Glossary

From LibreTexts, under CC BY, as the source states it; its equations are written in TeX, which the PDF shows typeset. This page at LibreTexts.

Glossary

Example and Directions

Words (or words that have the same definition)	The definition is case sensitive	(Optional) Image to display with the definition [Not displayed in Glossary, only in pop-up on pages]	(Optional) Caption for Image	(Optional) External or Internal Link	(Optional) Source for Definition
(Eg. "Genetic, Hereditary, DNA ...")	(Eg. "Relating to genes or heredity")		The infamous double helix	https://bio.libretexts.org/	CC-BY-SA; Delmar Larsen

Glossary Entries

Word(s)	Definition	Image	Caption	Link	Source
Absolute dating	a specific numerical age for something
Accession number	a unique identification code used to organize and track the artifacts within the catalog, ensuring that each artifact can be easily located and referenced for research purposes
Acoustic phonetics	the physical properties of speech sounds, such as their frequency and amplitude as they travel through the air
Acute explosion	the incident of violence, which may be physical, sexual, and/or emotional, occurs after the tension building phase
Adaptation	organisms change over time in response to their environment
Aerial photography	a technique used in archaeology to capture images of archaeological sites from above
Affricate	begins as a plosive and releases as a fricative
Agribusinesses	are large corporations that control various aspects of food production, from seed manufacturing to food processing and distribution
Agricultural societies	characterized by substantial increases in crop cultivation efficiency, larger populations, more settled lifestyles, and the ability to produce surpluses
Alphabets	writing systems where each character represents a single sound, or phoneme
Alveolar	articulation by pressing the tongue against the hard ridge behind the upper teeth (the alveolar ridge)
Amber inclusion	an animal's remains are preserved in amber
Ambilineal systems	allow for inheritance through either line (mother or father)
Amelioration	occurs when a word acquires a more positive or elevated connotation compared to its earlier neutral or negative sense [Discussed in Chapter 9 & Chapter 11]
Anastylosis	the process of restoring or reassembling large, often ancient, structures or monuments that have been damaged, destroyed, or fallen into disrepair
Ancestor veneration	a religious or cultural practice that involves honoring and revering deceased ancestors
Androcentrism	prioritizes men's experiences in understanding the world
Animism	a belief system that attributes spiritual or supernatural qualities to natural phenomena, such as plants, animals, rocks, rivers, and other elements of the natural world
Anthropology	the study of humans in all their complexity
Antiquarianism	emerged in the Renaissance, was characterized by a fascination with the material remains of ancient civilizations
Approximant	slight constriction of the airflow
Archaeological fieldwork	the practical activities involved in locating, documenting, and excavating archaeological sites
Archaeology	uncovers and interprets material remains to understand past human behaviors and civilizations
Archaic-human	refers to the significant, pre Homo sapiens species of the genus Homo
Arranged marriages	involve families or community leaders selecting spouses
Articulatory phonetics	the physical processes involved in producing speech sounds, such as the movements of the articulators (lips, tongue, etc.)
Atheism	the lack of belief in the existence of gods or deities. Atheists can be divided into non-religious and religious atheists
Auditory phonetics	how speech sounds are perceived by the human ear
Authority	refers to the right to exercise power
Backfilling	a critical step in archaeological excavation that involves refilling the excavated area once the archaeological work is complete
Bands	small, kinship-based groups of hunter-gatherers who are typically mobile and egalitarian, with leadership based on qualities such as age, skill, or knowledge
Barter	goods were directly exchanged for other goods without a standardized medium of exchange
Bayesian analysis	increasingly used to refine chronologies, incorporating multiple dating methods and statistical models to produce more accurate timelines and interpretations of the past
Bechdel-Wallace Test	a heuristic used to assess the gender representation of a movie by asking whether it features two women who talk to each other about something other than a man.
