9: Language Culture and Society

Language as a Cultural System

Language serves as a fundamental cultural marker, encapsulating the essence and heritage of individuals. It reflects values, beliefs, and traditions, shaping perceptions and behaviors while playing a pivotal role in identity formation. Through language, individuals align themselves with specific cultures and communities, signaling aspects of social identity such as education, class, and regional background. Furthermore, language serves as a bridge connecting people to their cultural heritages and ancestral roots, preserving traditions across generations. In anthropology, cultures often are distinguished based on language groups, highlighting the profound influence of language as a cultural marker in defining and preserving societal norms and practices. In multicultural and linguistically diverse nations like India, where over 1652 languages are spoken, language acts as a binding marker of culture and identity (Priya, 2019).

Dialects

Dialects are variations of a language that occur within specific regions, social groups, or communities. They encompass differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, reflecting the unique linguistic traits of particular speech communities. Dialects can emerge due to geographical isolation, historical factors, or social distinctions, serving as markers of regional identity and cultural diversity. For instance, people in the South speak a little bit differently than people in the Midwest versus people in New York City. There are different ways to speak the same language. Dialects also may vary based on gender and sexuality. Ancient Sumerian women and men both spoke a Sumerian dialect called eme-ĝir. However, women also spoke a specific dialect called eme-sal (Whittaker, 2002).

Polari is a secret language or sociolect that originated in the British gay subculture in the mid-20th century. Developed as a form of coded communication to evade persecution and facilitate social interaction within the underground LGBTQ+ community, Polari incorporates elements from various sources, including Romani, Yiddish, Italian, and Cockney rhyming slang. It features distinctive vocabulary and slang expressions used primarily by gay men in the United Kingdom, with terms related to being gay, fashion, and social interactions. While Polari's usage declined with the decriminalization of gayness and increased social acceptance, it remains a fascinating example of how marginalized communities develop unique linguistic codes to navigate societal challenges and assert their identity. In a scene from the film Velvet Goldmine (Vachon et al., 1998), people speak in Polari.

Pronouns

Pronouns are linguistic tools used to refer to entities previously mentioned or to replace nouns in a sentence. They streamline communication by avoiding repetition and allowing for more concise expression. Common examples of pronouns include "he," "she," "it," "they," and "we," each serving a specific grammatical function within a sentence.

Many languages, such as Spanish, French, and German, feature gendered pronouns. For instance, Spanish uses "él" for "he" and "ella" for "she," while French employs "il" and "elle" respectively. In some languages with gendered pronouns, efforts have been made to introduce non-gendered alternatives to promote inclusivity. For example, in French, the gender-neutral pronoun "iel" has emerged as an alternative to "il" and "elle," aiming to accommodate non-binary and gender-nonconforming individuals (Kosnick, 2021). Many individuals simply use their name as their pronoun.

Conversely, some languages do not rely on gender-based pronouns. For instance, Turkish utilizes a single pronoun, "o," which can mean "he," "she," or "it," depending on the context. Similarly, Finnish lacks gendered pronouns altogether, using "hän" to refer to individuals regardless of gender. In these languages, pronouns are not tied to gender distinctions, reflecting a different approach to linguistic categorization and expression of identity.

Grammatical Gender

Grammatical gender is a linguistic feature found in many languages whereby nouns and pronouns are categorized into classes or genders based on characteristics such as biological sex, animacy, or arbitrary assignment (Comrie, 1999). This classification system often extends beyond living beings to inanimate objects and abstract concepts, influencing the agreement of other grammatical elements such as adjectives, articles, and verbs within a sentence.

In Spanish, grammatical gender is a fundamental aspect of the language, affecting the forms of articles, adjectives, and other grammatical elements. Nouns are categorized as either masculine or feminine, with corresponding articles such as "el" for masculine nouns and "la" for feminine nouns. For example, "el libro" (the book) uses the masculine article "el," while "la mesa" (the table) employs the feminine article "la." Adjectives must also agree in gender with the nouns they modify, as in "el libro pequeño" (the small book) and "la mesa pequeña" (the small table).

