the firing pin will not explode the mine. Herein is an element of safety to friendly ships. When no enemy is in sight, and friendly ships are passing in and out, the break at From Photograph.
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120 the shore station is left open, so that if a mine is struck it will not explode. Thus, a vessel chased by an enemy’s cruiser could pass over the mines with absolute safety, while to the pursuer they would at once become deadly engines of destruction. In these mines the firing pins are fitted with springs, which cause them to return to their proper positions in case they are accidentally —=— = wiles ity) 4, = GA solidi, Qh LAPS THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia. 3. driven in. In addition to this ingenious con-. trivance, many devices have been invented and adopted which add to the efficiency of the mines, and most of them are perfect little marvels of ingenuity and delicate mechanism. But there is an improvement on both the contact and the electro-contact mines, which is now used whenever the conditions make it possible. This is the observation mine. Here, the mine and the firing mechanism are in separate cases ; there is a contact buoy containing the firing pins, which is placed a few feet below the surface of the water and connected by a cable to the mine itself, which is several feet below the buoy, the whole being attached to an anchor. An electric cable connects the mine with the shore station and there are, for each mine, two distinct and separate electric circuits, one for signaling and the other for firing. Whenever a firing pin of the contact buoy is touched, the signaling circuit is closed, and this either rings a bell or displays an electric light at the shore station. Under each bell or signal light, whichever it may be, is a key for closing the corresponding firing circuit. When one of the bells rings, the observer at the keyboard in the shore station knows that the buoy above the corresponding mine has been struck, and he immedi- ately touches the key below that bell and thus closes the firing circuit and causes the mine to explode. The shore station should be underground, and large enough to allow the operator to be comfortably seated within SUBMARINE MINES. ° easy reach of the firing battery and key. If possible, the station should be hidden from view with bushes or whatever vegetation may grow around ; if in barren ground, the roof should be painted as nearly as possible the same color as the surrounding soil. These precautions are very important, since a single well-aimed shell from an enemy that discovers the station will render a whole mine field useless. Observation mines are usually placed in groups of from four to seven, as shown in Fig. 3. The groups are placed in two or more lines, so that a ship which happens to pass between the groups of one line will surely pass over the mines in the next line; and the mines are anchored at a sufficient dis- tance apart to prevent the shock from the explosion of one from causing the adjoining mine to explode. When the depth of water is considerable, or the current very swift, the mines hitherto described cannot be used, and the ground mine is resorted to. This mine simply rests on the bottom, and must be quite heavy ; and the greater the depth of the water, the greater amount of explosives will have to be used. For instance, a depth of 65 feet will call for a charge of 1,200 pounds of gun- cotton—equivalent in explosive power to about 4,800 pounds of ordinary powder. The method of firing a ground mine is very simple and ingenious. Two observers are usually employed to determine when the hostile ship is directly over the mine. The Wy . : os, TW, aw a were SSO Me pea SMO DEE AE ¥ SSE —— SOS ZG — TNS — ne Sat) , ~ BD me N SS Fig. 4. two shore stations, o and 0’ in Fig. 4, and the mine m are all in the same electrical circuit, being connected by a cable in which . are two circuit breaks, one at each station. These two breaks must be closed simul- taneously, or the mine will not explode. Each observer has a telescope fixed on a vertical pivot which permits it to swing toward any point on the horizon, and each telescope is so arranged that when j
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SUBMARINE MINES. 121 pointing directly towards the mine the break at the electrical circuit at that station will be closed. The observers, therefore, simply keep their telescopes pointing toward the advancing ship; then, if the enemy passes over the mine, both telescopes will at the same instant be pointing toward him and also toward the mine; this will cause both breaks in the firing circuits to be simul- taneously closed, and the mine will explode under the ship. This would be the case with the ship at b in Fig. 4, provided she keeps her course, while the ships at a and c will not pass over the mine.. With ships a and c, then, the two circuit breaks will never be closed at the same time, and the mine will not be exploded. This very simple but location of each mine, and in addition put down the number corresponding to it. This complied with, a boat was rowed in a circle around the spot where each mine had dis- appeared, to indicate its zone of destruc- tiveness, and the man in the tower, watching the moving image of the boat, traced a cor- responding little circle upon the table. In this manner a picture, or map, of the harbor was obtained, upon which were small num- bered circles indicating the location and number of each mine. Inside the tower and within easy reach of the observer were electrical wires leading to the several mines. During an attack, the duty of the observer was to watch the approaching fleet as ‘ reflected on the camera table, and, as soon Fie. 5. ingenious system prevents a valuable ground mine from being needlessly exploded. During the defense of Venice in 1859, ground mines exclusively were used. The Austrians, who at the time had possession of the city, decided to plant mines in the har- bor and in the channel leading to it, to pre- vent the Italian fleet from entering; their method of exploding the mines is illustrated in Fig. 5. A camera obscura was placed at a convenient spot overlooking the harbor, in such a position that the mirror m reflected the view through the lens ee’ upon a large white table 7’; in this manner every move- ment of any vessel in the harbor was ren- dered plainly visible to the officer within. The mines were now sunk, while an observer in the camera tower made a pencil mark, indicating upon the table the exact as he saw a vessel come within one of the little circles, to at once explode the corre- sponding mine by closing the circuit in the wire leading to it. Of course, this optical system could be used in the daytime only, unless at night the harbor was well illumin- ated with electric light. In many forts that guard the entrance toa harbor, the guns are mounted in such a manner that they cannot be trained upon the inner harbor, so that a ship that has succeeded in penetrating to this inner har- bor would be practically free to use her guns, and cause what damage she wished upon the rear and flanks of the forts. Such harbors are generally supplied with ground mines containing enormous charges of explosives, for the purpose of reducing the intruder to fragments. .
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122 SUBMARINE MINES. The explosives now most commonly used in submarine mines are guncotton, dynamite, and explosive gelatine. These are superior to gunpowder, not only because their destructive power is, weight for weight, from four to six times as great, but because they are not seriously affected by moisture; in other words, a leak in the case containing the charge will not render it useless, as it would if gunpowder were used. The pres- sure necessary to blow a hole through the bottom of a modern battle-ship has been estimated to be from 6,000 to 10,000 pounds per square inch. To find the approximate distance at which a given charge of high explosive will be fatal to a ship’s bottom, the rough rule is to divide the weight of the charge in pounds by 10; this gives the distance in feet at which the charge will destroy a double bottom—sup- posing the charge to be well immersed. Thus, 500 pounds of, say, explosive gelatine would prove fatal at a distance of about 50 feet. In practice, however, this distance is considered the maximum, and a less rangeis expected. - Even where the explosion of the mine fails to blow a hole through the ship’s bottom, the shock may cause serious damage by throwing delicate machinery out of action, injuring electrical appliances, or stopping the ship’s engines, thus placing her in a position of much danger. Again, the tre- mendous concussion may cause the detona- tion of high explosives within the ship, resulting in her complete destruction. It is an interesting fact that every explo- sive is most sensitive to one particular kind of shock or vibration; that is to say, a shock or vibration that will cause the explo- sion of one charge will not necessarily cause the explosion of any other; but if that explosive is subjected to that shock—even though comparatively light—it will be very liable to explode. It is therefore of para- mount importance, on board a man-o’-war, to store the high explosives where they will be free from shocks or violent vibrations ; and it is equally important that the defend- ers cause such violent vibrations as to render the invader harmless. In connection with the history of sub- marine mines, there are many records of bravery and heroism. During the Civil War, the Confederates were particularly clever in the use of mines for obstructing channels and rivers ; and during the struggle no less than twenty-five ships of war fell prey to them, in addition to the many that were more or less injured by them. How Admiral Porter took his squadron safely through a field of mines by the adoption of a clever ruse is a matter of history so well known as to need but passing mention. The admiral well knew that the river was ‘‘ planted,”’ but the exact location of the mines he, of course, did not know. So he built a dummy monitor, of wood, taking great pains to make it look as much like a real monitor as possi- ble.- This done, he ordered the whole squad- ron to advance in single column, with the dummy at its head. As soon as the impro- vised craft reached the mines, the latter were exploded and the dummy blown to pieces, while the rest of the. squadron passed on without the least injury. In our recent war with Spain, Admiral Dewey, in command of the Asiatic squadron of the United States Navy, made himself famous’ by running over a mine field and attacking the Spanish warships at their anchorage in Manila Bay. Truly this was a risky undertaking, to enter a comparatively unknown harbor that he knew to be planted with mines, and it proved the admiral’s fighting quality ; for, however brave a man may be, he may be excused for thinking twice before engaging with an enemy that he cannot see. Sailors have a great and natural respect for submarine mines, and usually give them as wide a berth as possiblé. At Manila, judging by the mines that were exploded inthe wake of the squadron, Dewey evidently caught the Spanish operators ‘‘napping’’ at their shore stations, and in this no one will deny that he was fortunate.
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STEPPING STONES IN THE ART OF COOKING. Mrs. Henry Esmond. Step III: Fryina; Cuorce or Far; PREPARATION OF THE Foop MATERIALS. RYING, of which there are two distinct kinds, is cooking in hot fat. There is deep-fat frying, the name of which explains itself, and sautéing, or frying in a small quantity of fat in a shallow pan. For more than one good reason, people would be wiser if they did not eat fried food at all. In the first place, it is very indigestible ; in the second place, it fills the kitchen with a most disagreeable odor—the smell of smoking fat—and if the house is a small one the smell will find its way into the living rooms, and is of such a penetrating kind that it is very difficult to get rid of. For this second reason, then, people who live in small houses should eat fried foods as little as possible, and if the mistress of the house does her own cooking she should put on the oldest cotton dress she possesses, and tie her hair up in a thick cloth, so as to exclude the fumes of the smo- king fat. What is more unpleasant than to enter a house that smells of the frying pan, to be greeted by a lady whose hair and - clothing is redolent of smoking fat! The fact that fried food is indigestible will, we fear, never stop an American from eating it, and, as food properly fried is much less indi- gestible than food badly fried, there is good reason why the housewife should know what there is to know about the art of doing it well. We will begin with deep-fat frying. Many people imagine that the fat in the frying pan boils, because, when hot enough to cook in, it bubbles. This is a mistake ; fat does not boil until it reaches a temperature of between 550° and 600° Fahrenheit ; whereas the proper temperature to do frying in is about 385°. It is true that at the latter tem- perature the fat bubbles, but this is caused by the water in it evaporating. When a food material is immersed in hot fat, the result is similar to that explained in previous articles in connection with boiling and roasting—the albumen on the outside is hardened, and thus the juices in the food are retained. The secret of successful deep- fat frying is to have the fat hot, and to have plenty of it. Articles to be fried should first be dried, then dusted over with flour. This prevents any water that the food contains from escaping into and lowering the temperature of the fat, in which event the food will soak up the fat and become not only very greasy and unpalatable but also exceedingly unwholesome. Fish, meat, croquettes, and fish balls should be rolled in either flour or bread crumbs, then in egg, and again in the bread ‘ erumbs; when plunged into the fat, the albumen in the egg immediately hardens, and, with the crumbs, forms a crust that effectually prevents the fat from soaking in. A mixture of pure lard and beef-suet drip- ping is very good for frying purposes, but the lard alone is preferable. Suet from lamb or mutton should not be used, as it has a very strong taste and odor. Olive oil is best, but as this is very expensive it is rarely used. A product of the cotton seed, called cottolene, is much used down South, and, if fresh, is very good, though many people object to it because of its peculiar odor. An iron kettle with a good lip or spout for pouring is best to heat the fat in. Put about 2 pounds of fat into this kettle, and let it heat until it smokes. Then test the heat by dropping in a small piece of bread; if it browns while you count 30 seconds, the fat is hot enough to cook raw potatoes, dough- nuts, fritters, etc. For cooking croquettes, fish balls, or anything made of food that has been cooked before, the fat must be hotter ; for these the bread must brown in 20 seconds. The articles to be fried should be placed in a frying basket—a wire basket made specially for the purpose. Never drop the articles into the fat singly, as it is then impos- sible to get them all out at the right time; and do not put too many in the basket at one time, or the fat will be cooled so much that instead of being cooked the food will soak up the fat and be spoiled. Have upon the stove, at your side, a large dripping pan with several sheets of unglazed paper in it, upon which to drain the food after cooking. Taking hold of the handle, plunge the basket into the hot fat—letting it become entirely immersed—and keep it there until the 123