Behaviorism	suggests that language learning is a result of conditioning and reinforcement
Bicondylar angle	the angle between the femur (thigh bone) and the knee joint
Bilabial	articulation using both lips
Bilateral systems	recognizes inheritance descent through both parents equally
Bilingualism	the ability to speak two languages fluently
Biological anthropology	explores human evolution, genetics, primatology, and the biological diversity of past and present populations
Biological profile	the set of characteristics derived from the analysis of skeletal remains
Biopiracy	the stealing of indigenous knowledge about the biosphere to generate profit (Rural Advancement Foundation International, 1993)
Biostratigraphy	fossil succession: Uses the principle of fossil succession, where specific fossils with known evolutionary ages correlate with rock layers or sedimentary deposits, aiding in the relative dating of geological or archaeological materials
Blunt force trauma	is identified by examining bone surfaces for areas of impact, such as depressed fractures or bone fragments that fit together
Body fossils	animal whose body underwent a process of permineralization
Borrowing and loanwords	linguistic phenomena that occur when languages come into contact, leading to the adoption of words from one language to another
Bottleneck effect	occurs when a sudden reduction in population size due to a catastrophic event, disease outbreak, or natural disaster leads to a random loss of diversity
Bottom-to-top language death	a phenomenon where a language ceases to be used in everyday conversation but remains preserved in formal, ritualistic contexts or official settings
Boundary markers	such as stones, fences, or natural features, have played a significant role in human history as indicators of territorial limits
Bride price	payment from the groom's family to the bride's
Broadening	the expansion of a word's meaning to encompass a broader or more general sense than its original meaning
Broca's area	located in the frontal lobe of the brain, is crucial for language production [Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 8]
Bronze Age	Approximately 3300 to 1200 BCE, characterized by the widespread use of bronze, a metal alloy made primarily of copper and tin, which was used to create tools, weapons, and other objects [Discussed in Chapter 5, Chapter 14, and Chapter 18]
Bureaucratic leaders	adhere strictly to established rules and procedures, ensuring consistency and fairness in decision-making
Cairns	human-made piles or stacks of stones, often used as landmarks, burial monuments, or ceremonial sites
Calibration	essential for radiocarbon dating, where adjustments are made to account for fluctuations in atmospheric carbon-14 levels
Capitalism	a dominant economic system in market economies, emphasizes private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit
Capitalist ideology	values the private ownership of wealth, such that the poor become minority groups
Cases	the different forms a noun, pronoun, or adjective takes to show what job it’s doing in the sentence
Ceramics	in archaeological terms, are objects made from fired clay, such as pottery vessels, figurines, and architectural elements
Chalcolithic (Copper) Age	A transitional period between the Neolithic and Bronze Age, characterized by the use of copper alongside stone tools, beginning around 5000 BCE in some regions
Character displacement	occurs when closely related species sharing the same environment and ecological roles evolve differences in order to reduce competition for resources
Charismatic leaders	inspire and motivate others through their charisma and vision, often gaining followers through their dynamic personality and persuasive abilities
Chemical cleaning	involves applying solutions like weak acids to dissolve corrosion products, followed by thorough rinsing
Chiefdoms	characterized by centralized leadership, usually hereditary and a hierarchical social structure
Chronology	the backbone of archaelogy, the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time
Cisnormativity	grants legitimacy to people who are cisgender. Cisgender people identify with the gender that was assigned to them at birth
Clade	a group of organisms based on their last common ancestors with shared derived traits
Cofferdams	structures built to create a dry work environment below the waterline for archaeological excavations
Cognates	are words in different languages that have a common origin
Collective Identity	the shared sense of belonging and common experiences among members of a group, community, or society
Colonization	the process by which one society establishes political control over another territory and its people
Communism	a more extreme form of socialism, seeks to create a classless, stateless society where all property is owned communally (Marx & Engels, 2008)
Commuters	Term used by Brekhus (2003) after interviewing gay men to get an understanding of how they experience their identities. Commuters are 100% gay 15% of the time.
Comparative anatomy	is the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy of multiple species in order to understand their evolutionary relationships and biological structures
Comparative method in historical linguistics	a technique used to establish relationships between languages and to reconstruct their common ancestral forms
Comparative method in religious studies	involves comparing and contrasting different religious traditions to identify similaries, differences, and patterns of belief and practice
Compositional	wherein smaller units, such as words, combine to create larger, meaningful structures like phrases, sentences, and paragraphs
Conflict resolution	the process of addressing conflicts and disputes in a peaceful manner
Consensus-building	involves seeking agreement among group members through discussion and negotiation, often aiming for a decision acceptable to all parties
Consent	is when people give permission to be part of a research study
Consolidants	substances used to strengthen and stabilize fragile materials, such as bone or ivory, by filling in cracks and pores to prevent further deterioration
Context	the precise location of an archaeological find and its spatial and environmental relationships to other artifacts, features, and the site as a whole
Convergent evolution	the process by which unrelated species independently evolve similar traits or adaptations in response to comparable environmental pressures or ecological roles
Coprolite	fossilized poop
Cosmology	the beliefs and myths that a culture or religious tradition holds about the origin, structure, and nature of the universe
Creative adaptations and cultural innovations	are responses to globalization that involve the reinterpretation and recontextualization of traditional practices in contemporary contexts
Creole	emerge when a pidgin language becomes the native language of a community, leading to its expansion and elaboration into a fully developed language with its own grammar, vocabulary, and identity