In Russian, grammatical gender is similarly significant, with nouns classified as masculine, feminine, or neuter. This classification impacts the forms of articles, adjectives, and verbs in sentences. For instance, "стол" (table) is masculine, requiring masculine agreement in phrases like "большой стол" (big table). Conversely, "книга" (book) is feminine, leading to feminine agreement in constructions like "хорошая книга" (good book). Neuter nouns, such as "окно" (window), follow a different pattern of agreement.

In Swahili, a Bantu language spoken in East Africa, nouns are grouped into different classes, each denoting a specific grammatical gender. These noun classes are marked by prefixes attached to the noun stem and influence agreement with other parts of speech. For example, "kitabu" (book) belongs to class 7, which takes the prefix "ki-," so "kitabu kizuri" means "a good book." Similarly, "meza" (table) is in class 9, marked by the prefix "me-," resulting in "meza nzuri" for "a good table." Grammatical gender in Swahili extends beyond animate objects and encompasses various semantic categories.

Pejoration and Amelioration

Pejoration and amelioration are linguistic processes through which the connotations of words or phrases change over time, impacting their perceived social status or value. Pejoration involves the deterioration or negative transformation of a word's meaning, often leading to its association with unfavorable or derogatory concepts. Conversely, amelioration refers to the improvement or positive transformation of a word's meaning, resulting in its association with more favorable or esteemed notions. In the context of language and power, these processes highlight how linguistic shifts can influence social perceptions and power dynamics (Borkowska & Aleparski, 2007).

Pejoration can occur when terms originally neutral or positive in meaning acquire negative connotations over time. For example, the term "barbarian" initially referred to non-Greek-speaking peoples but later became associated with uncivilized or savage behavior due to cultural biases. “Black" is frequently linked with negative connotations, as observed in phrases like "black market" and "blackmail." Similarly, the word "dark" carries negative associations, as evident in terms like "dark humor" and "dark money" in politics. "Lame," originally referring to the inability to walk, underwent a shift in meaning and now often is used to describe something dull or uninteresting. Similarly, "dumb," once used to describe the inability to speak, has evolved to connote foolishness or lack of intelligence.

Conversely, amelioration can occur when words originally associated with negative or marginalized groups undergo a positive transformation in meaning. For instance, the term "queer," once used as a slur against LGBTQ+ individuals, has been reclaimed by many in the community as a term of empowerment and self-identification. Similarly, words like "geek" or "nerd," originally derogatory labels, have been embraced in certain contexts to denote expertise or passion in particular subjects, reflecting a shift towards more positive connotations. These examples illustrate how language can be a site of struggle and negotiation in shaping social attitudes and power dynamics.

Infantilization

Infantilization is a process whereby individuals or groups are treated or referred to in a manner that diminishes their autonomy, maturity, or authority, often by equating them with children or using language associated with childhood. This phenomenon is pervasive in language and power dynamics, where certain groups are systematically disempowered or marginalized through linguistic practices. For example, referring to adult women as "girls" can trivialize their experiences and expertise, perpetuating stereotypes of femininity and undermining their credibility in professional or authoritative contexts. Being referred to as "girl" rather than "woman" can negatively impact women's confidence in their leadership abilities and perceptions of their own maturity and strength, as evidenced by experimental manipulations in feedback scenarios (Macarthur, 2015). Similarly, calling black men "boys" not only diminishes their status as adults but also reinforces historical narratives of racial inferiority and subservience. By examining instances of infantilization in language, we uncover how power imbalances are maintained and perpetuated through linguistic norms and conventions.