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124 articles are done; then, raising the basket, hold it over the kettle until the adhering fat has dripped off; then empty into the drip- ping pan. Do not allow the separate articles to touch one another while on the paper, and you will find that much of the fat remain- ing on them is absorbed. Before the fat is put away, after use, it should be clarified. Take a large potato and cut it into slices about half an inch thick, and, after the fat has cooled a very little, drop them into it and set aside where it will not be disturbed until quite cool; then, before it has begun to solidify, pour off into a crock or pail kept for the purpose, and it will be found that all the particles of food, flour, crumbs, etc. that had escaped into the CURRENT TOPICS. fat have settled to the bottom with the potato chips. This fat can be used many times if care is taken in the clarifying of it. In sautéing, a very small quantity of fat is used—enough merely to well cover the bot- tom of the pan. Hash, fish steaks, potatoes, small steaks of veal or pork, omelets, eggs, etc. should be sautéed. The pan should be heated, and a heaping tablespoonful of fat melted in it; then the food material, after being prepared as already described in con- nection with deep-fat frying, put in and quickly browned, first on one side, then on theother. Cakes of all kinds that are cooked on the griddle are, in reality, fried, though no more fat is used than is needed to pre- vent them from sticking to the griddle. CURRENT TOPICS. Mrs. Frederic R. Honey. TRANSFORMED AFRICA.—PART II. ‘THE study of the history of any country will show that its development is closely connected with its natural physical con- ditions, its position, and its configuration— in short, with its geography. And a glance at the geography of Africa, as revealed by modern explorers, explains the surprising fact that the interior of this great continent, lying in the pathway of ocean travel and within sight of Europe, should have remained a sealed book until the nineteenth century . had left youth behind. Egypt, it is true, was in the forefront of ancient civilization, and northern Africa shared in the vicissitudes of early European history as a part of the European system, washed as it is by the waters of the Mediterranean, the ‘‘ Great Sea,’’ once the highway of commerce for the civilized world. But Egypt is only a narrow belt, intersected by the Nile; and northern Africa was cut off, as it is today, for all. prac- tical purposes, from the rest of the continent by the impassable barrier of the Sahara. Elsewhere than in the north, African geog- raphy is peculiar, and of a character calcu- lated to discourage the explorer who seeks new lands for settlement by civilized men. It is estimated that a full half of the continent is occupied by deserts, and by infertile lands approximating to the desert character. Around the coasts, where good harbors are few and far between, lies a belt of lowland from 100 to 300 miles in width, where malarial fevers of all kinds prevail ; in some parts the white man is a sure prey to tropical disease. From this low belt the land rises steeply in a succession of terraces to the central plateau, which in the south and east attains a great elevation ; far less than that of central Asia, but quite high enough to bea hindrance to the migration of newcomers, which naturally follows the lines of least resistance. In most regions of the world the rivers form natural highways by which a country can be entered and explored; but African rivers are rendered impassable by rapids as they descend from the elevated plateau to the lowlands of the coast. What wonder, then, that the traveler who found himself barred from access to the interior, turned his back on Africa and sought more hospitable lands? The configuration of Africa is thus the key to its history ; for the inaccessibility of its highlands and its unhealthy coast, combined with its tropical situation, have contributed to the late settlement of European colonists. But these obstacles are no longer effectual hindrances ; and under the impetus of a need for colonial expansion on the one hand, and of political rivalry on the other, European influences have now taken firm root. Our maps show that seven European powers have claimed a share in Africa ; but,
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CURRENT TOPICS. for the present, little interest attaches to five of these. Germany’s occupation is very recent, and has been attended by no striking incidents ; while Spain and Italy, in their small coastal territories, chiefly lowland, are inert and unprogressive. Portugal hasa long coast line, but she has neither the wealth nor (apparently) the energy necessary for the development of the healthier ‘‘ hinter- land ’’ in which colonies might be planted— notwithstanding the hopeful and ambitious utterances of her statesmen respecting the future. Her ports of Beira and Delagoa Bay on the east coast are mainly used by foreign nations for their own commercial purposes. The day may come when these countries will give a better account of their stewardship ; if they fail to do this, their inher- itance will prob- ably beabsorbed by those who prove them- selves more capable admin- MEDITERRAN Egy, S ab! AHARA OR CREAT DESER 7 gee pee, ad Chad 125 whence the natural line of expansion was along the elevated axis of the continent, whose general direction is northeast, towards the shores of the Red Sea. Commencing with a modest colony at the Cape of Good Hope, which was ceded by the Dutch in 1814, her boundaries gradually extended by ordinary processes of growth, including Natal and Zululand on the coast, and Bechuanaland on the north. As was suggested in a previous article, the sudden appearance of Germany on the stage of African affairs in 1884 hastened the apportionment of such parts of the con- tinent as were not already under European influence, and Great Britain’s African frontier was pushed rapidly forward. Although the great acquisi-. tion, known. as Rhodesia or Charterland, has only recently come under her flag, a railway already pene- trates many miles into the heart of the é& g : istrators. The ) hat S \) |e J country, which Kongo State, a —iprimsn 1 \ SONTA ang five years ago under Belgian Bis OE ae 8 SF Ee oy 2 was under the ‘genet ae : BRITISH \ > control, occu- ra iPyeasr arnica\ “ ¢X rule of barbar- pies the fertile S G ughs Lake Vie ow ous tribes. Its ' ~o) SAFHONGQ | : a , basin of the — ‘ols FRE igs boundaries skirt second largest x YE. STATES Re45,% the western . NN B8etGgIAN oy a river system > bs shores of Nyas- in the world, c. sa, one of the once the bed of % te lakes which an inland sea. ee Ae he 5 RE ¢ form so remark- It is still in the S PS able a feature of initial stages of m Sg East Africa, and development, z S touch the south- but steady ern point of the progress may long, narrow be expected, now that a rail- way has connected the coastal lowlands with the Kongo River above the rapids which render it unnavigable as it descends from the interior plateau to the Atlantic through a channel from four to eight miles in width. The future of the Kongo State may be great ; but for the present the British and French possessions are of more general interest. The sphere of Great Britain lies mainly in South and East Africa, and includes the greater portion of the subtropical lands which are favorably situated for European settle- ment. It is fortunate for Great Britain that her occupation began thus at the south, Lake Tangan- yika, on which navigation is free toallnations. Twohundred miles beyond the northern point of this lake, lies Uganda, a district of British East Africa, bordering on the great Victoria Nyanza, the source of the White Nile and second only to Lake Superior among inland fresh-water seas. _ Thence along the Nile the British power predominates without interruption through the Sudan, the scene of Lord Kitchener’s recent overthrow of the Dervish forces, and - through Egypt, which is virtually under a British protectorate. (See Homer Srupy MaGazIneE, December, 1898, page 526. ) A British railway ‘‘from Cairo to the
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126 Cape’’ was regarded not long ago by sen- sible people as an extravagant fancy, con- ceived in the brain of an enthusiast. Large sections of such a railway, however, already exist in North and South Africa, and a space of only 500 miles in the center of the con- tinent separates the British territories in which it can be constructed, when commer- cial necessities or the protection of the coun- try demand it. The surface of this wide belt of land varies greatly. There are desert spaces in the south and west; infertile lands where cattle raising is the only profitable agricultural industry ; mining districts await- ing development ; the famous diamond fields of Kimberley ; lowlands in river basins and _on the coast, where the prolific soil breeds ‘malarial disease; but the greater portion, south of the Sudan, is on a plateau of mod- erate elevation, sufficiently watered, where the climate permits white races to make a permanent home and produce the neces- saries of life. Quite different are the British settlements in West Africa. These lie in the basin of the river Niger, where the climate is tropi- cal, and the elevation above the sea is com- paratively low. This region has so often proved fatal to Europeans that it has earned the name of ‘‘the White Man’s Grave.”’ Yet here are officials, traders, and mission- aries ; and so important are the commercial possibilities of the country that Great Britain .and France hold firmly tothe shares which each has respectively acquired; and Ger- many has claimed and secured a section for future development. The French sphere lies in the north of Africa, where, beyond the coastal region of Senegal, the fertileand populous basin of the upper Niger, and the province known as the French Kongo, her power predominates over two million square miles of—sand and desert. Algeria, on the Mediterranean coast, was won by forty years of fighting with Arab tribes, and has now an orderly government ; but, notwithstanding the beauty and charm | of the maritime portion, the desert charac- ter of the ‘‘ hinterland”’ forbids profitable expansion. Nor, even were the country fitter for settlement by Europeans, are the French successful colonizers. Their brilliant imagination, enterprise, and courage fit them better for conquest than for commerce or colonization, as is demonstrated by the history of the past. They are enthusiastic explorers, and dream of future control of the northern half of the continent, from Senegal to the Red Sea, including the basin of Lake CURRENT TOPICS. Chad at the south of the desert, and the upper part of the Nile valley. Suggestions have been made for moderating the climate of the waste region, and for promoting com- merce by providing it with water communi- cations. The Sahara was once'the bed of a salt lake ; and it is proposed to reopen the connections with the Mediterranean which Nature has gradually closed, and thus trans- form a part of the desert into an arm or inlet of the sea. This sounds chimerical; but what: may not the twentieth century see? Meanwhile, with praiseworthy skill and industry, efforts are being made to redeem in part the desert barrenness ; oases are culti- vated, and are even created by boring for water which is generally found near the sur- face, by planting palm trees, and by encour- aging vegetation. Yet France has no sur- plus population to provide for; and the most ardent colonizers could not settle in such a region of tropical heat and aridity. A few roving explorers, and the necessary military and civil officials, constitute the white population of the quarter of Africa over which the tricolor floats, except in the maritime provinces of Algeria and Tunis. The degree of authority exercised over these vast European possessions differs as much as does the character of the soil. There are regularly organized colonies with representative governments ; there are crown colonies, with a less degree of independence ; there are chartered companies, which are in fact colonies in process of formation ; there are protectorates; military posts; native states, and ‘‘ spheres of influence’’ ; and the administration of law and justice varies in each of these. In forming a judgment of their internal condition and management, they should not be compared with countries inhabited for generations by races with whom law and order are traditionary and heredi- tary, but with the state of things which existed in Africa fifty years ago. And it should be remembered that the whites are as yet but a small minority of the popula- tion, even in the older settlements. Rough and ready as the methods of administration may be in districts where white men are still pioneers, the standard of justice—as Christianity and civilization demand that it should be—is incomparably higher than the tyranny of force exercised by the native tribes when their power was unbroken. No less a result could justify the experiments which are now being tried on so large a scale and with such keen competition by Euro- pean nations in Africa.
