1.3.3: Eukaryotic Transcription

The Three Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases

The features of eukaryotic mRNA synthesis are markedly more complex than those of bacteria. Instead of a single polymerase comprising six subunits, the eukaryotes have three polymerases that are each made up of 10 subunits or more. Each eukaryotic polymerase also requires a distinct set of transcription factors to bring it to the DNA template.

RNA polymerase I is located in the nucleolus, a specialized nuclear substructure in which ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed, processed, and assembled into ribosomes (Table 15.1). The rRNA molecules are considered structural RNAs because they have a cellular role but are not translated into protein. The rRNAs are components of the ribosome and are essential to the process of translation. RNA polymerase I synthesizes all of the rRNAs from the tandemly duplicated set of 18S, 5.8S, and 28S ribosomal genes. (Note that the “S” designation applies to “Svedberg” units, a nonadditive value that characterizes the speed at which a particle sediments during centrifugation.)

RNA polymerase II is located in the nucleus and synthesizes all protein-coding nuclear pre-mRNAs. Eukaryotic pre-mRNAs undergo extensive processing after transcription but before translation. For clarity, this module’s discussion of transcription and translation in eukaryotes will use the term “mRNAs” to describe only the mature, processed molecules that are ready to be translated. RNA polymerase II is responsible for transcribing the overwhelming majority of eukaryotic genes.

RNA polymerase III is also located in the nucleus. This polymerase transcribes a variety of structural RNAs that includes the 5S pre-rRNA, transfer pre-RNAs (pre-tRNAs), and small nuclear pre-RNAs. The tRNAs have a critical role in translation; they serve as the “adaptor molecules” between the mRNA template and the growing polypeptide chain. Small nuclear RNAs have a variety of functions, including “splicing” pre-mRNAs and regulating transcription factors.

A scientist characterizing a new gene can determine which polymerase transcribes it by testing whether the gene is expressed in the presence of α-amanitin, an oligopeptide toxin produced by the fly agaric toadstool mushroom and other species of Amanita. Interestingly, the α-amanitin affects the three polymerases very differently (Table 3.1). RNA polymerase I is completely insensitive to α-amanitin, meaning that the polymerase can transcribe DNA in vitro in the presence of this poison. RNA polymerase III is moderately sensitive to the toxin. In contrast, RNA polymerase II is extremely sensitive to α-amanitin. The toxin prevents the enzyme from progressing down the DNA, and thus inhibits transcription. Knowing the transcribing polymerase can provide clues as to the general function of the gene being studied. Because RNA polymerase II transcribes the vast majority of genes, we will focus on this polymerase in our subsequent discussions about eukaryotic transcription factors and promoters.

RNA Polymerase II Promoters and Transcription Factors

Eukaryotic promoters are much larger and more intricate than bacterial promoters. However, both have a sequence similar to the -10 sequence of bacteria. In eukaryotes, this sequence is called the TATA box, and has the consensus sequence TATAAA on the coding strand. It is located at -25 to -35 bases relative to the initiation (+1) site (Figure 3.8). This sequence is not identical to the E. coli -10 box, but it conserves the A–T rich element. The thermostability of A–T bonds is low and this helps the DNA template to locally unwind in preparation for transcription.

Instead of the simple σ factor that helps bind the prokaryotic RNA polymerase to its promoter, eukaryotes assemble a complex of transcription factors required to recruit RNA polymerase II to a protein coding gene because eukaryotic RNA polymerases cannot recognize the promoter on their own. Transcription factors that bind to the promoter are called basal transcription factors. These basal factors are all called TFII (for Transcription Factor/polymerase II) plus an additional letter (A-J). The core complex is TFIID, which includes a TATA-binding protein (TBP). The other transcription factors systematically fall into place on the DNA template, with each one further stabilizing the pre-initiation complex and contributing to the recruitment of RNA polymerase II.

Visual Connection

Figure 3.8 A generalized promoter of a gene transcribed by RNA polymerase II is shown. Transcription factors recognize the promoter. RNA polymerase II then binds and forms the transcription initiation complex.

Some eukaryotic promoters also have a conserved CAAT box (GGCCAATCT) at approximately -80. Further upstream of the TATA box, eukaryotic promoters may also contain one or more GC-rich boxes (GGCG) or octamer boxes (ATTTGCAT). These elements bind cellular factors that increase the efficiency of transcription initiation and are often identified in more “active” genes that are constantly being expressed by the cell.

Basal transcription factors are crucial in the formation of a pre-initiation complex on the DNA template that subsequently recruits RNA polymerase II for transcription initiation. The complexity of eukaryotic transcription does not end with the polymerases and promoters. An army of other transcription factors, which bind to upstream enhancers and silencers, also help to regulate the frequency with which pre-mRNA is synthesized from a gene. Enhancers and silencers affect the efficiency of transcription but are not necessary for transcription to proceed.

Promoter Structures for RNA Polymerases I and III

The processes of bringing RNA polymerases I and III to the DNA template involve slightly less complex collections of transcription factors, but the general theme is the same. The conserved promoter elements for genes transcribed by polymerases I and III differ from those transcribed by RNA polymerase II. RNA polymerase I transcribes genes that have two GC-rich promoter sequences in the -45 to +20 region. These sequences alone are sufficient for transcription initiation to occur, but promoters with additional sequences in the region from -180 to -105 upstream of the initiation site will further enhance initiation. Genes that are transcribed by RNA polymerase III have upstream promoters or promoters that occur within the genes themselves.

Eukaryotic transcription is a tightly regulated process that requires a variety of proteins to interact with each other and with the DNA strand. Although the process of transcription in eukaryotes involves a greater metabolic investment than in prokaryotes, it ensures that the cell transcribes precisely the pre-mRNAs that it needs for protein synthesis.