Androcentrism

Many languages exhibit an androcentric bias, rooted in androcentrism, which prioritizes men's experiences in understanding the world. This bias manifests in language usage, where male-centric terms are employed to represent all genders. For instance, words including, "guys," are used inclusively to refer to mixed-gender groups, erasing the presence of women. In Spanish, the use of "nosotros" for "us" disregards the presence of women, as the "-os" suffix masculinizes the term. Similarly, Arabic employs "habibi" to refer to female romantic partners, despite its masculinized form. Chinese writing further exemplifies this bias, using the symbol for "he" (他) to represent all genders, neglecting the distinct symbol for "she" (她). This linguistic bias extends to the norm of using "men" to signify "everyone," perpetuating the dominance of the male perspective. However, this gender-centric approach is not applied uniformly; we do not generalize other social groups, such as "whites," "English speakers," or "Christians," to represent all individuals (Trinh, 1989, p. 66). In other words, while we may say "hey guys" to refer to everyone (regardless of their gender), we do not say "hey whites" to refer to everyone (regardless of their race).

Language Manipulation

Language manipulation involves the deliberate use of language to distort, control, or deceive. It encompasses various tactics aimed at influencing perceptions, behaviors, or beliefs through linguistic means. This manipulation can take the form of euphemisms, doublespeak, gaslighting, and other strategies designed to shape narratives, obscure truths, or manipulate emotions.

Euphemisms are linguistic tools employed to replace harsh, blunt, or uncomfortable terms with milder or more socially acceptable alternatives. They serve various purposes, from softening the impact of sensitive subjects to maintaining social decorum in delicate situations. For example, the phrase "collateral damage" often is used in the context of military operations to refer to unintentional civilian casualties, offering a less confronting portrayal of the tragic loss of innocent lives.

Moreover, euphemisms can serve as tools of subtle resistance or reluctance, allowing individuals to convey their sentiments with nuance and finesse. Consider the phrase "freed the slaves after he died." Here, the euphemism delicately obscures the act of resisting the liberation of enslaved people, veiling the harshness of direct confrontation. Imagine instead the statement, "The slaves will be free over my dead body!"

However, euphemisms are not always employed to convey negative or controversial topics. In some cases, they are used to convey sensitivity or respect in discussing delicate matters, such as illness or death. For instance, phrases like "passed away" or "lost their battle with cancer" serve as euphemisms for dying, providing a gentler way to discuss mortality and loss. While euphemisms can facilitate communication by navigating sensitive topics with greater tact, they also can obscure truth and dilute accountability by sanitizing language used to describe challenging or uncomfortable realities.

Doublespeak is a form of language deliberately employed to deceive or obscure meaning, often using ambiguous or contradictory terms. For example, in George Orwell's "1984," the slogans "War Is Peace," "Freedom Is Slavery," and "Ignorance Is Strength" exemplify doublespeak by twisting the meanings of words to manipulate perception. The Doublespeak Award, presented annually by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), recognizes individuals who demonstrate exceptional skill in manipulating language to obscure truth or deceive. Below are a few winners.

• 1991: The Tobacco Industry received the award for portraying themselves as charitable benefactors of vulnerable groups while actively marketing a deadly, addictive drug.
• 2016: Donald Trump received the award for obfuscation and inconsistency during his presidential campaign, with the committee highlighting his ability to exploit his opponent's perceived dishonesty while making unsubstantiated claims of his own.
• 2017: Kellyanne Conway was honored for popularizing the term "alternative facts" to defend President Trump's false statements about inauguration crowd sizes, epitomizing the essence of doublespeak.
• 2018: Rudy Giuliani earned the award for his assertion on Meet the Press that "truth isn't truth," encapsulating the epitome of language manipulation.

Gaslighting refers to a form of psychological manipulation through which one person systematically undermines another's sense of reality, often by denying or distorting facts, events, or perceptions (Sweet, 2019). The term originates from the 1938 play "GasLight" by Patrick Hamilton, later adapted for films, where a husband manipulates his wife into doubting her sanity by dimming the gaslights in their home and then denying that they are flickering.