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GEAR-TOOTH LAYING OUT SCHEME. Harland Tuttle, Battle Creck, Mich. THE FOLLOWING method of laying out tooth profiles, without employing the odonto- graph, is useful to draftsmen, but is intended especially for patternmakers, because they require—what they are generally without— the means of obtaining the theoretical profile THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia.e1. with accuracy. It is almost impossible to make an accurate layout by means of inter- secting lines as used in the drafting room, but, by applying the simple principles on which the tooth outlines are based, great accuracy can be obtained. | Taking, first, the cycloidal teeth, we all know that the profile consists of two curves —the face and the flank—the first of which is the path of a point in a circle rolling on the outside of the pitch line of the gear, and the second the path of a point in the same circle while rolling on the inside of the pitch line. It is usually advisable to make gears on the interchangeable system, that is, so that any gear will run with any other of the same pitch; this is eae of accomplished by using the same rolling circle for all gears of the ce =m game pitch, and it is yah customary to make the diameter of this circle equal to the radius of the smallest pinion in the set, the result being radial flanks for this pinion, which custom has decided shall have twelve teeth. Now, suppose we wish to make a pattern of a gear of certain circular pitch: First find the diameter of the rolling circle, then turn up a wooden disk as at R, Fig. 1, of exactly this diameter ; let into the edge of it, as at g, a triangular piece of sheet steel, one point of which has been carefully sharpened so as to extend about ;4, of an inch below the under 4¥WGOOD SCHEMES#* surface of the disk. Then make two sheet- zine templets a and b, Fig. 2, one (a) to fit the inside of the pitch line, and the other (b) to fit the outside. Now fasten to the draw- ing board a square piece of sheet zinc, and scribe upon it a portion PP, Fig. 3, of the pitch circle of the gear. Brad down templet een +e = ee THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia. 3. a, asin Fig. 3, so that the curved edge coin- cides exactly with the pitch line; then, using the rolling circle, that is the wooden disk, ‘‘roll out’’ the face m/ of the tooth ; this operation is clearly indicated in Figs. 1 and 3. Remove templet a, and on the other side of the pitch line PP, fasten templet ), Fig.. 4. as in Fig. 4; then, using disk R, and taking care to start with the scribing point, exactly at m, roll in the opposite direction and thus obtain the flank mn. Now draw the. addendum and root arcs /x and ny, Fig. 5, and through the center of the tooth 127
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128 draw st towards the center of the pitch circle. Remove the square piece of zinc, Fig. 5, file out the profile ynmlz, and fasten, as in Fig. 6, to a straightedge that is long enough to reach beyond the gear center; do this in such a manner that one edge coin- cides exactly with the, center line st of the tooth. Stick a needle into the center of the gear; cut a notch n into the straightedge at THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. ! THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. Fia. 5. a distance from the pitch line on the templet exactly equal to the pitch radius of the gear. Space the pattern blank, and lay off the tooth thicknesses all around ; then, placing the notch n against the needle, scribe the out- lines of one side of all the teeth ; reverse the templet and scribe the other sides. For involute teeth the templet is used in a precisely similar manner ; but, to obtain its outline, instead of using a rolling circle, use a portion of a disk the same diameter as the base circle determined in the usual manner ; attach to this a piece of spring steel so that it can be unwrapped from it, and with a needle clamped thereto, scribe the true involute profile. Then cut out, attach toa straightedge, and use as before. Fia. 6. A BOXWOOD WRITING STICK. Alpha, Cincinnati, Ohio. SomE YEARS ago, when first employed as draftsman in a large establishment in the east, I was told that it was the custom in THE CHINESE WRITING —_= —_ ‘A PEN THAT WRITES LIKE A PENCIL. that office to use the Chinese writing stick, instead of an ordinary pen, for printing all letters and figures on drawings. The idea was new to me, but I soon got accustomed GOOD SCHEMES. to the stick ; in fact, I came to prefer it to any pen I had ever tried. Since then I have wondered why it is not in general use, for it is certainly unequaled for some classes of work, particularly if, as in the office referred to, drawings are made and inked in on bond paper and blueprinted direct instead of from tracings. The illustration clearly shows the form of the stick ; it is made of boxwood, a little slimmer than an ordinary pencil. To make, you sharpen the end carefully, flatten off one side, and hollow this out with your pocketknife, letting the hole at the deepest part go just about through. Towards the point, for 4 inch or so, the hollow is simply a groove for the ink to flow down. The writing on the sketch was done with the stick I use for ordinary lettering; I have three, one for each weight of letter and figure I use. TO DRILL GLASS. F. W.8S., Marilia, N. Y. In Tot Mecuanic*Arts Macazine, March 1899, Answers to Inquiries, No. 49, you describe a very excellent way to drill glass. The following is another way which I have used myself and know to be all right: Use a common flat drill, tempered very hard by cooling in salt water; put a block of soft wood under the glass, and drill with fairly light pressure ; lubricate freely with turpen- tine in which camphor gum has been dis- solved. COMPLETE SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC SCALES AND WEIGHTS FOR TEN CENTS. Kodaker. THE ACCOMPANYING figure is an exact repre- sentation of a set of scales and weights that I made one morning not long ago, and that cost me in cash just 3 cents; as I made use of some things that I found about the house, I put the actual cost down at 10 cents. I use it in my dark room for weighing out so many grains of this and so many grams of that, when preparing the solutions. The smaller weights are accurate to 74, of a grain, and a weight of $ of agrain distinctly disturbs the balance of the scales. So much for the accuracy of the rig. I made it in the follow- ing manner: I happened to have a piece of ¢-inch poplar, about 12 inches square; out of it I sawed the three-legged-piecea. Hold- ing this horizontal, I balanced it on the point of needle 6, then pushed the needle through ; from the opposite side, and as close as possi- ble to needle b, I pushed through another
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GOOD SCHEMES. needle c. I then threaded the needles with silk threads d and e, and tied the ends to hairpins f, bent as shown; hanging these over a wooden rod g (whittled out of a piece of wood from the cellar) I supported the whole on two 4-inch cut nailsh. It was a problem how to hang the thing up without driving these nails into and thus disfiguring the wall; but this was soon solved. I filed a notch behind the head of each nail, and, after driving four pins / obliquely and down- wards into the plaster wall, as shown, I made the nails perform the office of struts, so that they merely press against the wall, the silk threads j and k being in tension and kept borhetteS from slipping by the notches aforesaid. For scale pans, I took two pie dishes n and p, drilled three holes in each with the point of a pocket-knife blade, threaded them, and hung them over the notches in a, afterwards _ inserting #-inch lengths of match-wood m to keep the pans swinging freely. A white card t, neatly graduated and pasted to the upper leg of a, completed the scales. I balanced them by sticking pieces of card- board to the back of a until the upper leg was approximately vertical. 129 For the weights I bought 2 ounces (care- fully weighed) of tinned wire about ;'; of an inch in diameter, for which I paid 3 cents. This I took into the yard behind the house, straightened out, and doubled over a wire nail driven into the fence; I then cut it in two, getting in this manner two separate l-ounce weights, one of which I coiled up. The other I again doubled on itself and cut in two, thus getting two 3-ounce weights, one of which I coiled up as before. I went on in this way until I got down to two 15-grain pieces, each about 114 inches long ; one of these I twisted up to be used as one of the weights ; the other length I divided, taking one-fifteenth of it for the 1-grain weight, two-fifteenths for the 2-grain, and so on. As a holder for the weights, I took an old cardboard letter-paper box s, and cut it down as shown, so as to get at the various weights easily. As a support for the weight pan » I used the lid of the above box cut up and built into a triangular frame r and pinned to the wall as shown. The scales are quite steady, and, being sus- pended by four threads, as rigid as one could wish. THE SIMPLEST OF SECTION LINERS. Harry Bible, Denver, Col. In Toe Mecuanic Arts MaGazinz, Febru- ary, 1899, in an article entitled ‘‘ Drafting for the Patent Office,”’ Mr. Palmedo says that, so far, no’machine has been invented that usefully facilitates the work of section lining—that the best section liner is a trained eye and a skilful hand. In the main Mr. Palmedo may be right, but there are some men that, however much they practice, never THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. become expert at this work, and to them I can recommend the exceedingly simple device ‘illustrated here. I can operate it just as fast as it is possible to handle the ruling pen, know that my spaces are equal, it saves my eyes from undue strain when
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150 there is any considerable amount of section lining to be done, and it costs next to noth- ing. Referring to the sketch, T is part of the T square; S is the device, made of any suitable hard wood (I prefer white holly) or celluloid. Each edge of the device gives two spacings; thus, when held as shown, the point of the triangle enters the notch at a; when S is turned over end for end, the square edge of the triangle butts against a and the spacing is reduced. The opening in the other edge of S is made a different length, so that, in all, the one device gives four fixed spacings. To hold, let the thumb of the left hand rest on the T square and place the index finger on S, and the next two fingers on the triangle. To operate, press down on the triangle and push S to the right till it strikes at a; draw line; press on S and push triangle ahead ; draw line, and so on. A HELP IN SCREW CUTTING. Hugh A. Wilson, Beloit, Wis. I wavE FounD that the following method of cutting a screw thread in the lathe pre- vents dragging on the right-hand edge of the tool, and makes it an easy matter to adjust the feed. Turn the compound rest, as in the figure, at an angle of 30°; set the tool exactly right for cutting the thread, and run the point of it up until it just touches the piece C that you are going to thread ; then put a chalk mark on the lower feed-handle A. Run the carriage back ready to start the thread, and give the compound feed-handle B a slight turn, feeding the tool in direction of arrow 0, until you get the proper cut ; then _ drop in the feed-nut. When the tool reaches the end of the thread, run it out in direction of arrow a by means of the lower handle A, run carriage back for another cut, give B another slight turn, and so on till the thread GOOD SCHEMES. is finished. By this method, one chalk mark —the one on A—is all you have to make; it is easy to get the feed required in direction of arrow b, and the tool does all the cutting with its left edge, and so dragging is’ pre- vented. AN INEXPENSIVE DRAFTING TABLE. Wm. P. King, Syracuse, N. Y. Brine a student in mechanical drawing, but unable to afford a draftsman’s table, I built one which serves the purpose tip-top. It is a rig that anybody could put together, so I send it as a contribution to Good Schemes, hoping that others will be glad of the idea. I took a 2’ 6K WX 4 strip of pine—a in Figs. 1 and 2—and nailed it to the wall about 3 feet from the floor. To this I attached a pair of 2-inch hinges, and swung the table from them, as shown. The table is simply a 2/7 6/7 2/0’ 4/7 board, to the under side of which I fastened a toothed rack hav- ing six teeth of about 14 inches pitch. This rack, together with the adjusting leg 6, which: is simply a stick of pine hinged to block c fastened to the floor, enables the draftsman MOH EN "THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZIN t. Fig. 1. “ i uh c. i | ce a a FIa. 2. to vary the angle of the table at will. When not in use the table is folded down against the wall, as shown dotted in Fig. 1, with the leg 6} leaning against it, thus taking up very little space.
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WUT LLL LT ALT We <8 TRADE LA tao TART TT ae THT SA ee A NEW DRILL CHUCK. THE ILLUSTRATIONS on wn tie page represent the National drill chuck, manufactured by the Oneida National Chuck Co., Oneida, N. Y. The makers state in their catalogue : ‘‘In placing the National skeleton drill chuck upon the market it is necessary that its workings and con- struction should be thoroughly under- stood, as its new and novel appearance will attract the eye of every machinist, and we are aware that it will be closely scrutinized by all interested in the advancement and im- provement of tools. ‘“‘The construction of this drill chuck should commend itself to all. The flat body and open construction are just the opposite of all other chucks made; therefore, do not be prejudiced because in bringing it out we did not copy after others. This is original, as we do not believe in wearing wooden shoes because our forefathers did. It oper- ates quickly with the thumb and finger until closed on drill; then a wrench is used to tighten. There is no projection to catch anything, and the flat, open body will not prevent it from drilling a round hole, but makes it easy to clean, light to handle and cpeieke. substantial and durable, giving strength where necessary. ‘“ We make for it the following claims : “1. The grip to hold a drill is unequaled by any chuck upon the market. ‘2. The construction is so simple that any person can put it together in one minute. **3. The simplicity of construction and arrangement of parts causes the least wear, making it the most durable. ‘4. It is the only chuck ever made in which all parts are exposed to view, so that any irregularity can be seen at once. ‘5. It can be thoroughly cleaned in one- fourth the time of any other chuck. ‘*6, All unnecessary material is removed, leaving the strength where required and making it from one-third to one-half lighter than any other chuck made. ‘‘7, It is the only chuck that is easily cleaned, being so open that the dirt will not stay in, and can be blown or brushed out without removing the parts. **8. It is perfectly balanced and made in all sizes—large and small. ‘(9 It is the only chuck that is strong and powerful, equally adapted for either light, swift, or heavy work. 4 HAND-POWER MODEL DYNAMOS. THe Exvsripce ExecrricaL Mre. Co., Elbridge, N. Y., inform us that they have lately put on the market an improved Model dynamo, one for direct, and one for both direct and alternating, currents. With this little dynamo, water may be decomposed, incandescent lamps lighted, permanent mag- nets charged, small motors driven, and a multitude of interesting experiments per- formed. It may also be used as a motor on any current of proper voltage, thus furnish- ing power to run light machinery, such as sewing machines, fans, etc. It was designed especially for the use of schools and students of electricity, and to them is invaluable, since it gives the whole theory of the modern dynamo and follows in construction every detail found in large generators. It is made for actual use, all parts being of the best material and put together in the most substantial manner. The armature core is laminated and wound with double-covered wire ; its shaft is made of steel and runs in 131
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132 TRADE NOTES. brass bearings. bars, ample brush contact, and will wear for years. All machines are shunt-wound unless otherwise ordered. . TWO USEFUL TOOLS. E. G. Smira, Columbia, Pa., is making what to the machinist should prove two very useful tools—the ‘‘ Which Way’ level, and the ‘‘Columbia’”’ caliper. The level, as will be seen from the accompanying full-size illustration, is designed to tell you immedi- ately ‘‘ which way ’”’ your work is out of level. Under an accurately ground and polished glass cover there is a bubble of air in ee upon a perfectly level surface this bubble floats in the cen- ter of the disk, as shown; when resting upon a surface that is snk of level, the bubble will move towards the cir- cumference of the disk, always traveling towards the highest part of the surface, and thus indicating which way the work is out. The caliper tells you the size of the work, and also how much too large or too small. It reads both inside and outside measure- ments without mental calculation, and is graduated to 16ths of an inch, with a vernier to read to 32ds, 64ths, and 128ths. BOOKS AND CATALOGUES. First Lessons in LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. By Frederic R. Honey, Ph. B. Size,9in. x 12 in.; cloth cover. Published by Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. Price, 80 cents. This book consists of twenty complete lessons in linear perspective. The first ten lessons were published separately some months ago and reviewed in the July, 1898, number of this magazine. The additional lessons that complete the work comprise the drawing in perspective and in various posi- tions of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, the Greek and the Latin cross, flights of steps, hexagonal and fluted columns, groined arches, and a room furnished and hung with pictures. There is also a lesson on geometry as applied to perspective. The book contains, in all, thirty-eight full-sized The commutator has 16 | plates, all most excellently done. In his descriptions Mr. Honey is as thorough as the English language will permit him to be, and he does not allow a single point to pass unexplained, for which reasons the book is worthy of great popularity with beginners, and should prove of much practical use to teachers also. ONE OF THE most complete tool catalogues issued is that of Montgomery & Co., 105 Fulton street, New York. The book con- tains over 500 pages, is profusely illustrated, and gives full particulars of the numerous tools and devices that have been most called for in the course of the firm’s business. All users of tools, machinery, and supplies, in whatever branch of the mechanical trades they may be engaged, should have a copy. THE CarBorunpuM Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y., have handed us their No. 2, 1898, catalogue ; size, 64 in. x 8 in.; 60 pages. The first part of this book is devoted to an exceedingly interesting historical account of the early methods of manufacturing carbo- rundum, which lead up to the Acheson pro- cess as now used. This process is fully described, and is illustrated with reproduc- tions of photographs taken in the above company’s works. The chapter includes information regarding the properties and uses of carborundum, especially as compared with those of emery, and the results obtained from a number of actual service tests are given. The remainder of the book is a price list of various carborundum wheels and tools, with sectional dimensioned draw- ings of a great variety of special forms of wheels. THEO. AUDEL & Co., 63 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y., tell us that they have just pub- lished two books by Professor Hawkins, entitled ‘‘ Hawkins’ New Catechism of Elec- tricity ’’ and ‘‘ Hawkins’ New Catechism of the Steam Engine.’’ Price, $2.00 each. Pro- fessor Hawkins’ works are so well known among engineers that any review by us is unnecessary, the books being up to his usual standard. Audel & Co. make a specialty of selling their publications on easy payments, thus placing them within the reach of all. Any one wishing to inform himself about the practical management of steam plants, and the practical applications of electricity, will do well to obtain copies of the above works.
