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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Understand educational requirements for careers in academic settings
- Understand career options in other industries
Academic Psychology
Psychologists can work in many different places doing many different things. In general, anyone wishing to continue a career in psychology at a 4-year institution of higher education will have to earn a doctoral degree in psychology for some specialties and at least a master’s degree for others. In most areas of psychology, this means earning a PhD in a relevant area of psychology. Literally, PhD refers to a doctor of philosophy degree, but here, philosophy does not refer to the field of philosophy per se. Rather, philosophy in this context refers to many different disciplinary perspectives that would be housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences.
Once someone earns a PhD, they may seek a faculty appointment at a college or university. Being on the faculty of a college or university often involves dividing time between teaching, research, and service to the institution and profession. Some people earning PhDs may enjoy research in an academic setting, yet may not be interested in teaching. These individuals might take on faculty positions that are exclusively devoted to conducting research. This type of position would be more likely an option at large, research-focused universities. Many 2-year colleges and schools need faculty to teach their courses in psychology. In general, many of the people who pursue careers at these institutions have master’s degrees in psychology, although some PhDs make careers at these institutions as well. r the supervision of other professionals in the field.
Other Careers
Individuals earning a PhD can work in a variety of settings, depending on their areas of specialization. For example, someone trained as a biopsychologist might work in a pharmaceutical company to help test the efficacy of a new drug. Someone with a clinical background might become a forensic psychologist and work within the legal system to make recommendations during criminal trials and parole hearings, or serve as an expert in a court case.
Clinical Psychology
Individuals who wish to become practicing clinicians have another option for earning a doctoral degree, which is known as a PsyD. A PsyD is a doctor of psychology degree that is increasingly popular among individuals interested in pursuing careers in clinical psychology. Clinical psychology is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behaviour. As such, it is generally considered to be a more applied area within psychology; however, some clinicians are also actively engaged in scientific research. Counselling psychology is a similar discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and mental hygiene in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy. Licensed clinical or counselling psychologists can work in a number of settings, ranging from private clinical practice to schools or hospital settings. It should be noted that clinical psychologists and psychiatrists do different things, and receive different types of education. While both can conduct therapy and counselling, clinical psychologists have a PhD or a PsyD, whereas psychiatrists have a doctor of medicine degree (MD). As such, licensed clinical psychologists can administer and interpret psychological tests, but only psychiatrists can prescribe medications.
As mentioned earlier, both Freud and Rogers provided perspectives that have been influential in shaping how clinicians interact with people seeking psychotherapy. While aspects of the psychoanalytic theory are still found among some of today’s therapists who are trained from a psychodynamic perspective, Roger’s ideas about client-centered therapy have been especially influential in shaping how many clinicians operate. Furthermore, both behaviourism and the cognitive revolution have shaped clinical practice in the forms of behavioural therapy, cognitive therapy, and cognitive-behavioural therapy. Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behaviour will be discussed in detail in later chapters of this textbook.
By far, this is the area of psychology that receives the most attention in popular media, and many people mistakenly assume that all psychology is clinical psychology.
Organizational Psychology
Organizational psychology is a subfield of psychology that applies psychological and sociological theories, management principles, and research findings about industrial and organizational settings. Organizational psychologists may act as consultants in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment. Businesses often seek the aid of organizational psychologists to make the best hiring decisions as well as to create an environment that results in high levels of employee productivity and efficiency. In addition to its applied nature, organizational psychologists also conduct scientific research on orgainzational behaviour (Riggio, 2013).
Health Psychology
Health psychology focuses on how health and well-being are affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. This particular approach is known as the biopsychosocial model (Figure 10.4.7). Health psychologists are interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research. Health psychologists might conduct research that explores the relationship between one’s genetic makeup, patterns of behaviour, relationships, psychological stress, and health. They may research effective ways to motivate people to address patterns of behaviour that contribute to poorer health (MacDonald, 2013).
Sport and Exercise Psychology
Researchers in sports psychology study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing. Research is also conducted on similar topics as they relate to physical exercise in general. The discipline also includes topics that are broader than sport and exercise but that are related to interactions between mental and physical performance under demanding conditions, such as fire fighting, military operations, artistic performance, and surgery.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system. For example, forensic psychologists (and forensic psychiatrists) will assess a person’s competency to stand trial, assess the state of mind of a defendant, act as consultants on child custody cases, consult on sentencing and treatment recommendations, and advise on issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony (American Board of Forensic Psychology, 2014). In these capacities, they will typically act as expert witnesses, called by either side in a court case to provide their research- or experience-based opinions. As expert witnesses, forensic psychologists must have a good understanding of the law and provide information in the context of the legal system rather than just within the realm of psychology. Forensic psychologists are also used in the jury selection process and witness preparation. They may also be involved in providing psychological treatment within the criminal justice system. Criminal profilers are a relatively small proportion of psychologists that act as consultants to law enforcement.
Psychology and Power
The study of psychology provides essential insights into the complex dynamics of social power, revealing how instinct, personality, and cultural context shapes human behavior within social structures. At a foundational level, an individual's characteristic response to authority is a product of their personality: some individuals habitually seek out power and leadership, some are highly submissive, while others are naturally rebellious or suspicious of compromise. Likewise, the manner in which power is wielded by authority figures—whether elected leaders, teachers, or police—is inherently shaped by their own psychological makeup.
Different psychological paradigms offer distinct frameworks for understanding these power relations. Psychoanalytic theory posits that our habitual responses to power and authority are determined by early-childhood experiences. Power motives, such as the ingrained need to dominate others or the desire to be directed, are organized into the personality early in life - a landmark example of this paradigm's application is the study of the Authoritarian Personality, which investigated individuals whose personality structures render them highly susceptible to appeals framed in terms of power. These individuals favor clear chains of command, are intolerant of ambiguity, project an exaggerated facade of toughness, and tend towards ethnocentrism.
While society often assumes that power corrupts, humanistic psychology argues the opposite: powerlessness corrupts the personality, by robbing the individual of a sense of meaning and agency. When individuals are stripped of these constructive forms of power, they may turn to aggression or violence. Modern mass society has been implicated in reducing people to insignificant others, or NPCs (non-player characters in modern slang). This widespread sense of systemic powerlessness and alienation can be a primary driver of deviance and violence.
Social psychology demonstrates how the pervasive influence of the social world can shape how individuals perceive basic sensory input, drive us to conform to normative expectations, and compel individuals to submit to power - sometimes with devastating consequences. Furthermore, sociological variables highlight how a lack of social power directly damages mental health. Poverty—a severe form of structural powerlessness—creates immense, chronic stress that frequently contributes to severe psychological disorders.
Ultimately, power and authority are not merely physical strength or economic resources; they are deeply embedded within the human psyche. From the childhood development of authoritarian traits to the destructive consequences of systemic powerlessness, psychological science provides the vital tools necessary for decoding how power shapes our minds, our relationships, and our societies.
10.5: Psychology and Society is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
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