• Workplace gaslighting: A manager consistently undermines an employee's confidence by denying valid concerns or achievements, causing the employee to doubt their abilities and perception of reality.
• Gaslighting in relationships: A partner repeatedly denies or dismisses their significant other's feelings or experiences, making them question their own emotions and sanity.
• Gaslighting in politics: Politicians may use gaslighting tactics by denying facts or events, leading the public to question the validity of information and fostering confusion or distrust.
• Gaslighting in social media: Individuals may engage in gaslighting behaviors online by invalidating others' experiences or perceptions through manipulation or distortion of facts or events, leading to confusion or self-doubt among users.

Types of Language Death

There are various ways in which languages die.

Sudden language death refers to the abrupt extinction of a language due to the simultaneous death of its speakers, often caused by catastrophic events or deliberate acts of violence. An example of this phenomenon is seen in the case of the Nicoleño people, inhabitants of San Nicolas Island in California, near Los Angeles. In the early 19th century, the Nicoleño population, which numbered hundreds or possibly a few thousand, was decimated through massacres during the 1810s. By the 1830s, only a few dozen survivors remained, who were forcibly relocated to the mainland in 1835. The stress of displacement and loss of their cultural homeland led to further deaths from disease and health issues among the survivors. Despite attempts by fur traders and seal hunters to locate any remaining inhabitants, only one person was found living on the island, taking refuge in a whale carcass. This survivor, believed to be the last member of the Nicoleño community, lived in isolation for nearly two decades until her discovery in 1853. Although she may have been able to communicate with a few others from her community who were still alive, within seven weeks of her arrival on the mainland, she contracted dysentery and died, marking the extinction of the Nicoleño language.

Radical language death refers to the abrupt demise of a language due to its speakers shifting to a different language, often because of intense political oppression or genocide. An example of this occurred in El Salvador, where the Pipil (Nahua) people, who previously called the region "Cuzhcatlán" before the arrival of the Spanish, faced significant persecution. In 1932, a peasant uprising led to a massacre of approximately 25,000 people, prompting many to cease speaking their native languages out of fear of identification. As a result, languages such as Lenca and Cacaopera were abandoned and became extinct, with efforts to document and preserve them revealing only fragmented knowledge among subsequent generations.

Gradual language death refers to the slow replacement of one language by another over time. An example of this is the decline of Scottish Gaelic in parts of Scotland. Early contact led to bilingualism but influences such as Anglo-Norman culture and Middle English gradually favored English. Political, economic, and educational factors further promoted English dominance, with policies like the 1872 Education Act accelerating Gaelic's decline. Additionally, events like the Highland Clearances in the late 18th and early 19th centuries forcibly displaced Gaelic-speaking communities, contributing to the language's gradual demise.

Bottom-to-top language death refers to a phenomenon where a language ceases to be used in everyday conversation but remains preserved in formal, ritualistic contexts or official settings. Latin exemplifies this process, originally spoken by everyday people during the Roman Empire. Over time, it underwent linguistic changes and regional adaptations, diversifying into various dialects. However, as Latin gradually lost its status as a spoken language, it persisted primarily in written and scholarly domains, giving rise to the Romance languages. Similarly, in ancient India, Sanskrit transitioned from a spoken language to a mainly religious and scholarly one, with regional languages like Prakrits taking over daily communication. Despite these shifts, both Latin and Sanskrit continue to exert influence in various fields, demonstrating the prolonged impact of bottom-to-top language death.

Top-to-bottom language death refers to a process whereby a language shift begins at the top levels of society, often initiated by government or elite circles, while still persisting in casual contexts. An example of this is the decline of the Rusyn language, historically spoken by the Rusyn people in Eastern Europe. Initially used in formal contexts, literature, and education, Rusyn faced displacement by dominant languages such as Ukrainian, Russian, Slovak, and Hungarian due to historical factors. This shift towards more dominant languages in formal and public life led to Rusyn primarily being spoken at home among older generations. Additionally, political factors, such as the ban on Rusyn language and nationality during USSR rule, further accelerated its decline. Top-to-bottom language death can be seen in instances like the Gaelic Scottish example of gradual language death, where language loss begins with official contexts before spreading to everyday use (Magocsi, 1996).