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ie ot hk ee ee ge Re 222 2 % BRRRERBSI aesea NoTEeE.—Address all letters containing questions to be answered in this department to THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE, Scranton, Pa. 1. Put this address both on the envelope and at the head of the letter. 2. Only questions of general interest to our readers will be answered. 8. No questions will be answered by mail. 4. Drawings or sketches accompanying questions should be made on a separate sheet of paper, and should be drawn as clearly as possible. 5. The names and addresses of the writers must accompany the letters, or no attention will be paid to them. Unless otherwise requested, we will publish only the initials and address of the writer. 6. Reference to inquiries previously answered should give date of issue and number of question. 7. Any book not out of print and for sale by regular dealers may be ordered through the Magazine. (81) Herewith I send you a sample of tracing linen that will not take the ink. Whatis the matter with it, and what shall I do to it to make it work? J. A., San Francisco, Cal. ANs.—We have tested the linen and find that it takes ink perfectly. Perhaps there is something wrong with the ink you are using. * * (82) To settle two arguments, kindly answer the following: (a) Does illuminating gas ever freeze in the pipes? (b) Isit possible for a person to “ scull” a boat without the aid of an oarlock of some descrip- tion ? F. H. L., Scranton, Pa. Ans.—(a) Illuminating-gas pipes become filled with frozen vapors which form part of the gas, and the gas pipes are then said to be frozen. Of course, the gas itself does not freeze in the pipes, but the vapors accompanying the gas condense and freeze. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to remove the moisture by preliminary freezing in tanks. Another process is to dry by sulphuric acid, which is efficacious as far as the water is concerned, but extreme cold, even with such process, has been known to close up the pipes with frozen benzol. It would appear that the best plan for preventing the freezing of gas pipes is for the gas companies to inject alcoholic vapor into the gas at the works. This apparently prevents the freezing both of the water and the benzol. ‘‘The effect of this alcohol vapor,’’ says a renowned Ger- man scientist, ‘‘is shown in the fact that if, by the action of the cold, separations of water and benzol occur, the alcohol vapor carried along also separates, whereby the freezing point of these separated con- densations of water and benzol is forced down so much that they will not congeal even at our lowest temperatures in the winter. They remain in liquid condition, and thereby can freely flow back in the main conduits, where they collect in the condensing pots.”” (b) There are two meanings to the word scull ; in other words, there are two ways of sculling a boat. In one, the oarsman stands up, and, with one oar used over the stern, propels the boat by imparting to the oar a twisting motion from side to side, asifin imitation of the action ofascrew. In the other, two long spoon-bladed oars, or sculls, are used, and the sculler sits upon a seat near the center of the boat, and rows with both hands at once. resting the ANIWIRS 70 a ee 229299922923 oD /NOLIRIES Oe ee A d 22222 2&2 &®&2es 2 \ @e oe oars in oarlocks, which are usually outrigged. The sculler’s seat may or may not be a sliding one. In sculling with one oar over the stern, the oarlock is an assistance, but is not absolutely necessary. * * (83) (a) Whatis ‘‘cavalier’’ perspective, as men- tioned in THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE, February, 1899, article entitled ‘‘Drafting for the Patent Office’? If a full answer to this question would occupy too much space, kindly refer me to a book on thesubject. (b) Also, giveme the namesand prices of good works on the following subjects : mill engineer- ing, bridge engineering, and mining engineering. I have no objection to advanced mathematics in any of these works. J. A. P., Providence, R. I. ANS.—(a) Cavalier perspective is one of various methods of making a perspective representation of an object by means of parallel projection, as against polar projection, used for true perspective. The methods referred to all consist in drawing the out- lines of the object parallel respectively to three axes x,y, Z,assumed in the plane of the drawing, and representing the angu- lar parallel projection of three orthogonal axes imagined within the body to be drawn. The number of such imaginable projec- tions is very great, but, in practice cer- tain distinct ones are used, one of which is the so-called cavalier perspective. In this, the angle between a * and y is 90°; the other two angles are each 135°, and the scales employed for the axes aré relatively as x:y:2=1:1:%. (b) Rankine, ‘Machinery and Mill Work,”’ $5.00; ‘‘The Practical American Mill- wright and Miller,’ by David Craik, $3.50; ‘Theory and Practice in the Designing of Modern Framed Structures,’’ by Johnson, Bryan, and Turneauve, $10.00. There is no complete publication in mining engineering. Geo. G. Andre’s ‘‘ Practical Treatise on Coal Mining” (2 vols. $15.00), and G. C. Greenwell’s ‘‘Coal Mining’ ($6.00) are standard works, but are decidedly English. The foregoing works can be obtained through The Technical Supply Co., Scran- ton, Pa. * * * (84) (a) Please tell me how to calculate the amount of water necessary to condense the steam from any engine, the condenser being either jet or surface. (b) How much power can I get from an impulse waterwheel 52 inches in diameter, fitted with Pelton buckets, under the following conditions: diameter of jet, } inch; water. pressure, 80 pounds, from the street main through a }-inch pipe 150 feet long ; number of revolutions per minute, 250. J.T. M., New Albany, Ind. ANs.—(a) A very simple rule for calculating the amount of condensing water, with as great a degree of accuracy as is usually required, is the following : Divide 1,000 by the difference between 110 and the temperature of the condensing water; multiply the weight of steam to be condensed by this quotient, and the result will be the weight of the condensing water required. (b) Owing to frictional losses, you THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE. 3° 1 133
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134 could not get more than a small fraction of a horse- power, possibly 4, horsepower, from the water that would flow through the 4-inch pipe under conditions you have named. It would be impossible to get a speed of 250 revolutions per minute with a 52-inch wheel using the water from the }-inch pipe. * * * (85) Kindly show how to lay out an elbow 38 feet in diameter, made of 32-inch plates. layout made by the right-angular method. R. Q., Lorain, Ohio. ANs.—In order to obtain a ‘‘layout,’’ or pattern development, for any object, it is necessary first to produce a correct representation or drawing of the object in one or more positions; or, the same results may sometimes be obtained by the use of various sections taken on different planes. The object in question is a four-pieced square elbow, and, before Fia. 1. proceeding to describe the pattern, it will be well to illustrate a simple method of finding the line of intersection, or the miter line. Thismethod is appli- cable to elbows having any number of pieces, and, by slight modification, to elbows of different angles. In Fig. 1 the angle abc is drawn by the use of the T square and 45°. triangle; with a radius nearly equal to ab, and with b as center, describe the arc ef; this arc is then divided, by spacing, into a num- ber of parts—one less than the number required in the desired elbow—and a line drawn from b through the division in the are nearest the line ab will be the THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE correct miter line for our elbow. We may now pro- ceed directly with the development of the pattern. Place a half section of the elbow ghi, as shown, on ab. Divide the half circle ghi into a convenient number of equal parts, and draw perpendiculars to ab from each of these points, continuing them until they cut the line bd. Extend the line ab indirectly towards j, and, starting as near b as is convenient, set off twice as many spaces as there are in the half section of the elbow. From each of these points erect perpendiculars, as shown. Now, with the T square, project each intersection of the line bd, with the lines drawn from the half section, on to the ANSWERS TO INQUIRIES. I want this perpendiculars drawn from bj. It will be readily seen that the irregular curve A BC may be produced by tracing through the diagonally opposite corners of the small rectangles thus formed. The curved line A BC is the correct pattern for the ‘‘ cut’”’ of the elbow; and, as matters relating to the length of throat required are optional with the mechanic, it will be seen how these lengths may be changed without affecting the angle of the elbow. The four- pieced elbow shown may be cut without waste of stock by reversing the patterns for the sections as shown in Fig. 2, the curve being the same in each ease. In large elbows of the size mentioned in the question, it will be found practicable to make up the blank from two or more sheets of metal, allowing the seams to be in the position shown by the dotted lines in the central portion of the figure. The dotted lines at each side of the blank represent the stock r THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE Fig. 3. added for laps, which is of course a matter of choice with the mechanic. While the same methods of development are made in all elbows of the class mentioned, there is, in this particular case, an element that would affect the practical working of the method, and that is, the thickness of the metal worked. Boilermakers are accustomed to add seven times the thickness of the material used to the length actually needed for the circumference of the desired circle, in order to bring the diameter to the correct size when the work is formed up. Now, it is obvious that, if we add seven times the thickness of the metal (which would be 23 inches in the present case) to one end of our pattern sheet, it will not be correct, as this extra stock should be distributed through the entire circumference of our elbow, and the pattern should also partake of thisincrease. To makeallow- ance for this property of the material, the following method may be used: On theline bj, Fig. 1, add the measurement required for the extra thickness of the stock, at 7k; with a radius equal to/k, and with / as center, describe an are cutting the perpendicular extended from C; from this point of intersection draw a line to the point 7, and extend the dotted lines in the manner indicated in Fig.1; make 7 A’ equal to 7A, and continue through each perpen- dicular in like manner. The curve A’ B/C’ may then be produced, which will be the correct pattern for the elbow required. Fig. 3 shows the usual method of laying off edges for elbows made of heavy metal, the stretching for the flanges being done while the metalis hot. The rivets are also set while hot, and are placed to one side of the inter- section line, giving the work a finished appearance. “x (86) (a) Please explain the method of procedure when designing the foundation for an anvil that is to receive the blows of a falling weight or steam ham- mer. For example, what must be the area of the foundation for an anvil that is to receive the blows of a 500-pound weight after falling 20 feet? The earth in which the foundation is to be built will carry a static load of 4,000 pounds per square foot.