Critical Period Hypothesis	proposes there is a biologically determined period during which language acquisition must occur for an individual to attain native-like proficiency (Penfield & Roberts, 1959; Lenneberg, 1967)
Cross cousin marriage	a marriage system in which individuals marry the children of their parents' opposite-sex siblings (i.e., the children of their father's sister or mother's brother)
Cross-dating	where artifacts from different sites or regions are compared to establish chronological relationships
Cult	often referred to as a new religious movement (NRM), is a religious or spiritual group that has emerged relatively recently and is often characterized by novel or unorthodox beliefs and practices
Cultural anthropology	examines the social structures, traditions, and everyday practices that shape human societies
Cultural commodification	the process of turning cultural practices, symbols, and artifacts into commodities for commercial purposes
Cultural determinism	the idea that culture determines human behavior
Cultural marker	the essence and heritage of individuals
Cultural performance	specific events or activities that are intentionally performed for an audience, such as rituals, ceremonies, theater, or musical performances
Cultural relativism	the practice of understanding a culture on its own terms, without imposing one's own cultural values
Cultural revitalization movements	aim to revive and reclaim cultural practices and identities that have been marginalized or threatened by globalization
Cultural systems of exchange	such as gift-giving, potlatch, and barter, play a role in food distribution. These practices are not just economic transactions, but also social and cultural rituals that reinforce social ties and status within a community
Culture	to shared beliefs, values, and practices
Culture shock	the feelings of disorientation and discomfort experienced when exposed to a new culture
Cytoplasm	Gelatinous fluid inside the cell membrane that contains organelles
Deforestation and habitat loss	as forests are cleared to make way for agricultural land, ecosystems are disrupted, leading to the loss of biodiversity and displacement of wildlife
Dendrochronology	or tree-ring dating, analyzes the patterns of tree rings in wooden artifacts to establish a timeline (McGinnies, 1963)
Dental	articulation involving the tongue pressing against or near the teeth
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)	a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms
Dialects	variations of a language that occurs within specific regions, social groups, or communities
Diasporic identities	emerge among communities forced to leave their homelands due to conflict, persecution, or other reasons
Differential Reproductive Success	Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
Digitization	the process of converting paper documents into digital formats
Diphthongs	vowel sounds characterized by a glide or transition from one vowel quality to another within the same syllable
Directional natural selection	favors individuals with traits at one extreme of the range, leading to a shift in the average phenotype of a population over time
Discrimination	the unfair treatment that a category of people experiences
Disproportionately overrepresented	the percentage of representation is higher than their percentage in the population
Disproportionately underrepresented	the their percentage of representation is lower than their percentage in the population
Disruptive natural selection	favors individuals with extreme traits at both ends of the range, potentially leading to the formation of distinct phenotypic groups within a population
Division of labor	individuals or groups are assigned specific tasks based on abilities, skills, and social status
Dominant group	a social group that holds a higher position in terms of power, privilege, and social status compared to a minority group
Doublespeak	a form of language deliberately employed to deceive or obscure meaning, often using ambiguous or contradictory terms
Dowry	payment from the bride's family to the groom's
Effigy mounds	earthen mounds constructed in the shape of animals, symbols, or other figures
Empires	large political systems in which a central government controls territories and diverse populations
Empirical knowledge	derived from careful observation, controlled experiments, and logical reasoning
Endocasts	casts of the brain's interior
Enlightenment	was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, and skepticism of traditional authority (1600s–1700s)
Ethnic cleansing	the systematic and violent removal of an ethnic or religious group from a certain area with the intent to create a region ethnically homogenous
Ethnocentrism	the tendency to view one's own culture as superior to others
Ethnographic research	involves immersing oneself in the culture being studied, often through fieldwork and participant observation
Ethnolinguistics	studies how language reflects culture
Eugenics	is the belief in improving the genetic quality of a population by controlling reproduction
Eukaryotic cells	cells which contain a nucleus
Euphemisms	linguistic tools employed to replace harsh, blunt, or uncomfortable terms with milder or more socially acceptable alternatives
Evolutionary transition	marks a shift in traits or characteristics over evolutionary time
Expressive culture	a wide range of creative and artistic practices that convey meaning, values, and emotions within a cultural context
Expressive leaders	focus on maintaining group harmony and cohesion, often emphasizing the emotional well-being of group members
Extended families	include relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, are also prevalent in many cultures
Fast mapping	a cognitive process that allows individuals, particularly children, to quickly acquire the meaning of a new word after a single exposure or a few exposures
Field catalog	used in the field (at the archaeological site) to record detailed information about each artifact or feature as it is uncovered
Food deserts	are areas where access to fresh, healthy food is limited, often due to a lack of grocery stores or transportation
Food surplus	is an excess of food production beyond immediate consumption needs
Food swamps	are areas where unhealthy, processed foods are more readily available than nutritious options, contributing to health disparities and obesity
Food taboo	a social or religious custom prohibiting the consumption of certain foods
Foragers	relying on hunting and gathering for sustenance
Forensic anthropology	the scientific study of human skeletal remains in the context of legal investigations
Fossil record	the amassed collection of preserved remains and traces of ancient organisms found in geological formations
Fossils	the remains of ancient plants and animals