Language Documentation

Language documentation involves collaborative efforts with native speakers to record and preserve endangered languages. This process typically includes audio and video recording sessions conducted during linguistic fieldwork. These recordings are then transcribed to create written records of the language's structure and vocabulary. Utilizing technology plays a crucial role in language documentation, aiding in preservation and revitalization efforts. Digital archives, linguistic databases, and online resources provide valuable tools for researchers and communities alike in storing and accessing language data for future generations. Through these methods, language documentation aims to safeguard linguistic diversity and cultural heritage worldwide.

Language Revitalization

Language revitalization entails efforts to revive endangered or dormant languages, aiming to preserve linguistic diversity and cultural heritage. Strategies for revitalization include language preservation initiatives, educational programs, and community-driven projects aimed at fostering language use and transmission. Central to the success of revitalization efforts is community involvement and ownership, as communities play a pivotal role in maintaining and perpetuating their language and cultural identity. By empowering communities to take ownership of their language revitalization efforts, initiatives are more likely to be sustainable and impactful in preserving linguistic diversity for future generations.

Hebrew, an ancient Semitic language, originally was spoken by the ancient Israelites but gradually transitioned to a liturgical and literary language over the centuries. Hebrew gradually declined as a widespread spoken vernacular between roughly the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, with Jewish communities worldwide adopting other languages for daily communication. Its revival in the late 19th century was fueled by the Zionist movement, led by figures like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who championed its use as a spoken language. With the establishment of the State of Israel in Palestine in 1948, Hebrew became the country's official language, used in education, government, and daily life. Modern Hebrew has evolved to incorporate loanwords and adaptations, making it a living language with millions of native speakers (Shlomo, 2010).

The Bible has played a significant role in the revitalization of several languages, including Agutaynen in the Philippines, Moro in Sudan, Cherokee in North America, Natqgu in the Solomon Islands, Ap Ma in Papua New Guinea, and Shor in Russia (Beetle-Moore & Voinov, 2015). Historically, the translation of the Bible into these languages often was part of colonial efforts to convert local populations to Christianity. However, despite the problematic origins of these translations, the Bible has become one of the few resources available for speakers of these endangered languages to reconnect with their linguistic and cultural heritage. Unfortunately, this reliance on the Bible as the primary source of written material in their language can create challenges, as it may perpetuate colonial legacies and limit the development of contemporary language resources. Thus, while the Bible has been instrumental in preserving aspects of these languages, efforts to revitalize them must also involve broader community initiatives aimed at language documentation, education, and cultural revitalization beyond religious texts.

Purépecha language maintenance and revitalization in Michoacán, Mexico, varies across communities depending on whether intergenerational transmission has been maintained or disrupted. In Ichán and Tacuro, Purépecha is still used in the home and transmitted between generations despite ongoing pressure from Spanish and widespread bilingualism (Canuto, 2017). In Morelia, a mural titled Uandákua Tsïuaxati / Brota la Lengua, named after a poem by bilingual Purépecha poet Rubí Huerta, features text from her work alongside imagery by the artist Spaik, aka Israel Guerra Romero (Secretaría de Cultura, 2019). The mural incorporates Purépecha-language poetry and cultural symbols, extending around the corner of a building and embedding language and culture into public urban space. Communities such as Huecorio show revitalization through language reclamation efforts tied to renewed Indigenous identity, even where everyday fluency has largely declined (Gutiérrez de Jesús & Chávez González, 2022). Together, these cases show Purépecha vitality as a continuum ranging from maintenance to active reclamation.

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Photos taken by jeffrey mccully in Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico on February 13, 2026.