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ANSWERS TO INQUIRIES. (b) If a water-service pipe from street main to front cellar wall is 8 inch in diameter, and is enlarged to 1 inch diameter inside of cellar, carried thus for 50 feet to rear of building, then continued with the same diameter to the third floor, branches being taken off for fixtures at each floor, all 1 inch in diameter, how much more water can be obtained than if 8-inch piping were used throughout the house? Assume any convenient water pressure and total length of piping. X. Ans.—(a) A rational solution of this proble involves the use of a number of factors whose values cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy to make the results of much practical value; it is, therefore, customary to depend on simple formulas based on practicalexperience. The following formu- las for calculating the weight of foundation to be used under the anvil block, and the probable pres- sures on the earth under the foundations, are given by a good authority : Let G = weight of the falling parts of the hammer ; H = height of fall, in feet; W = weight of material in foundation ; P = total pressure on earth under foundations. Then, for a simple falling weight—for example, a steam hammer in which steam does not act above the piston to increase the force of the blow— W=1.8 HG, for hammers used in forging iron ; and W=2HG4, for hammers used in forging steel. For steam ham- mers in which live steam acts above the piston, so as to increase the force of the blow, make the weight of the foundation 30 per cent. greater than the value obtained by the above formulas. The total pressure on the earth on which the foundation rests is given by — P=9GH+Wtol8GH+W, for hammers used for forging small billets ; P=18GH+W to2GH+W, for hammers used for welding piles of bars into blooms; and P=2GH+W to38GH+W, for hammers used for forging steel. (b) There isso much uncertainty regarding the frictional losses in the different pipes and fittings of such a system that we cannot make an estimate of the gain in flow that would have any practical value. * * * (87) I want to know how to build an oven that will dry bricks quickly. The bricks are made of sawdust and coal mixed together and pressed into 7’ 4’ * 3” blocks, perforated with a number of holes. When pressed, each brick contains about 4 ounces of water, which has to be dried out. The oven I am now using is about 40 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet high, and will hold about 4,000 bricks. It is built of brick, and is heated with fifteen 1}-inch steam-pipe coils. The _ bricks are placed on thin boards on ‘‘ buggies’”’ similar to those used in brickyards; but it takes 2 days to do the drying. If you can tell me of some kind of oven that will hold from 400 to 500 bricks, and dry them quickly, I shall appreciate it very much. N. M. D., Mt. Oliver, Pa. ANns.—You will understand that heat is not the dryer; heat only helps the air to absorb moisture from the bricks. The air is the real drying agent, and when the air is nearly saturated with vapor by absorbing the moisture from the bricks, you must remove this air from the kiln and replace it with more dry air; otherwise, the airin the kiln, although hot, will not dry the bricks. What you need is an arrangement for circulating very dry air through the kiln. This can be accomplished by having a slatted floor, and a space of about 2 or 3 feet under the floor, and a number of steam pipes in the space. Then you require an opening to allow fresh air to enter the space under the steam pipes and another hole in the ceiling to allow the moisture-laden air to 135 escape up through a ventilating shaft in the roof. Thus you will have a constant stream of hot, dry air - passing up through the bricks. Place a damper in the vent stack and you can control the current easily. * m3 (88) On an incandescent-lighting circuit, run on the three-wire system, will both the ammeters give the same reading when there are more lights on one side than on the other? For instance, if there are two hundred 16-candlepower lamps on one side, and one hundred on the other, will one ammeter show about 100 amperes, and the other about 50, or will they both show about 75 amperes? C. F. I., Seranton, Miss. Ans.—The two ammeters, being placed in the outer conductors, will register independently of each other the current passing through those conduct- ors. In the case above mentioned, therefore, the ammeters would indicate 100 amperes and 50 amperes, respectively. es * * (89) (a) To settle an argument, kindly answer the following question: Is the over stroke of a locomo- tive engine more powerful than the under stroke? By this I mean, can a heavier load be started when the crank-pin is vertically above the axle than when it is vertically wnder the same? (b) Would air ata temperature of 80° become cold enough to freeze water, if it were driven by an air pump at a high rate of speed? R. E. P., Brown’s Valley, Minn. ANns.—Let P = total pressure on piston ; T = tractive force ; R = radius of driver ; r = radius of crank ; 6 = angle of the connecting-rod when the crankpin is at c above the axle. Then, —— = pull s exerted by the connecting- rod on the crankpin. Taking moments about the center o of the axle, the moment of s is P s X r cos 0 = ae xX recon 0 = Pr, and the moment of the rail pull 7 is 7R. The other forces acting on the driver and axle are the weight supported and the reaction of the frames. Evi- dently, however, the lines of action of these forces pass through the center 0, and they have therefore . nomoment about 0. Wehave, then, P SFE ee P25 A, Se Now, when the crankpin is at c’, s’ = ss, the Se Pr moment of s’ is rere x r COS o=— Pr, and T = RR as before. The rail pull 7 is just equal and opposite to the drawbar pull, since these two forces are the only horizontal external forces acting on the loco- motive. It follows, therefore, that the same load can be started, whether the pin is vertically above or below the axle. (b) No; the temperature of the air would be increased. x % (90) With reference to the gasoline engine illus- trated in Home Stupy MAGAZINE, January, 1899, article entitled ‘‘The Gasoline Engine,’ kindly answer the following questions: (a) Would it be
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136 practicable and economical to regulate the speed by attaching the governing mechanism to the needle valve F, leaving the volume of air taken in constant for all loads. (6) Would it not be difficult, on a cold day, to get the engine to start, with cylinder head Y and pipe G cold, on account of the gasoline evapora- ting slowly? (c) What is the ratio between the volume of liquid gasoline and its vapor at atmos- heric pressure? (d) Are any of the illustrated eatures of the above mentioned engine patented, that you know of? W. C. B., Litchfield, 11. Ans.—(a) The method of governing proposed is used on some forms of gas and gasoline engines. In > case the load is practically constant and near the full capacity of the engine, the regulation of the gas supply alone, leaving the air supply constant, is probably the best method that can be adopted. If the load varies through a wide range, however, the gas might be cut off entirely at light loads, and a considerable fluctuation in speed would result; in this case it is considered better practice to regulate the flow of the mixture of gas and air, as is done in the engine under consideration. (b) We believe there is some special method of starting the engine under these circumstances. See HOME STUDY MAGa- ZINE, February, 1898, article entitled ‘‘Gas Engines.”’ (c) We are unable to find any information on this point. The following statement, quoted from a recently published book, may be of interest to you: ‘“The vapor of commercial gasoline at 60° F. is equal to 130 volumes of the liquid.’”’ (d) Several patents have been issued to the makers of this engine, and they probably cover all novel features. x % (%) I desire a general solution of the following problem: Referring to enclosed sketch, if 1,000 pounds is applied to shaft A, what percentage of it will be transmitted through the mechanism, and remain as useful effort to lift arm Cof the lever ful- crumed on shaft B, the force passing through the gears a and b, bevel gears c and e, shaft /, crank g, connecting-rod h, crosshead from arm d, to position shown by the center line jk? Arm Ccarries a uni- formly distributed load of 5,500 pounds; arm b is seven times as long as arm C. S. E. S., White Plains, N. Y. Ans.—A general solution of this problem would be of no practical use to you, because you evidently do not understand the effect of frictional resistances upon the efficiency of machinery. In another part of this number you will find the first part of an article entitled ‘‘Sliding Friction’’; read and thoroughly understand this, and then study the second part when it appears in the May number; you will then be in a position to solve the above problem. x % 92) (a) Please tell me how to make a paste suit- able for mounting a ere photographic print face down on glass. (b) Can you tell me of a book on the coloring and mounting of photographs on glass? F. 8. D., Berkley, Mass. Ans.—(a) Use a thin solution of plain gelatine. Soak the gelatine in cold water over night, and, after pouring off the surplus water in the morning, warm ANSWERS TO INQUIRIES. the swelled gelatine over a water bath; and, when melted, dilute gradually with hot water until the gelatine has the consistency of thin cream. Warm the glass on which the print is to be mounted, and coat it with the warm gelatine paste; then, when glass is cool, squeeze the wet print into contact with the gelatine surface and leave to dry. (b) We know of no book devoted exclusively to the coloring of photographs on glass. x % (93) Enclosed find cards of engine of which I have lately been given charge. (a) What is the horsepower of the engine? (b) Tell me all you can about the engine from the cards. (c) There is a snapping noise in the cylinder, as though water were TOTAL I.H.P.= 185.2 AREA 2.81 _ H M.E.P. 35.68 M.E.P, 33.78 96.3 I.H.P 88.9 LHP. pee ee re < 3.78 siphoned over into it from the boiler; but it is the same whether the water is high or low. Can it be caused by the piston rings, or what do you think is the trouble? I should have mentioned that the steam piping is 6 inches in diameter. W. B. A., Torrington, Conn. Ans.—(a) The horsepower, calculated from the data given on the card, is 185.21.H.P. Are you sure you have given the correct scale for the indicator spring? We have never before heard of a spring having that scale. (b) The general performance of the engine, as indicated by the cards, is fairly good, anditis probable you will find it difficult tomake any change that will improve the working of the engine toany greatextent. The most serious faults shown by ‘the diagrams are the following: The steam line falls considerably before cut-off begins, showing that the steam is throttled; the cause may be that the steam pipe is too long, or there may be some obstruction, such as a number of bends in the pipe, a partly opened valve, or restricted steam ports. Cut-off takes place later on the head than on the crank-end; the result is that about 74 horsepower more work is done in the head than in the crank-end. (c) Itis probable that the noise is caused by the piston rings. It often happens that, when the rings enter the counterbore, the. pressure of the steam closes them, causing the snapping sound about which you speak. x % (94) What is the process by which ginseng roots, burdock roots, and yellow dock are ph cate for the market? This question is perhaps a little out of your line, but I thought you could give me some informa- tion, or, at any rate, tell me where I could get the information. R. H. S., Trumansburg, N. Y. Ans.—The roots of these three plants are dug out in early autumn, cleaned, and dried. * * * (95) What, in your opinion, is the best kind of dry closet, for use where there is no water? C. M. G., Georgetown, Ohio. Ans.—The best closets for use in places where water cannot be had for flushing purposes, is the earth closet. It should, of course, be set outside the main building. Earth is a excellent deodorizer, and an earth closet—which is flushed with earth, so to speak —is considered by sanitarians to be the best where water cannot be had.
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WORK, THE WATCHWORD OF SUCCESS. 66 ORK and be thorough,”’ is our coun- sel to men who seek to rise by self- improvement. | There is no want of desire on the part of most persons to arrive at the results of self- culture, but there is a great aversion to pay the inevitable price for it—hard work. Dr. Johnson held that ‘‘impatience of study is the mental disease of the present gener- ation,’? and the remark is still applicable. We may not believe that there is a royal road to learning, but we seem to believe very firmly in the ‘‘ popular’? road. In education we invent labor-saving processes, seek short cuts to science, or learn French and Latin ‘‘in twelve lessons’’ or ‘‘ without a master.” We resemble the lady of fashion, who engaged a master to teach her on conditions that he did not plague her with verbs and participles. We get our smattering of science in the same way ; we learn chemistry by listening to a short course of lectures enlivened by experiments, and when we have inhaled laughing gas, seen green water turned red, and phosphorus. burned in oxygen, we have obtained our smattering, of which the most that can be said is, that, though it may be better than nothing, it is yet good for nothing. Thus we often imagine we are being educated while we are only being amused. The acquirement of bits of information, without study and labor, is not education. It occupies but does not enrich the mind. It imparts a stimulus for the time, and produces a sort of intellectual keenness and cleverness; but without an implanted purpose and a higher object than mere pleasure it will bring no solidadvantage. In such cases knowledge produces but a passing impression—a sensation, and no more; it is, in fact, the merest epicureism of intelligence —sensuous, but certainly not intellectual. Thus the best qualities of many minds, those which are evoked by vigorous effort and independent action, sleep a deep sleep, and are seldom called to life, except by the rough awakening of sudden calamity or suffering which, in such cases, comes as a 1 blessing if it serves to rouse up a courageous spirit that, but for it, would have slept on. Accustomed to acquire information under the guise of amusement, people will soon reject that which is presented to them under the aspect of study and_ labor. Learning their knowledge and science in “sport, they will be too apt to make sport of both ; while the habit of intellectual dissipa- tion, thus engendered, cannot fail, in course of time, to produce a thoroughly weaken- ing effect both upon their mind and char- acter. ‘‘ Multifarious reading,’ said Robert- ‘son of Brighton, ‘‘ weakens the mind like smoking, and is an excuse for its lying dormant. It is the idlest of all idleness, and leaves more impotency than any other.’’ The evil is a growing one, and operates in various ways. Its least mischief is shallow- ness; its greatest, the aversion to steady labor which it induces, and the low and feeble tone of mind which it encourages. If we would be really wise, we must diligently apply ourselves, and confront the same continuous effort that our forefathers did; for labor is still, and ever will be, the inevitable price set upon everything that is valuable. We must be satisfied to work with a purpose, and wait the results with patience. All progress, of the best kind, is slow ; but to him who works faithfully and zealously the reward will, doubtless, be vouch- safed in good time. The spirit of industry, embodied in a man’s daily life, will gradu- ally lead him to exercise his powers on objects outside himself, of greater dignity and more extended usefulness. And still we must labor on; for the work of self-culture is never finished. ‘‘To be employed,”’ said the poet Gray, ‘‘is to be happy.” ‘‘It is better to wear out than to rust out,’’ said Bishop Cumberland. ‘‘Have we not all eternity to rest in?’’ exclaimed Arnauld. Work, the watchword, calls from every- where for men to equip themselves with knowledge, for the struggle of life. Progress in knowledge should be the aim of old and young; the needs of the times demand it. Man was designed for work, not for ease.
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138 FROM FARMER BOY TO COLONIAL GOVERNOR. Most people want the results of self-culture without the work. Knowledge acquired without study and labor is not education. Those accustomed to learn easily will reject that which is accompanied by study and labor. We should desire to rise by study and hard work, whose results will endure the tests of time and use. | FROM FARMER BOY TO COLONIAL GOVERNOR. HE American farm has given this nation and the world at large some of the most illustrious men that have within the century just closing adorned the earth and strengthened the race by their presence, influence, and ability. Nature’s true noblemen have, from Wash- ington to Lincoln, and from Lincoln to Gar- field, come from the quiet, charming, virtuous country homes of the land, to lead Americans in every social struggle, and in every national crisis, to victory and to renown. Witness the following narrative of a noble soul’s success, the triumph of a brave farmer’s boy, the march from the plow to the highest honors a grateful nation can bestow, the governorship of an imperial domain, the Philippine Archipelago. This historic group of fourteen hundred islands, with ten millions of people, is, for General Merritt, its first governor, as it is for the United States of America, a new field. Appointed to this high office, General Merritt is not only honored, but has before him duties that will demand the display of all the qualities of greatness he has already shown, and’ others that he will, no doubt, disclose. Said General Banks, ‘‘ Responsibility educates men.’’ General Merritt has not only to fight, but, by wisdom, to pacify, organize, and rule these people, for their own good and the‘honor of the United States. Wesley Merritt, born in New York City, in 1836, was graduated at West Point, April 5th, 1862; took part in Stoneman’s raid about Richmond, and had command of a cavalry brigade ; he was breveted major for valor at Gettysburg, after having received suc- cessive brevets for bravery at Yellow Tavern, Hawes’ Shop, and’ Winchester. At Five Forks, he was, for courage, breveted briga- dier- and then major-general in the regular army ; and, later, was commissioned major- general. He did good service on the frontier till 1882, when he was put in charge of West Point. He afterwards served again at Fort Leavenworth. seAt, The following interesting facts taken from ‘‘The New York Herald’ and ‘‘The Army and Navy Journal”’ show the inherent power and extraordinary gifts of this illustrious — soldier. Merritt won fame and honor as Sheridan’s chief officer in the great battles of the Civil War. He was an unrelenting warrior, once fighting nine battles in ten consecutive days. . His father, John Willis Merritt, was a New York lawyer. When Wesley was four years old, his father, having a large and increasing family, abandoned law for agriculture, and bought a farm at ‘‘ Looking-Glass Prairie,”’ near Belleville, Illinois, not far from St. Louis. The boy Wesley attended a school of Christian Brothers at Belleville. He worked for three years on the farm with his © brothers, raising corn and pork. . Young Merritt often drove the farm team seventeen miles to town, getting fifteen cents a bushel for his corn. There was little money then in circulation, and pasteboard checks were used instead. At sixteen, Gov- ernor Bissell secured him a cadetship at West Point. ! ‘‘Up to that time,’’ said Merritt, ‘‘I had no idea of ever becoming a soldier. My ambition was to be a good lawyer and poli- tician, and enter public life. I believed that my forte lay in discussion and public speak- ing. However, when my father pointed out the great advantages of a West Point educa- tion, a careful consideration of the subject convinced me of its wisdom. I accepted his views and went to West Point. The course of study was for five years. I got along very well. I did not stand high in my class except in English, and was rather slow in . mathematics. I think I was in the only class ever graduated from that institution which took a course occupying full five years.”’ The farms of America make of the youths who toil thereon the most resourceful and self-reliant men in the world. ‘*Aim at the highest prize: If there thou fall, Thou’lt haply reach the one not far below.”’ CHEERFULNESS AT WORK. EVER did Thomas Carlyle write nobler lines than these: ‘‘Give us, O give us, the man who sings at his work be his occupation what it may! He willdo morein the same time, he will do it better. One is scarcely sensible to fatigue whilst one marches to music. Wondrous is the strength of cheerfulness, altogether past calculation its powers of endurance.”’
