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Exploring In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
The CDC uses the broader term assisted reproductive technology (ART) to refer to fertility treatments in which eggs, sperm, or embryos are handled outside the body. IVF is the most widely known form of ART. According to the CDC's 2022 national ART summary, 37.5% of ART treatment cycles resulted in live-birth deliveries, although success rates varied considerably by age and other factors. In addition, 85.9% of embryo-transfer cycles involved transferring a single embryo, reflecting the increasing use of single-embryo transfer (CDC, 2024).
Other factors—including age of the person providing the eggs, egg and sperm quality, duration and cause of infertility, uterine health, and clinical expertise—also influence outcomes. Because transferring multiple embryos can increase success rates, many clinics historically used this approach; however, it also raises the risk of multiple gestations, which are associated with greater obstetric complications.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), a fertilization technique used in IVF. (CC BY-SA 4.0; Dovidena via Wikimedia Commons.)
The microscope image above (Figure 9.6.1) illustrates intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), a technique in which a single sperm is injected directly into an egg using a fine needle while the egg is held in place by a micropipette.
Freezing eggs or embryos allows individuals to preserve options for future parenthood. Egg freezing, or oocyte cryopreservation, has become increasingly common among women who wish to delay childbearing for medical, educational, career, financial, or relationship reasons. Embryo freezing, or embryo cryopreservation, allows patients undergoing IVF to store fertilized eggs for future pregnancies without repeating egg retrieval and fertilization. Neither procedure guarantees a future pregnancy and both can be costly. These technologies expand reproductive choices while also raising questions about unequal access and, particularly with stored embryos, legal and ethical issues surrounding their future use.
Barriers to IVF Access
Financial and geographic barriers significantly influence who can access IVF as a pathway to parenthood. A single IVF cycle in the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars, and many patients require multiple cycles to achieve pregnancy. As a result, IVF is more accessible to individuals with higher incomes, stable employment, and comprehensive health insurance, while those with fewer financial resources may be unable to afford treatment.
Insurance coverage for IVF varies widely by state and insurance plan, and many states do not require insurers to cover fertility treatments. IVF clinics are also concentrated in urban areas, creating additional barriers for rural residents who may need to travel long distances for care. These challenges can be compounded by existing inequalities related to race, social class, sexuality, family structure, and immigration status. Together, financial, geographic, and social barriers make IVF more accessible to some individuals and families than others.
Regulatory Practices Around IVF
While IVF has expanded opportunities for parenthood, it also raises questions about medical oversight, patient protections, and the legal status of embryos. Although fertility clinics are subject to federal and state regulations and professional standards, questions remain about the adequacy and consistency of oversight. In a 2026 episode of The Daily, journalist Susan Dominus examines a case in which a fertility clinic mistakenly transferred embryos to the wrong patients, resulting in two families giving birth to children genetically related to the other family. The error, discovered months after the births, created profound emotional and legal challenges for both families (The Daily, 2026b).
The legal questions surrounding IVF extend beyond medical errors. Another episode of The Daily examines a dispute over frozen embryos following the breakdown of a marriage, raising questions about reproductive consent and who has the authority to determine whether embryos can be used to establish a pregnancy (The Daily, 2026a). Together, these cases illustrate how assisted reproductive technologies can create complex legal, ethical, and social questions about reproduction, family relationships, and parental rights.
Licenses and Attributions for In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Open Content, Shared Previously
Adapted by Sarah Earl-Novell from 10.13: In Vitro Fertilization and Artificial Implantation in Sexuality, the Self, and Society by Susan Rahman with Nathan Bowman, Dahmitra Jackson, Lushtak, Remi Newman, & Prateek Sunder, licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Modifications by Sarah Earl-Novell include remixing, editing, contextualization, and the addition of original content.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, December 10). National ART summary.
The Daily. (2026a, September 10). A couple breaks up. Who gets custody of their embryos? [Audio podcast episode]. The New York Times.
The Daily. (2026b, January 16). An I.V.F. mix-up and an impossible choice [Audio podcast episode]. The New York Times.
This page titled 9.6: In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) was last modified on Mon, 26 Oct 2026 19:27:33 GMT and is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Sarah Earl-Novell.
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