Founder effect	occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population
FOXP2	a gene that has garnered significant attention for its association with language development (Marcus & Fisher, 2003)
Fracture analysis	careful examination of fractures to determine their type (e.g., linear, oblique, spiral) and assess whether they occurred before or after death
Fricative	airflow through a narrow channel causing friction
Frontness/backness of the tongue	refers to whether the tongue is positioned towards the front or back of the mouth when producing a vowel sound
Gaslighting	a form of psychological manipulation through which one person systematically undermines another's sense of reality, often by denying or distorting facts, events, or perceptions (Sweet, 2019)
Gender roles	the societal expectations regarding behaviors, attitudes, and activities deemed appropriate for individuals based on their gender within family structures
Gene flow	occurs with the transfer of genetic material between populations, enhancing genetic diversity and countering the effects of genetic isolation
Genealogical research	which traces family relationships and histories, can be a valuable tool for historical archaeologists
Genealogy	the study of family history and descent, tracing the lineage of individuals and families through generations
Genealogy of knowledge	a lineage of ideas where each generation builds upon the intellectual foundations of the past
Genetic drift	occurs in small populations when chance events lead to changes in allele frequencies, which potentially results in the loss of genetic diversity over generations
Genetics	is the scientific study of genes, heredity, and variation in organisms [Discussed in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3]
Genocide	the killing in part or totality of a cultural group
Geoglyphs	large designs or motifs created on the ground, typically using stones, earth, or other materials
Geologic time scale	a chronological framework that divides Earth's history into distinct intervals based on significant geological events
Globalization	the process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, economies, and cultures around the world
Glottal	articulation involving the action of the glottis, the space between the vocal cords
Glyphic writing systems	forms of writing that use symbols or glyphs to represent words, syllables, or concepts
Gradual language death	the slow replacement of one language by another over time
Grammatical gender	is a linguistic feature found in many languages whereby nouns and pronouns are categorized into classes or genders based on characteristics such as biological sex, animacy, or arbitrary assignment (Comrie, 1999)
Great Vowel Shift	a significant sound change that occurred in the English language between the 14th and 18th centuries
Grid walking	a systematic survey method used in archaeological fieldwork, typically employed after reconnaissance and line walking to cover the entire site
Grimm's Law	formulated by linguist Jacob Grimm in the early 19th century, it describes a systematic sound change in the history of Germanic languages (Douse, 1876)
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)	a non-invasive geophysical method used to detect subsurface features without excavation
Ground surveys	on-the-ground exploration and examination of an area for archaeological purposes
Gunshot trauma	Gunshot wounds can leave characteristic marks on bones, including entrance and exit wounds. The size and shape of these defects can indicate the caliber of the firearm used
Height of the tongue	refers to how high or low the tongue is positioned in the mouth when producing a vowel sound
Heritage tourism	an essential component of cultural heritage management, involving traveling to experience the cultural and historical sites and activities of a particular region
Heteronormativity	grants legitimacy to heterosexual relationships, such that people who are not heterosexual become members of minority groups
Hierarchy	a system of ranking individuals or groups based on social importance, power, or prestige
Hieroglyphs	a system of writing that uses pictorial symbols to represent words or sounds
Historic	all history since the beginning of writing [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Historical archaeology	a branch of archaeology that focuses on the study of human societies through their material remains in conjunction with written records
Historical linguistics	the branch of linguistics that studies how languages change over time
Holocene	11.7 kya to present, Rise of Homo sapiens, development of agriculture, and the establishment of complex societies
Homo	human
Honeymoon phase	the abuser feels remorseful, apologizes, and may shower the victim with gifts or promises that it will never happen again, occurs after the acute explosion
Horizontal excavation	involves digging horizontally across a site to expose a large area at a single level
Horticultural societies	relied on simple tools such as digging sticks or hoes to cultivate crops like wheat, barley, and rice, leading to more settled communities
Humanism	a focus on human potential, individuality, and reason, prioritizing the value of human experience and achievements over religious or supernatural explanations
Hyoid bone	a unique component of the vocal tract, this U-shaped bone plays a crucial role in the intricate dance of speech and language production (Auvenshine & Pettit, 2020)
Identify formation	the process through which individuals develop a sense of self and establish a coherent understanding of who they are in relation to the world around them
Identity	a complex and multifaceted concept that refers to how individuals perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others
Identity Theory	theory developed by sociologist Sheldon Stryker (1980) posits that society is a stable structure reflected in patterns of behavior
Ideographic	a glyphic writing symbol representing ideas or concepts directly
Ideology	is a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape an individual's or a group's worldview, guiding their actions and interactions with society
in situ	in their original position
Incest taboo	prohibits sexual relations between close relatives
Industrial Revolution	a period of profound technological, economic, and social change that began in the late 18th century
Infantilization	a process whereby individuals or groups are treated or referred to in a manner that diminishes their autonomy, maturity, or authority
Inheritance	1. genetic traits passed from one generation to another; 2. the process by which property, titles, and obligations are passed down from one generation to another
Instrumental leaders	prioritize task accomplishment and efficiency, focusing on goal achievement
Integrators	Term used by Brekhus (2003) after interviewing gay men to get an understanding of how they experience their identities. Integrators are 15% gay 100% of the time.