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ANDREW CARNEGIE. A NorasBLeE EXAMPLE OF SELF-ACHIEVED SUCCESS. HE subject of this sketch was born on the 25th of November, 1837, in Dum- fermline, near Edinburgh, Scotland. His father, William Carnegie, was a master linen weaver. Andrew received his early education from his mother, but at the age of eight he was sent to the local school- master. Scarcely had he started on his studies, however, when his father was deprived of work through the introduction of steam power. So the family left Scot- land and came to Allegheny City, Pa. At the age of twelve, Andrew did his share towards the support of the _— by work- ing as a bobbin boy. in a cotton factory, at $1.20 per week. By con- stant study and obser- vation he learned to run a small steam engine in the cellar of the factory, and afterwards to act as clerk for his employer. At the age offourteen | he obtained a position as messenger boy for the Ohio Telegraph Co., where he finally became an operator at $25 per month. This wasa wel- come change, as the death of his father had left him the sole ie is of the family. His next position, as an operator, was with the Pennsylvania Rail- road Company. Here he rapidly mastered the details of train despatch- ing, and perfected a system so superior to all existing methods that he was promoted, first, to the position of secretary to the super- intendent, and afterwards to the superin- tendency of the western division, at the age of twenty. He was instrumental in intro- ducing the Woodruff sleeping cars, :and from his investment in them realized the begin- ning of his fortune. In 1861, he rendered good service to the Government, in charge of the military rail- roads and telegraphs, but his next. business venture was in the famous Storey Farm, Oil Creek, Pa., which he bought, with two Copyright, ’96. ANDREW CARNEGIE. others, for $40,000. Its value soon rose to $5,000,000, and one year’s dividend alone amounted to $1,000,000. _ After disposing of his interest in thie busi- ness, he started the Keystone Bridge Works, of Pittsburg, Pa. This was soon followed by the Union Iron Mill and the Edgar Thompson Steel Mill. After buying out his rival,the Homestead Steel Works, and build- ing other great plants, he became, and has remained, the largest iron and steel manu- facturer in the world, employing 25,000 men, whose monthly wages aggregate $1,125,000. The reasons for his success are not hard to find. Hampered by - poverty and hardships, but employing all. his available time in self- improvement, he was bound to rise. He gladly acknowledges that the education which enabled him to advance was gained by the study of books loaned him by a Colo- nel Anderson, of Alle- gheny, who opened his library to working boys and men on Saturdays. In a like spirit of phi- lanthropy, Mr. Carnegie has given large sums to various cities for the foundation ox «roe libraries. His ‘‘luck” may be analyzed as the possession of a clear mind, a strong will, the ability to see opportuni- ties, the ambition to take quick advantage of them, and the power of will to ‘“‘stick’’ until all difficulties were overcome. In the face of his experience—and he is only one of many—no man should feel discouraged because his lot is cast ‘‘at the bottom of the ladder.’’ Garfield has said, ‘Poverty is uncomfortable, as I can testify ; but nine times out of ten the best thing that can happen toa young man is to be tossed overboard, and compelled to sink or swim for himself. In all my acquaintance I never knew a man to be wciaheraae who was worth the saving.”’ B. L. H. Dabbs. 139
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140 A PRINTER’S SUCCESS. Persist, if thou wouldst truly reach thine ends, For failures oft are but advising friends. From a printer’s apprentice, carrying his dinner in a napkin and working day and night to get a living, Robert Bonner rose to be the owner of millions and a leader in many departments of life. He did not get his fortune by any trick or streak of luck, but by steady, honest effort, careful saving, and prudent investment. Bonner might be called the father of advertising. He saw its value ; he dared heights of boldness in calling attention to his wares that amazed his con- temporaries. He was alwaysthe champion of right, and, at an early age, allowed himself to be turned out of school for his part in defend- ing a boy whom he knew to be innocent. The quickest typesetter in the office of the Hartford ‘‘Courant,’’ he, on one occasion, set up the President’s message, at the rate of 1,700 ems an hour, to enable that paper to get the message out in advance of other papers. From Hartford he went to New York, and, in the broader field, soon conquered his way to a place among the prominent, leading, and successful business men of the metropolis. He sometimes invested every dollar he had in bringing his enterprises before the people, but would not get into debt, and always refused to accept credit. When he began on the Hartford ‘‘ Courant ”’ he got his board and lodging, $25 for the first year, $35 for the second, and $45 for the third. Never having had any school advan- tages to speak of, he endeavored to learn all he could from the copy he set up. He always saved something. Never accumula- ting money for the sake of getting rich, he went on the principle of living always within his income, and so his bank account grew. One day after he went to New York he found that he had $70 ahead, and with this opened a bank account, keeping up the deposits until they amounted to $1,000 a week. When he bought the New York ‘*Ledger’’ it was a little financial sheet. Bon- ner made it a family journal and employed some of the most noted writers in the coun- try to contribute to it. He paid these con- tributors such extravagant prices for their work that all the newspapers of the country ridiculed his lack of judgment without con- sidering that he was getting his money’s worth out of them in free advertising. So he became immensely rich. He attributed his remarkable success to perseverance. A PRINTER’S SUCCESS. A GOOD MANNER. HERE is something really magical about what is termed ‘‘a good manner’”’ that impresses itself upon even a stranger. Many aman has “ won life’s battle’”’ largely by this weapon. A young man left his Green Mountain home at the age of twenty, and started for the wide West, to seek his fortune. He was used to-poverty and hardship, and it did not dishearten him to find himself one day, ina town of Illinois, sixteen miles from Jackson- ville, with but a few pennies in his pocket, and no friend within a thousand miles to whom he could look for help. He had just walked from Jacksonville, but his coat over his arm was his heaviest baggage. He placed himself at once in the avenues of business, on the sharp lookout for any opening that might offer. A great sale of property, which lasted three days, was just beginning, and the auctioneer was looking for some one to act as clerk of the sale. This young man’s face and genial air pleased him, and he was at once offered the situation, at two dollarsa day. He went to work witha will, and by his winsome manner, ready wit, and obliging ways, won the hearts of the whole crowd before the first day was over. Such a young man those hearty Westerners felt they did not see every day. They must make a fixture of him. So, as soon as the sale was over, they offered hima position as teacher in one of their schools. This he gladly accepted, studying law in his leisure hours. His progress was rapid, and when twenty-one he opened his law office, and began regular practice. A year later he was by the legislature elected attorney- general of the state. The next year he was a member of the legislature. After that he was secretary of the State of Illinois, then judge of the supreme court for three years till elected to congress, where he served as representative and then senator till the end of his life. Stephen A, Douglas, the young man from the Green Mountains, had high talents, but his pleasant manner, from the beginning to the end of his career, was what gained him the larger share of his popularity and success. If the history of our citizens of wealth were written,’’ says Hon. William E. Dodge, ‘‘we should find that fully three-fourths have risen from comparatively small begin- nings to their present position.”’
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VALUE OF CONCENTRATION. VALUE OF CONCENTRATION. NE of the hardest tasks to master is to concentrate the whole attention upon the lesson of the morrow ; for the stu- dent in college to prepare for the next recita- tion without running into the ball field, or allowing his gaze to wander around the room, or doing anything else in order to cheat himself out of what he ought to do. In study, as in business, we must not only strike the iron while it is hot, but strike it until it is made hot. William A. Mowry tells a story of one of the foremost American scholars, who found himself spending two hours a day in pre- paring his Latin lessons. He determined to get that lesson in an hour and fifty minutes, and succeeded. When he afterwards sat down to learn his Latin he bent every energy to accomplish it in the shortest pos- sible time. He found, by daily trials, that he could learn it in an hour and forty-five minutes, and that the time required was diminishing. Concentrating all his powers upon the task, day by day, he soon found himself studying only an hour and a half upon it, then five, ten, and even thirty minutes less. Encouraged, he redoubled his efforts, and within a few months the lesson could be learned in less than half an hour, a thing absolutely impossible with his habits of study when he entered the school. It is not, indeed, the quantity of study that one gets through, or the amount of reading, that makes a wise man; but the appropriate- ness of the study to the purpose for which it is pursued ; the concentration of the mind, for the time being, on the subject under con- sideration; and the habitual discipline by which the whole system of mental applica- tion is regulated. Abernethy was even of opinion that there was a point of saturation in his own mind, and that if he took into it something more than it could hold, it had the effect only of pushing something else out. said: ‘‘Ifamanhas a clear idea of what he desires to do, he will seldom fail in selecting the proper means of accomplishing it.”’ BE AN OAK, NOT A VINE. HERE is, according to Dr. J. G. Holland, no surer sign of an unmanly and cow- ardly spirit than a vague desire for help, a wish to depend—to lean upon somebody and to enjoy the fruits of the industry of others. There are multitudes of young men Speaking of the study of medicine, he - 141 who indulge in dreams of help from some quarter coming in at a convenient moment to enable them to secure the success in life that they covet. The vision haunts them of some benevolent old gentleman with a pocketful of money, and a trunkful of mortgages, and stocks, and a mind remark- ably appreciative of merit and genius, who will, perhaps, give or lend them from ten to twenty thousand dollars, with which they will commence and go on swimmingly. - “To me,” adds the same writer, ‘‘one of the most disgusting sights in the world is that of a young man with healthy blood, broad shoulders, and a hundred and fifty pounds, more or less, of good bone and mus- cle, standing with his hands in his pockets and longing for help. I admit that there are toads in which the most independent pirit may accept of assistance—miay, in fact, as a-ehoiee-of évils; désire it ; but fora man who is able to serve himself, to desire the help of others in the accomplishment of his plans of life is positive proof that he has most unfortunate training, or that there is a leavén-of-meanness in his compo- sition that should make him shudder.”’ THE CALL OF CITIZENSHIP. E WISH to maintain a republican form of government as a beacon to the world. Then it behooves each citizen to justify his ideal of republicanism in his own personality. Let us disprove the idea that America is the paradise of the common- place, by aspiring to a higher degree of intel- lectual culture than we have yet attained. Let us show to the world that there is a dignity in a cultured mind and heart com- pared with which the honor of being descended from crowned heads and princes of the blood sinks into insignificance. WHAT EXPERIENCE TEACHES. XPERIENCE teaches that we become that which we make ourselves. Every man stamps his own value upon him- self, for we are great or little according to our will. Wetry to be honest, kind, and true, and little by little we become that for which we strive; and what once was difficult, by degrees becomes less and less so. Activity, goodness, benevolence, and temperance grow by use; and that which was once accom- plished with effort becomes easy and natural. Thus a man may make himself generous, just, sympathetic, and magnanimous—civil, polite, forbearing, and gentlemanly.
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142 SELF-RESPECT. ELF-RESPECT is the noblest garment with which a man may clothe himself— | the most elevating feeling with which the mind can be inspired. One of Pytha- goras’ wisest maxims, in his ‘‘Golden Verses,”’ isthat with which heenjoinsthe pupil to ‘‘rev- erence himself.’’?. Borneup by this high idea, he will not defile his body by sensuality, nor his mind by servile thoughts. This senti- ment, carried into daily life, will be found at the root of all virtues—cleanliness, sobriety, chastity, morality, and religion. ‘‘The pious and just honoring of ourselves,’’ said Milton, ‘‘may be thought the radical moisture and fountain head from whence every laudable and worthy enterprise issues forth.’’ To think meznly of one’s self, is to sink in one’s own estimation as well as in the estimation | of others. And as the thoughts are, so will the acts be. Man cannot aspire if he look down ; if he will rise, he must look up. The very humblest may be sustained by the proper indulgence of this feeling. Poverty itself may be lifted and lighted up by self- respect ; and it is truly a noble sight to see a poor man hold himself upright amidst his temptations, and refuse to demean himself by low actions. Self-control and self-respect, its essential concomitant, ensure the production of that true type of man and citizen of whom it may well be written : a He serves his country best . Who lives pure iife and doeth righteous deed, And walks straight paths, however others siray, And leaves his sons, as uttermost bequest, A stainless record, which all men may read. HOW HABIT GAINS IN STRENGTH. ABIT gains in strength by repetition of the act. Penmanship is a habit of the hand, and so are knitting and sewing. As the habit is perfected we become less and less conscious of the act, and finally do it unconsciously. This is a very important - principle in education. Mental processes, like speaking, writing, spelling, etc., must be made mechanical. Hereisthe right place for mechanical teaching by means of drill. These processes should be made almost wholly unconscious. Itis practice and not the learning of rules, that accomplishes the result. These processes should also be made reflexes; as the spinal cord is the organ for reflex actions, we might almost say that spelling ought to be made a function of the spinal cord, like knitting ‘SELF-RESPECT. and sewing. One has not been properly taught to spell a word if he can spell it only when he watches the spelling: he should’ be able to spell it correctly uncon- sciously. All mental energy expended in watching one’s spelling, punctuation, pro- nunciation, etc. is wasted. If the schools will train students to speak, write, and spell almost entirely without conscious thought of these processes, they will set free mental energy for purposes of thinking, which is equivalent to ‘‘furnishing brains.’’ A per- son who must watch his language when he expresses himself is hampered all his life. TRUE COURAGE. ((¢(/THE greater part of the courage that is needed in the’ world is not of an heroic kind. Courage may be dis- | played in every-day life as well as on historic fields of action. The common need, is for courage to be honest, courage to resist temp- tation, courage to speak the truth, courage to be what we really are, and not pretend to to be what we are not, courage to live hon- estly within our means, and not dishonestly upon the means of others.”’ HABIT AND EDUCATION. ABIT is, in a broad sense, a characteris- tic of all material things. The folds in your coat are habits of the texture of the cloth. Wood and iron frequently bent into special shape, tend to remain in that shape. There is a kind of inertia in matter in this respect. Comte called it the ‘‘indo- lence of nature.’’ Physicists speak even of the ‘‘fatigue’’ of steel. All habits have a physical basis. Our mental and moral habits are based on the physiological habits of our nerve centers. “Tt is not work that kills men,’’ says Henry Ward Beecher, ‘‘it is worry. Work is healthy: you can hardly put more upon a man than he can bear. Worry is rust upon the blade. It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery, but the friction.”’ “You cannot dream yourself into a char- . acter; you must hammer and forge your- self one.’’ ‘‘ The heights by great men reached and kept, Were not attained by sudden flight ; But they, while their companions slept, Were toiling upward in the night.”’
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STUDENTS WHO HAVE BENEFITED THEMSELVES THROUGH HOME STUDY IN THE INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. FROM MACHINIST TO DRAFTSMAN AND DESIGNER. I have worked ever since I was twelve years of age, but today I ‘possess a good mechanical education. I have finished the Com- plete Mechanical ‘Course of The In- ternational Corre- spondence Schools, and have received their diploma. I have risen from an ordinary machinist ee to be a draftsman and designer, and now hold a responsible position with a good salary, whick is largely due to the thorough course of instruction received. I am now taking the Electrical Engineering Course, and hope to rise still higher.—Alex. McKendrick (C. 2452, M. E. 8369), Paterson, N. J. IS NOW A MUNICIPAL ENGINEER. I am proud to acknowledge myself a graduate of The International Correspond- Bo ence Schools. Im- mediately after completing my course, I applied for the position of engineer for Ply- mouth, Pa. The fact that I held the Schools’ Diploma, obtained the posi- tion forme. After I had been working one year, the coun- cil unanimously recommended my reelection, on account of very satisfactory work. In 1898 I was elected for the same position, and also as engineer for Edwards- ville. In addition to this work I am able to do considerable outside surveying, mapping, etc. AslongasI live, I will endeavor to bea credit to the School to which I oweso much.— David Thomas (S. M. 80, B. 228), Piymouth, Pa. | 14 but for the instruc- ENGINEER IN CHARGE OF A LARGE PLANT. It affords me great pleasure to say a good word for The International Correspondence Schools. I completed the Stationary Engi- neering Course nearly two years ago, and at once took up the Electrical Engineering Course. During this time, I have been able to accept, in succession, two positions of responsibility, neither of which I could have filled tion received from theSchools. I have advanced from run- ninga7/’ X 9/’sim- ple engine toa 400- horsepower c 0 m- pound-condensing engine for a street- railway plant, and the usual electrical apparatus. The Schools are doing more to elevate the standard of engineers and elec- tricians than any other agency, and will always receive my hearty support.— Horace A. Dodge (H. 13538, M. E. 1616, A. D. 147), Pres. Association No. 22, N. A. S. E., Rock- ford, Ill. HAS BECOME AN ELECTRICIAN AND INVENTOR. I cannot recommend The International Correspondence Schools too highly. Since taking the Electrical Power and Lighting Course, I have become electrician for the New Union Station, St. Louis, Mo. From the knowledge gained in the Course, I have been able to invent and success- fully procure patents on mechanical and elec- trical devices in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, and France.—Geo. A, McDonnell (J. 113, H. 7665), St. Louis, Mo.
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144 FROM TRAPPER TO SUPERINTENDENT. I have worked in and around mines for upwards of 27 years, and have advanced myself from trapper to superintendent. I supplemented my practical expe- rience by devoting all my spare time to the study of the Complete Coal Mining Course of The International Correspondence Schools, and ac- quired a thorough theoretical knowl- edge of mining. This knowledge has enabled me, on several occasions, to successfully meet severe tests of my ability asa surveyor. In one case I ran an entry 500 feet, almost a half circle in shape. The workmen started at each end and the connection was perfect. All my theoretical knowledge I gained through the Schools. —James Macleery ( C. M. 34, S. M. 120), East Branch, W. Va. CARPENTER ADVANCED TO CONTRACTOR AND BUILDER. I take pleasure in stating that I have derived great benefit from the method of teaching, as it is thoroughly practical. The Instruction and Question Papers are clear, easily under- stood by any one, and most thorough. The method of instruc- tion is satisfactory in all respects, and the work sent in under- goes such careful ex- amination that I have been surprised at what minute mistakes receive correction. As far as I have progressed with my course, it has been very beneficial to me. I have been able to advance myself from a carpenter to a contractor and builder, and expect event- ually to become an architect, for all of which I credit the Schools.—John J. Wollett (A. 172), Jefferson, Wis. S T Soe a TS WHO H. 4 VE BENEFITED THEMSEL ae CHIEF MACHINIST ON A WARSHIP. To the man who works from 10 to 14 hours a day, and whose means is limited to the small pay received by the engineer at the bottom of the ladder, I have this to say regarding The International Correspondence Schools, of Scranton, Pa. I believe it is just the thing necessary to decrease his hours of labor and increase his salary, since the man who has the best knowledge of engineering I was a little skeptical gets ahead the fastest. at first regarding the correspondence system of instruc- tion, but the man- ner in which things were explained was a revelation to me. I found the knowl- edge gained in the Schools of great service to me in obtaining and fill- ing the responsible position of Chief Machinist on one of Uncle Sam’s ships dur- ing our war with Spain. Somebody hit the spike in the right place when he said, ‘‘To earn more, learn more.’’—H. D. Hill (H. 7860), Cleveland, Ohio. HIS SALARY RAISED— {,000 OTHERS REDUCED. The benefits derived from my Complete Mechanical Course in the Schools are many. I commenced receiving extra pay for draw- ings soon after com- pleting the subject of Mechanical Drawing. During the hard times of 1895-96 my wages, as engine runner, were raised, while those of every other employe, to the number of 1,000 men, from superin- tendent to the boy who gathered the time books for the different departments, were cut to a lower scale. I am now my own employer.—Levi C. Beardsley (C. 287), Garden, Mich.
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ADVERTISEMENTS. Vil There ts no Kodak but the Eastman Kodak. as By the KODAK ARE YOU INTERESTED IN ELECTRICITY ? ut If you are, send for sample copyofthe . . . AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN a0 Illustrated Monthly Journal of Practical Electrical Engineering, ment locds aud unloads in broad daylight. The film is put up in cartridge form and is perfectly pro- tected from light by a strip of black paper extending the full length of the film and several inches beyond each end. To load: simply insert this cartridge in the Kodak; thread up the black paper ; close the FILM cameraand givethekeyafew CAfTRIDGE. turns, thus bringing the film into position. The picture taking may then begin. The roll of a dozen exposures being com- pleted the black paper covers all, and the cartridge can be removed as easily as it was inserted. Film Cartridges weigh ounces where plates weigh pounds and are non-break- able. All Kodaks use light-proof film cartridges and load in daylight. Kodaks $5.00 to $35.00. | Catalogues free at the EASTMAN KO DAK CO. dealers or by matt. _ Rochester, N. Y., ee THE NIAGARA dr. Bas We A Perfect LANIAGAR WEAMERA COD aes CAMERA FOR 35 CTS PRESS a Guaranteed to take out-door and interior pictures, 214x 2% inches, equal to any higher price camera made. Specially ground lens. Shutter arranged for Snap-Shot and Time Exposures. Uses glass plates. Sent to any address, prepaid, upon receipt of 35 CENTS in stamps or coin. Niagara Camera Company, 331-333 Main Street, - perp BUFFALO, N. Y. It is a practical paper for practical men, and HAS THE LARGEST PAID CIRCULATION of any ELECTRICAL JOURNAL IN THE WORLD. Among other features, it contains articles on Steam Engineering, Interior Wiring, Telephone Practice, Construction of Appa- ratus, Electrical Measurements, and many other subjects of practical interest. Subscription Price, $1.00 a year. Catalogue of Electrical Books Sent on Application. ‘ ° AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN COMPANY, Havemeyer Building, . - New York, N. Y. F -; 7 ee a er Se — poe 1. - a ——— : pp D ate = WE EY } SS eS _ : for bookkeepers, correspondents and stenographers. Price $1.50. Send 25c and 14kt. FO U N TA | N P E N S I willsend pen prepaid for examination. If founa satisfactory pay the balance $1.25. After a week’s trial,if dissatisfied I willrefundyour money. Agts wanted. R. W. WHITNEY, CLEVELaND,O. Diamond For Dressing Emery and Carborundum Wheels. Note our method of Setting, preventing Loss of Diamond. MYERS Tools Diamond & Tool Co., sie Manufacturers , Cleveland, Ohio.
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VIII ADVERTISEMENTS. 20,000 Agents Wanted. Every subscriber to «‘The Mechanic Arts Magazine’’ is wanted to secure subscriptions to our three new magazines, ‘‘The Mechanic Arts Magazine,’’ «The Steam-Electric Magazine,’’ and «‘ The Building Trades Magazine.”’ Cash Commissions Allowed For New Subscriptions. Terms sent on receipt of the subjoined blank. The Best List of Premiums Ever Printed, to Choose From | xe those who prefer to receive standard articles at wholesale rates, instead of Cash Commissions. Our ‘‘ Agents’ Premium List’’ of Drawing Instruments and Supplies, Machinists’ Tools, Electrical Apparatus and Appliances, Tools for the Building Trades, and Miscellaneous Articles, such as Elgin Watches, Bicycles, Rifles, Cameras, Typewriters, Musical Instruments, Etc.—350 different Premiums in all—will be sent free on receipt of the subjoined blank. Cut this out, fill the blank spaces, and mail to Scranton, Pa., U. S. A. ACCEPTANCE OF AGENCY BLANK. To be filled in by all who wish to secure subscriptions to the Magazines, to count for Cash Commissions or on Premiums. To THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY, Scranton, Pa. : I desire to solicit subscriptions for the Magazines indicated below: MARK X OPPOSITE THE The Mechanic Arts Magazine. MAGAZINE OR : ; Soothe The Steam-Electric Magazine. YOU DESIRE “Tas . THE AGENCY, The Building Trades Magazine. 8 sy ameter nt eon cist nce nen et peers 8 1 mame teen Ry Anya POR SAT yk onic Simei anh ig, > Shenae hn mR pM Oo! 189...... Peet, Bt; GAG NOs si 2.555...5.6.0.5:..- LiF ae AS in ce: Be ang “a saad Dene Ea ore= Nea CREO oie. nos cpeaterati is Gite eres Oe, Bee, OF CORE: soos Rip eR ie. MW Ris MA Bg soos «pss EVs sca at wo haces heen edo NO. Bnloyes, <5. sci. LOU sic6 2h is ool Re ant ai sail gialiet bes SEB ne GRRE RL RS Rete EO EE EIR AN AGENT’S OUTFIT including our new “Agents? Premium List,’’ sample copies of the Magazines, and subscription blanks, SENT FREE TO ALL who signify, by sending in this blank, their intention to secure subscriptions. THE COLLIERY ENGINEER CO., Publishers, SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A.