Intensive cultivation	this method aims to maximize yields by using large-scale monoculture, where a single crop is grown over extensive areas
Interactionist theories	emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in language development
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)	a standardized system for representing the sounds of human language
Interpersonal discrimination	the unfair treatment of individuals based on characteristics such as race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or other personal attributes
Intersectionality	concept coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) emphasizes that an individual's identity is shaped by the intersection of multiple social categories (e.g., race, gender, class) and that these intersecting identities interact to create unique experiences of privilege and oppression
Iron Age	Approximately 1000 BCE onward, characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons, enabling stronger, more durable technologies and major social and military changes [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Irrigation system	a method used to provide water to plants to help them grow
Joint families	where multiple generations live together
Kinship	the system of social relationships that form the basis of society, defining the bonds between individuals through blood, marriage, or adoption
kya	Thousands of years ago
Labiodental	articulation involving pressing the bottom lip against the top teeth
Lamination	the process of encasing paper documents in a plastic film for protection
Language acquisition	the process through which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce, and use language
Language documentation	involves collaborative efforts with native speakers to record and preserve endangered languages
Language family	a group of related languages
Language loss/language death	occurs when a language ceases to be spoken or used in a community
Language revitalization	entails efforts to revive endangered or dormant languages, aiming to preserve linguistic diversity and cultural heritage
Language structure	of the fundamental components that govern human communication
Lateral	airflow along the sides of the tongue
Law of Association	states that artifacts found in the same stratigraphic layer are likely to be roughly the same age and associated with the activities or contexts of that time
Legitimacy	the belief that the exercise of power is rightful and appropriate
Length	refers to the duration of vowel sounds
Lexical change	the evolution and transformation of words over time
Lexicon	is the repository of words and their meanings stored in the mind of a speaker or community of speakers
Lifestylers	Term used by Brekhus (2003) after interviewing gay men to get an understanding of how they experience their identities. Lifestylers are 100% gay 100% of the time.
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)	is a remote sensing technology that uses laser pulses to measure distances to the Earth's surface
Line walking	a systematic survey method in archaeological fieldwork, involves drawing lines across a site, typically 20 meters apart and numbered for identification
Linguistics	the scientific study of language, encompassing its structure, evolution, and social functions
Logograms	written characters that represent words or morphemes (meaningful units) in a language
Looting	a more destructive form of treasure hunting, involves the deliberate and systematic removal of artifacts from archaeological sites
Love marriages	where individuals choose their spouses
Lower Paleolithic	Approximately 2.6 mya to 300 kya [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Market exchange	based on the principles of supply and demand, where goods are bought and sold at a price determined by market forces
Market-based economies	prevalent globally, characterized by the exchange of goods and services through markets where prices are determined by supply and demand
Marriage	a socially recognized union between individuals that establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children, and in-laws
Matrilineal	determine kinship and inheritance through the mother's line
Matrilocal	married couples reside near the woman's family
Mechanical cleaning	utilizes brushes, wooden or plastic tools, and sometimes dental picks to remove dirt and corrosion without causing damage
Mendelian traits	have only two possible variations of a gene (one dominant, and one recessive)
Mesolithic	Middle Stone Age: Approximately 10 kya to 8 kya [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Micro-excavation	involves the use of fine tools under a microscope for detailed cleaning, may also be utilized
Microscopic analysis	helps identify manufacturing techniques
Middle Paleolithic	300 kya to 30-40 kya [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Minority groups	may not necessarily be the smaller in numbers; instead have less power and influence in society compared to dominant groups
Miocene	23 to 5.3 mya, Early primates and divergence of hominoids
Mitochondria	Responsible for cellular respiration, producing energy by converting nutrients into ATP
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)	the genetic material found in a cell's mitochondria, which are the energy-producing structures within cells
Modern human	the particular species Homo sapiens
Mold fossils	animal or plant dies and the mud around it quickly makes a mold of its shape
Monogamy	where individuals have only one spouse
Mononormativity	grants legitimacy to people who are in monogamous relationships
Monophthongs	vowel sounds characterized by a single, stable articulatory quality throughout their duration
Monotheism	a religious belief system that asserts the existence of only one god or deity. In monotheistic religions, this single god is typically viewed as the creator and ruler of the universe, possessing supreme moral and spiritual authority
Morphology	the study of the structure and formation of words in a language
Multiculturalism	emphasizes the coexistence and appreciation of different cultures within a society
Multilingualism	the ability to speak three or more languages fluently
mya	Millions of years ago
Myth	in the field of anthropology and religious studies a myth is a traditional narrative that is considered sacred or culturally significant within a particular society
Narrowing	involves a word's meaning becoming more specific or limited compared to its earlier, more general sense
Nasal	airflow through the nose instead of the mouth
Nasalization	involves the addition of nasal airflow to vowel sounds
Nativist theories	proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity for language acquisition
Natural partitions hypothesis	suggests we learn nouns before verbs
Natural selection	traits that enhance the chances for survival and reproduction in a given environment become more common in a population over time
Neolithic	New Stone Age: Approximately 8 kya to 4 kya, agriculture emerged as a more productive subsistence strategy than hunting and gathering [Discussed in Chapter 5, Chapter 14, and Chapter 18]
Neolithic revolution	a significant transition from nomadic foraging to horticultural and pastoral lifestyles, occurring around 10,000 years ago
Neolocal	married people establishing a new residence, regardless of where their families live
Nepotism	the favoritism shown to family members in various aspects of life, including employment and resource allocation, can be influenced by lineage systems and inheritance practices
Nontheism	a broad category that includes any belief system or philosophical position that does not affirm the existence of gods or other deities
Nuclear family	consisting of parents and their children, is a common form found in many societies
Nucleus	Contains the cell's DNA and is surrounded by the nuclear envelope, a double membrane with pores that regulate molecule exchange with the cytoplasm
Oligocene	33.9 to 23 mya, Emergence of early primates
Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)	used to date sediments, relies on the fact that sediments exposed to sunlight will release trapped electrons (Vafiadou et al., 2007)
Oral tradition	the transmission of cultural knowledge, beliefs, and practices through spoken stories, songs, and rituals, rather than through written texts
Organic farming	an agricultural approach that prioritizes environmental sustainability, biodiversity conservation, and the use of natural inputs
Organic materials	in the context of archaeology, refer to items derived from living organisms that have been preserved in the archaeological record
Ossification	the gradual hardening and fusion of bones over time
Osteology	the study of bones
Out of Africa hypothesis	posits that anatomically modern humans originated in Africa and subsequently migrated to populate other regions
Palatal	articulation involving raising the middle part of the tongue towards the hard palate
Paleoanthropology	the study of ancient humans
Paleolithic	Old Stone Age: Approximately 2.6 mya to 10 kya, spans from the first Hominin stone tool use (3.3 mya) to the Neolithic revolution; sub-divided into lower, middle, and upper [Discussed in Chapter 5, Chapter 14, and Chapter 18]
Pantagamy	also known as group marriage, is a form of marital arrangement where all members of the group are married to each other
Parallel cousin marriage	a marriage system in which individuals marry the children of their parents' same-sex siblings (i.e., the children of their father's brother or mother's sister)
Participant observation	involves immersing oneself in the culture being studied to gain a deep understanding of its practices and beliefs
Pastoral societies	rely on the raising and herding of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, or camels
Patriarchy	values the experiences of men, such that people who are not men become minority groups
Patrilineal	determine kinship and inheritance through the father's line
Patrilocal	married couples reside near the man's family
Pejoration	describes a word taking on a more negative or lower connotation than it had originally [Discussed in Chapter 9 & Chapter 11]
Pelvis	the bony structure connecting the spine to the lower limbs
Performing culture	the everyday actions, behaviors, and interactions through which culture is expressed and enacted
Permanent catalog	artifacts removed from the site are transferred to a permanent catalog for further study and curation. permanent catalog includes more detailed information about each artifact, such as its measurements, materials, and any relevant historical or cultural context
Permineralization	when minerals gradually replace teeth and bones over time
Personal Identity	includes individual characteristics such as personality traits, interests, values, and beliefs
Petroglyphs	ancient rock carvings created by pecking, carving, or incising on rock surfaces
Phonation	the process of sound production in the larynx, specifically the vibration or lack of vibration of the vocal cords during the production of speech sounds
Phonemes	the smallest distinctive units of sound in a language
Phonetic writing	a glyphic writing symbol representing sounds
Phonetics	the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of speech sounds
Phonology	examines how speech sounds are organized in language
Phospholipid bilayer	a double membrane made of lipids and proteins that regulates molecule and ion passage
Pictograms	simple, stylized images that represent objects or concepts
Pictographic	a glyphic writing symbol representing objects or ideas through visual resemblance
Pidgin	languages that arise when speakers of different languages come into contact and need to communicate, often for trade or other practical purposes
Pilgrimage	a type of ritual journey to a sacred or significant place that holds spiritual or cultural significance
Pleistocene	2.6 mya to 11.700 kya, Diversification of hominin species, glaciations, and adaptation to various environments
Pliocene	5.3 to 2.6 mya, Emergence of hominins and early hominin diversity
Plosive	complete closure of the vocal tract followed by a sudden release of air
Politeness and social distance in language	the ways in which speakers show respect or familiarity towards others
Polyamory	"multiple loves," allows individuals to have romantic relationships with multiple partners, all of whom may also have multiple romantic relationships
Polyandry	is when one wife has multiple husbands (Peter, 1963; Starkweather & Hames, 2012)
Polygamy	where an individual has multiple spouses
Polygyny	is when one husband has multiple wives (Farrell et al., 2014)
Polytheism	religious belief system that acknowledges and worships multiple gods or deities
Postalveolar	articulation involving the tongue being raised towards the area just behind the alveolar ridge (the hard ridge behind the upper teeth) but without making direct contact with it
Potassium-argon dating	K-Ar: Evaluates the decay of potassium-40 isotopes to argon-40 in volcanic rocks or minerals; useful for dating volcanic rocks and associated fossil layers ranging from thousands to millions of years old [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 20]
Power dynamics	the distribution of power and authority within the family unit, which can impact decision-making, access to resources, and overall family dynamics
Pragmatics	the study of language in context, focusing on how meaning is influenced by factors such as speaker intention, social context, and cultural norms
Prehistoric	all history before writing [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Prejudice	an idea, thought, or belief about a group of people. Prejudices can include stereotypes
Principle of Original Horizontality	states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally due to gravity
Principle of Superposition	states that in any undisturbed sequence of strata, the youngest layer is on top, and the oldest is at the bottom