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ADVERTISEMENTS. IX Thisisa Fly’s Foot one of the thousands of interesting and in- structive things which may be exam- ined by any one with this microscope. Magnifies 180 diameters (32,400 times). A First-Class MICROSCOPE and Outfit for Work for $16.00. A Reliable Scientific Instrument. Just the Thing for Winter Evenings as Well as Summer Afternoons. An inexhaustible mine of amusement and infor- mation for young and old. Easy to use. Perfect optical results. ‘‘One may use the microscope a lifetime and never look at the same thing twice.”’ Outfit consists of microscope as shown, twelve prepared objects, such as fly’s wing, foot of insect, etc., book describing and illustrating 1,000 common microscopic objects, glass slides, and covers for mount- ing objects, forceps, etc. ' Microscopes, all prices, up to $500.00. BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO., Rochester, N. Y. New York City. Chicago. The Tradesman is full of practical, every-day information for the up-to-date manufacturer and machinery user. ' It is his reference book. To reach the purchaser and user of Machinery and Supplies in the whole South, use The Tradesman. tion write For full informa- The Tradesman, Chattanooga, Tenn. A Special Offer OF i THE OFFICE PAPER. Send 15 cents for three months’ trial subscription. ® deals with Office Management, Rou- Business tine and Methods, Accounting, Adver- — tising, Economics in its relation to Finance, Transportation, Manufacturing, Commerce, Business Legislation, Credits and Collections. It is a paper every business man should have in his office. Subscription $1.00 a year. BUSINESS PUBLISHING COMPANY, {8S Astor Place, NEW YORK. f 9-Blace Sportsman's Knife “Worth $1.80 GIVEN AWAY This cut is one-half its size. Write at once and we will tell you how we doit. Address THE AMATEUR SPORTSMAN, 28 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. The ‘‘Southern Farm Magazine’”’ EXCEPTIONAL OPPORTUNITY TO MAKE MONEY. —a high-class zine, devoted to Southern agriculture—is desirous of increasing its subscription list and will offer very liberal terms to agents. Subscriptions can be secured in every part of the country, as the Magazine is of interest to farmers where- ever located. Address for sample copies and particulars, ‘*Agents Department,” ‘‘Southern Farm Magazine,”’ Baltimore, Md. THE ENGINEERING RECORD, which gives special prominence to ARCHITECTURAL, BUILDING, and MUNICIPAL ENGINEERING, Will mail a list of its PUBLICA- TIONS and a sample copy, on request, if this offer is mentioned. Address, THE ENGINEERING RECORD, 100 William Street, New York.
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XxX ADVERTISEMENTS. Our Great Offers. Cosmopolitan, Leslie’s, and McClure’s Magazines, one year for only $2.50, or Any Three $1.00 Magazines One Year for $2.50, excepting Ladies’ Home Journal, provided that one of them is either Leisure Hours, Leslie’s Monthly, or Amer- ican Kitchen Magazine, or Parisian. Leslie’s Monthly, These Three Leisure Hours, One Year Am. Kitchen Magazine, for $2.25. Either two of above one year, $1.50. Send 10 Cents for copies of Magazines, our New Cut Rate Catalogue and our Patriotic Calendar. Printed in Gold and White and your choice of the following fine portraits: Hobson, Lee, Long, Alger, Merritt, Sampson, Sigsbee, or Schley. Mention this paper and address THE SYNDICATE NEWS CO., PLAINVILLE, MASS. Trial Subscriptions. From any one who mentions THE MECHANIC ARTS MAGAZINE we will accept “ trial sub- scriptions ”’ for a period of three months, at the following rates : Regular Edition, - - - - $1.00 Imperial Edition, - - - - 2.00 International Edition, - - - 5.00 [PUBLISHED EVERY SATURDAY. ] AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND BUILDING NEWS CO., 211 Tremont Street, BOSTON. Ifthe Best . . is not too good for you, you will be satisfied with sip ee Telephone Magazine for 1899. If you are interested in the operation or construction of Exchanges, Line Construction, Interior Wiring, Modern Exchange Apparatus, Telephone Troubles and How to Find Them, or in any other Branch of Telephony, send us . . A Dollar Bill with your name and address, and the Magazine will reach you regularly for a year. Sample copies free. Special rates to Agents and Clubs. - Electrical Engineering Publishing Co., Newsdealers Sell It. Monadnock Block, CHICAGO. Mammoth Offer for onty 25 CENTS, Wewill mail you on receipt <7 of this amount, one picture ‘‘The Battle- ship Maine”’, size 11 x 16, in 11 colors, worth 25 cents; One picture of each of the Fighting Admirals, { Dewey, Sampson and Schley, } worth 30 cents; 250 Gummed Labels with your name and ad- dress neatly printed thereon, worth 50 cents; A Six Month’s Subscription to NEW IDEAS, a sixteen page _ illustrated monthly worth 25 cents; One Piece of 50 cent Music; Insert Your Name in Our Gummed Directory, worth $1.00, from which you will receive a large mail from Manufac- turers, Publishers, Dealers, etc. ALL these—total value $2.830—ALL FOR ONLY 2 ‘cents, stamps or silver. Address quick, NEW IDEAS, Station K 314, Fhiladelphia, Pa. Heating and Ventilation. A Monthly Journal for ARCHITECTS, HEATING ENGINEERS, STEAM FITTERS. PRACTICAL. TECHNICAL. RELIABLE. $i a year. Sample copies, {Oc. H. and V. PUBLISHING CO., 146 World Building, - - New York. We Want 10,000 New Subscribers and are therefore making a Special Trial Rate, for a limited time, which you can find out about by writing us. If interested in electricity send for free sample copy of the When you see the sample you'll want it every week. We can fill orders for any electrical book published, on receipt of price. Send for catalog. _ Electrician Pub. Co., 510 Marquette Bldg., Chicago.
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ADVERTISEMENTS. XI A Monthly Journal devoted to STEAM ENGINEERING and practical work relative to the Economic Generation and Transmission of Power. Seventy-Six Pages. Profusely Illustrated. Price $1.00 per Year in Advance. Send for Sample Copy. Address: THE POWER PUBLISHING COMPANY, 145 and 146 Pulitzer Building, New York. Send 15 Cents for three months’ trial subscription to “The Book-Keeper” A handsome 200-page magazine for Book-keepers, Cashiers, and Business Men. It will teach you Book-keeping, Short- hand, Penmanship, Law, Short Cuts, Corporation Accounting, Banking, Business Pointers, Amusing Arithmetic, Lightning Calculations, etc., etc. Price $1 a Year. THE BOOK-KEEPER CoO., Ltd., Department 152, Detroit, Mich. Pde wee ee eT TTT ad — A ell Ai: gD ReTICAL! eye @_APPLICATIO MOST POPULAR OF TECHNICAL PERIODICALS. THE ELECTRICAL WORLD is the largest, most handsomely illustrated, and most widely circulated journal ofits kind in the world. It is noted for its popular treatment of subjects in simple language, devoid of technicalities. THE ELECTRICAL WORLD devotes a large part of its space to alternating and multiphased cur- rents—subjects that no one who wishes to keep up the latest practice can afford to neglect, and which no other electrical journal in the world treats so fully—while the weekly digest of current technical electrical literature gives a complete resume of current progress in electrical science and its application. Subscription, “tre"Onited States, Canada or Mexico, $3.00 a Year. ee BOOKS ON ELECTRICAL SUBJECTS. WANTED. There is no work relating to electricity, street railways or kindred subjects that is not either pub- lished or for sale at the office of THE ELECTRICAL WORLD. Books promptly mailed to any address, postage prepaid, on receipt of price. Catalogue and informa- tion free. Address and make orders payable to The W. J. Johnston Company, 9 Murray Street, New York. fe ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee eee ee ee KE e ee eee A AAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAe eee Faeeweeseer22wrweerewewereewwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwnwwwwee
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XII ADVERTISEMENTS. 7 % 7, Don't Walk at a Snail’s Pace by a K Ee He. “Rule o’ Thumb” Methods. ee F XPRESS! Gee ee VOLES. ~ Don “Express of Knowledge” and secure advancement and success. The demand for educated mechanics cannot be supplied. “Keep up with the procession,” or you will be left behind. We have helped thousands to success. We can help YOU. xe Fe eF Fe SH ( ‘‘T decided to take a Course in The International Correspond- 7 ence Schools during its early days, being No. 10 in the old Elec- trical Course. I have never had cause to regret my decision, as the amount paid for the Course was trifling compared with the bene- fits received. I know of some who started in the electrical field earlier than I, and are still where they started ; but—thanks to the Schools—I find no difficulty in getting better positions than they. Iam now able to install complete plants of any kind, making all specifications and drawings for them myself. Jam now electrician for the town of Moncton, N. B.’’—Geo. M. McDonald (M. E. 1869). xy F&F eF er We teach that part of your business which cannot be learned from expe- rience—the technical, or scientific part. We have made architects of carpenters, civil engineers of surveyors, mechanical and electrical engineers of mechanics, mine superintendents of miners, first-class steam engineers of laborers and firemen, sanitary engineers of plumbers, and have placed thousands in inde- pendent positions through our instruction. Write TODAY. Tell what you wish to study, and we will send you full particulars. THE INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS, SCRANTON, PA. A trwve vv
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TE sor i aia a ti a al Ot Ol BE ae a i tamale {One Year's Free Trial We will ship a PIANO or ORGAN anywhere upon the distinct understanding that if it is not satisfac- tory to purchaser after twelve months’ use, we will take it back. It would be impossible for us to make public this unique Cornish Plan of doing business were it not backed up by the strongest evidence of our absolute responsibility. The Cornish American Pianos and Organs are warranted for twenty-five years, and with every warrant there is our personal guarantee endorsed by a business reputation of nearly fifty years, and plant and property worth over One Million Dollars. Our success in the seme has been mainly owing to the confidence placed in us by the public, and we have a quarter of a million satisfied patrons bearing testi- mony to the honesty of our methods and the perfection of the Cornish American Pianos and Organs, THERE’S MONEY FOR YOU IN THE CORNISH CO-PARTNERSHIP PLAN. ORGANS = come : FROM $25.00 By this cain ara it is possible for you to ides 3 a = —_—_—_— ——— or an organ without any cost, or to earn an acceptable sum o money by sharing our profits with us. A descriptive circular of Cas h or E asy PAYM E NTS. our plan sent with every catalogue. Special to Students of International Correspondence Schools. _A prompt response to this advertisement will secure a Discount of $10.00 on the list prices, as quoted in our 1899 Catalogue, on any CORNISH ORGAN, or $20.00 on the list prices if you buy a CORNISH PIANO. For complete descriptions of all the instruments made by us, write for our beautiful new catalogue for 1899, handsomely illustrated in colors, and with a frontispiece reproducing a recent oil painting by a distinguished artist, representing St. Cecilia and the Angelic Choir. This valuable book describes all the fifty styles of Cornish American Pianos and Organs, 1899 models. All pianos have the new patent Cornish Musical Attach- ment, which correctly imitates the Harp, Banjo, Guitar, Mandolin, Autoharp, Zither, etc., etc. All organs are fitted with the new Cornish Patent Multitone Combina- tion Action, producing the most beautiful orchestral effects. The catalogue also contains full particulars of the only right way to buy a first-class, high-grade piano or organ, namely, by the | WORLD-FAMOUS CORNISH PLAN. | Our bank, your bank, any bank REFERENCES. or any of the multitude of patrons who have purchased millions of dollars’ worth of instruments from us during the past fifty years. CORNISH & CO., Sishyd,eert FROM Complete with co team Makers of High Grade American CASH OR EASY PAYMENTS. Pianos and Organs. POPP My PL PN Py Pt Pg Py Pky Py Pay Pky Phy iy Pky Play Ny Go lay by RRP Ra IL IOI LA SOAR LT ir IY IP SIEGE IITA I IORI GR DLR TOI ORG IER GO IR I fe Ef Er sg
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EVERY DRAFTSMAN makes Blue Prints, and we make the most complete line of OOOO SOHOOOOSOOSO | Blue Print Frames and Cars. © © ® © & WE HAVE JUST ISSUED A eS : : © NEW CATALOGUE © A dives Styles and Sizes. © 112 Pp 17 being en- & AQES—tirel . @ New Styles of Steet Rules. © “ b © | Nexcaaree Newser § ® Dr awing sTa les. S New Center Punches. New », th aempame eas ra marae NEE Te, sR & Over 30. different Microm- & 50 o CATALOGUE FREE, ASK FORIT. © Styles @ THE L. S. © } STARRETT © to Choose from, ranging © ATHOL, MASS. U. 8. A. me pRB E Hom rs @ | $3.00 to $50.00. © © — 99999 O9OO9OOOSS | FW. Emerson Mfg. Co., 25 Mortimer St., Catalogue. Rochester, N. Y. | J t Wh t Y W t! As handy to you as a dictionary is us a Ou all SS 16 2 SChOtes: — “THE TOOL CATALOGUE,”’’ 1898 Edition. Over 500 pages, with discount sheet. Sent postpaid on receipt of 25 cents. MONTGOMERY & CO., The Tool Dealers, IOS Fulton Street, NEW YORK CITY. New York Store, CLEVELAND TWIST DRILL CO., Ohio USCA. Makers of TRADE a i . om TRADE MARK. a MARK. HIGH GRADE TWIST DRILLS and TOOLS. ‘vention Catalogue Free. 7 Buy the Genuine. Look for Trade Mark. Mechanic Arts Magasine. The Universities of West Virginia, Wisconsin, Cornell, Michigan, and nearly all others, use our catalogues as textbooks in their Mechanical studies. 6 Metal Workers’ catalogue—550 pages, and A Book of Tools’’— over 2000 Illustrations, all goods iY 6 Wood Workers’ catalogue — 400 Wood Workers Tools” — pages, over 2000 reer a regular Encyclopedia. Either catalogue sent by mail upon receipt of 25 cents to cover mailing expenses. Address: THE CHAS. A. STRELINGER CO., Box K, Detroit, Mich.