Privilege	a special right or advantage that is shared by a group of people
Prokaryotic cells	cells which lack a nucleus
Pronouns	linguistic tools used to refer to entities previously mentioned or to replace nouns in a sentence
Proto-human	the non-Homo genera of the subtribe Hominina, it includes all species of Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Kenyanthropus, and Paranthropus
Pseudoarchaeology	a term used to describe interpretations of the past that are not based on scientific evidence or methods (Fagan, 2006)
Punctuated equilibrium model	posits that languages remain stable for long periods and then undergo rapid change
Pythagorean Theorem	the square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides
Radical language death	the abrupt demise of a language due to its speakers shifting to a different language, often because of intense political oppression or genocide
Radiocarbon dating	Carbon-14: Measures the decay rate of carbon-14 isotopes in organic materials; effective for dating materials up to approximately 50,000 years old [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 20]
Reciprocity	a form of exchange where goods or services are exchanged with the expectation of future return
Reconnaissance walking	a method used in archaeological fieldwork, involves an initial survey of an area to locate potential sites by visually inspecting the surface for signs of archaeological features or artifacts
Redistribution	involves the collection of goods or resources by a central authority, who then redistributes them among society members
Referentiality	the capacity of language to denote and convey meaning about the external world
Relative dating	establishes where something fits within a chronological sequence of events or objects without assigning specific calendar dates [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 20]
Religion	is a complex and multifaceted cultural phenomenon involving beliefs, practices, and rituals that often revolve around the divine, spiritual, or transcendent
Remote sensing technologies	involve using instruments to gather information about a site from a distance, such as aerial photography or satellite imagery
Renaissance	a revival of ancient Greek and Roman texts, philosophies, and ideas (1300s–1600s)
Repatriation of cultural artifacts	involves the return of objects to their places of origin or to the descendants of the cultures that created them (Powell et al., 1993)
Repatriation of human remains	the process of returning human remains to their country or community of origin
Resin fossils	animal or plant is trapped in the resin of a plant
Rites of passage	rituals that mark significant transitions in an individual's life, such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death
Ritual	a symbolic action or set of actions performed in a prescribed manner, often with deep cultural or religious significance
Roundedness of the lips	refers to whether the lips are rounded when producing a vowel sound
Scientific method	a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation, and reasoning
Scientific racism	the misuse of scientific methods to justify discriminatory beliefs and practices based on perceived racial differences
Scientific Revolution	a transformative period of advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy (1500s–1700s)
Second language acquisition (SLA)	the process of learning a new language after acquiring one's first language
Semantic shift	the phenomenon where the meaning of a word changes over time
Semantics	the branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language
Seriation	the analysis of artifact styles and frequencies to establish a relative chronology (Marquardt, 1978)
Sexual Selection	Traits that enhance an individual's mating success often lead to the development of striking and diverse characteristics
Sharp force trauma	Stab wounds or cut marks on bones are indicative of sharp force trauma, analysis may include measuring the length, depth, and angle of such wounds
Shifting cultivation	where plots of land were cultivated for a few years before being abandoned to allow the soil to recover
Social Identity	the groups or categories to which individuals belong, such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, nationality, and socioeconomic status
Social Identity Theory	theory proposed by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Tur suggests that a person's identity is shaped by their membership in social groups
Social inequalities	to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society or between societies
Socialism	aims to reduce income inequality and provide social welfare through state intervention in the economy
Socialization	how individuals acquire the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture or society
Society	denotes organized groups of individuals
Sociolinguistics	examines language variation influenced by social factors like class, gender, race, and so on
Soil degradation and erosion	when soil is exposed to wind and water without adequate vegetation cover, it becomes vulnerable to erosion, which can result in the loss of topsoil and nutrients
Specific Language Impairment (SLI)	a disorder characterized by significant and unexplained difficulties in language acquisition, despite normal development in other areas (Leonard, 2014)
Spolia	a practice in which architectural or artistic elements from earlier structures are reused in later buildings
Spousal rape	also known as marital rape, is a form of sexual violence that occurs within a marriage or intimate relationship
S-shaped spine	curvature, which includes the cervical (neck), thoracic (upper back), and lumbar (lower back) regions
Stabilizing natural selection	favors traits in the middle, reducing the extremes and maintains the average phenotype, promoting stability within a population
State-controlled economies	the government plays a significant role in economic planning and resource allocation, have cultural and social implications
States	the most complex form of political organization, with a centralized government, defined borders, and a bureaucracy
Status	a position within a social system that is characterized by certain rights, duties, and expectations
Step trenches	a form of vertical excavation involving a series of trenches, each progressively deeper than the last, to reveal the layers of deposits and features below the surface
Stints	transect lines further divided, usually 25 or 50 meters apart and designated by letters, used in line walking
Stone Age	Approximately 2.6 mya to 4 kya [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Stratigraphy	the study of rock layers (strata), relying on the principle of superposition, where older layers of sediment or rock are found beneath younger layers, establishing a relative chronology of events or artifacts within a site [Discussed in Chapter 5, Chapter 19, and Chapter 20]
Subsistence	the ways in which individuals and communities obtain the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing
Sudden language death	the abrupt extinction of a language due to the simultaneous death of its speakers, often caused by catastrophic events or deliberate acts of violence
Supernaturalism	a belief system that posits the existence of supernatural forces, entities, or phenomena that transcend the natural world
Superstition	a belief in supernatural forces or unexplained phenomena that governed human behavior
Sustainable agriculture	an approach to farming that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
Syllabaries	writing systems where each character represents a syllable
Symbolic Interactionism	theory developed by sociologist George Herbert Mead (1962), emphasizes the role of symbols and interactions in shaping identity
Symbols	an integral part of ritual practices, serving as visual or auditory representations of abstract ideas, beliefs, or emotions
Syntax	the branch of linguistics concerned with the structure and organization of sentences in a language
Systemic discrimination	the discrimination that occurs within institutions and systems, such as government, education, healthcare, and criminal justice, and is embedded in their policies, practices, and procedures
Taxonomy	the practice of classifying life [Discussed in Chapter 2 and Chapter 4]
Technology	the practical application of knowledge and tools to solve problems or achieve goals
Temporality	the experience and perception of time
Tension building phase	there is increasing stress about day-to-day life, and the victim often feels like they are "walking on eggshells" to avoid triggering the abuser
Terrace farming	a method utilized in hilly or mountainous regions
Theism	the belief in the existence of one or more gods or divine beings. It is a central concept in many religions where gods are believed to be actively involved in the world and in human affairs
Theory	an explanation for an observable phenomenon that is well-supported by the evidence
Theory of evolution by natural selection	the traits that enhance the chances for survival and reproduction in a given environment become more common in a population over time
Theory of Mind (ToM)	the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions, to oneself and others (Astington & Jenkins, 1999)
Thermoluminescence	used to date heated materials, relies on the principle that objects exposed to high temperatures, such as pottery, trap electrons over time (Aitkin, 1985)
Thick description	involves providing a detailed, contextualized account of social behavior to capture its full meaning
Tone	involves pitch variation in vowel sounds to convey lexical or grammatical meaning, particularly in tonal languages
Top-to-bottom language death	a process whereby a language shift begins at the top levels of society, often initiated by government or elite circles, while still persisting in casual contexts
Totem poles	monumental carvings created by peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America, particularly the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and Kwakwaka'wakw (Barbeau, 1942).
Totemism	a belief system in which humans are believed to have a spiritual connection or kinship with a specific animal, plant, or natural object, known as a totem
Trace fossils	foot tracks, bite marks on bones, nests (with eggs), and coprolite
Traditional decision-making methods	rely on established customs, rituals, or hierarchies to guide the decision-making process
Traditionalism	a reliance on established customs, beliefs, and practices passed down through generations
Transects	lines, typically 20 meters apart and numbered for identification, used in line walking
Transformational leaders	focus on inspiring and empowering followers to achieve common goals, often bringing about significant changes within organizations or societies
Transitional form	a fossilized organism that displays characteristics of both ancestral and derived forms, illustrating gradual changes in evolutionary lineages
Transnational communities	formed by migrants who maintain strong social, economic, and cultural ties with their countries of origin
Treasure hunting	searching for valuable artifacts, typically for profit, often disregards archaeological context and site preservation, leading to the loss of valuable information about past societies and contributing to the illicit antiquities trade
Tree models	used to represent the relationships between languages within a language family
Tribes	larger and more sedentary than bands, often based on kinship ties and sharing a common language and culture
Trill	rapid vibration of an articulator against another
Triphthongs	vowel sounds characterized by a glide or transition through three vowel qualities within the same syllable
Typological classification	categorizes lithic artifacts based on shared characteristics, aiding in the interpretation of lithic assemblages and their cultural significance
Typology	categorizing artifacts based on shared characteristics to determine their relative age (Hill & Evans, 1972)
Upper Paleolithic	30-40 kya to 10 kya [Discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 18]
Uranium-series dating	used to date materials containing uranium, relies on the radioactive decay series of uranium isotopes (Schwarcz, 1980)
Use-wear analysis	reveals the functions of tools and the materials they were used on
Variation	the diversity of traits within a population
Velar	articulation involving pressing the back part of the tongue against the soft part at the back of the mouth (the soft palate or velum)
Vertical excavation	involves digging a deep, vertical shaft to expose the stratigraphy of a site
Vocal tract	the path from the lungs to outside the mouth and nose
Voiced sounds	involve vibration of the vocal cords
Voiceless sounds	does not involve vibration of the vocal cords
Vowels	sounds that are made without closing the vocal tract and by changing the shape of the tongue
Water scarcity	in many regions, unsustainable irrigation practices have led to the depletion of aquifers and reduced water availability for other uses
Wave model	suggests that language change spreads in waves across populations (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, 2003)
Wernicke's area	situated in the left hemisphere of the brain, primarily is associated with language comprehension (Ardila et al., 2016) [Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 8]
Wheeler-Kenyon Box Grid Method	a systematic approach to excavation that involves dividing a site into a grid of squares (Callaway, 1979)
White supremacy	values whites over other races and ethnic groups, such that non-whites become racial and ethnic minority groups
Word association	involves linking a new word to words or concepts that are already known or familiar to the individual
Written tradition	where religious texts, teachings, and beliefs were recorded in written form