# 057 - Modern Philosophy Chapter 66 German Philosophy - Schopenhauer

An episode of [History of Philosophy](https://invisiblenetwork.ai/podcast/1877164155), 6 Mar 2026, 20 min.

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## Transcript

[0:00] Speaker 1: Chapter sixty six of History of Philosophy. This is a
[0:04] Speaker 1: Libervox recording. Our Liberox recordings are in the public domain.
[0:08] Speaker 1: For more information or to volunteer, please visit liberox dot org.
[0:13] Speaker 1: Recording by Lucia Schneider. History of Philosophy by William Turner,
[0:17] Speaker 1: Chapter sixty six, German Philosophy Schopenhower. In the movement which
[0:23] Speaker 1: arose in opposition to Hegre's philosophy, we may distinguish three currents. First,
[0:29] Speaker 1: the psychological movement represented by Freeze and Winike, Second, the
[0:33] Speaker 1: realistic movement represented by Herbert. Third the voluntarist movement represented
[0:39] Speaker 1: by Schopenhauer. First psychological reaction against Heglianism Freeze seventeen hundred
[0:47] Speaker 1: seventy three to eighteen hundred forty three. Professor etiena And
[0:51] Speaker 1: at Heidelberg and author of The New Critic of Reason
[0:54] Speaker 1: eighteen hundred seven, adopted Conn's results, but rejected the method
[0:58] Speaker 1: of transcendental criticism, substituting for it empirical psychological inquiry, which
[1:05] Speaker 1: he made the basis of all philosophy. He also admitted
[1:09] Speaker 1: into a system of thought elements derived from the feedism
[1:12] Speaker 1: of Jacobe. His work was continued and developed by Beinice
[1:16] Speaker 1: seventeen hundred ninety eight to eighteen hundred fifty four, who
[1:20] Speaker 1: succeeded to Hegel's chair at the University of Berlin eighteen
[1:23] Speaker 1: hundred thirty two, and by Uberviek eighteen hundred twenty six
[1:27] Speaker 1: to eighteen hundred seventy one, and for the Large eighteen
[1:31] Speaker 1: hundred six to eighteen hundred eighty one, who taught at
[1:35] Speaker 1: Koenigsberg and Atenna respectively. Second Realistic metaphysics. Harbard seventeen hundred
[1:43] Speaker 1: seventy six to eighteen hundred forty one. After studying at
[1:47] Speaker 1: the University of Yenna, spent several years as private tutor
[1:51] Speaker 1: in Switzerland, where he made the acquaintance of Pastor Loozzi
[1:54] Speaker 1: seventeen hundred forty six to eighteen hundred twenty seven, the
[1:58] Speaker 1: founder of modern pedagogy. From eighteen hundred two to eighteen
[2:02] Speaker 1: hundred nine, Herbert taught at Guttingen. In eighteen hundred nine
[2:06] Speaker 1: he was transferred to Koenigsberg, whence he was recalled to
[2:09] Speaker 1: Gettingen in eighteen hundred thirty three. His collected works were
[2:13] Speaker 1: published in twelve volumes Leipzig eighteen hundred fifty to eighteen
[2:17] Speaker 1: hundred fifty two by his pupil Hertenstein. Herbert took up
[2:21] Speaker 1: the realistic elements of Kann's philosophy and combined them with
[2:25] Speaker 1: Leibnizy and Monardism. The metaphysical system which he evolved from
[2:29] Speaker 1: these premises he himself described as realism. He defines philosophy
[2:34] Speaker 1: as the elaboration of the concepts which underlie the different sciences,
[2:39] Speaker 1: thus outlining the task which he undertook, namely, eight to
[2:43] Speaker 1: restore realism, b to rehabilitate the principle of contradiction, and
[2:48] Speaker 1: c to establish philosophy on a scientific basis. In his metaphysics,
[2:53] Speaker 1: he teaches that being is not one, as the Aliatics
[2:56] Speaker 1: and panthes held, but many. The multiple reality real which
[3:01] Speaker 1: constitute real being correspond in a measure to the monards
[3:04] Speaker 1: of Leibnan's philosophy. They differ, however, in this that they
[3:08] Speaker 1: are devoid not only of all perception and incipient consciousness,
[3:12] Speaker 1: but of all activity whatsoever except the power of self preservation.
[3:18] Speaker 1: Extension in space, action and time inherence. Causality involve contradictions,
[3:24] Speaker 1: which philosophy removes by the elaboration of these concepts. In
[3:29] Speaker 1: his psychology, Herbard conceives the soul as a simple real essence,
[3:33] Speaker 1: one of the real, and the ideas of the soul
[3:36] Speaker 1: he conceives to be acts of self preservation. There are not, therefore,
[3:41] Speaker 1: several faculties of the soul, but one faculty, the function
[3:45] Speaker 1: of which is to preserve the soul in its indestructible originality.
[3:49] Speaker 1: Perception arises from the conflict of this self preserving tendency
[3:53] Speaker 1: with the self preserved tendency of other real beings. Mental
[3:58] Speaker 1: states are thus an equilibrium of an opposing forces, and Herbert,
[4:02] Speaker 1: by attempting to reduce psychic life to mechanism, the laws
[4:05] Speaker 1: of which are the same as those of physics, forestolled
[4:08] Speaker 1: the attempts of Fechner and Wund to make psychology and
[4:11] Speaker 1: exact science. The best known example of these mechanics of
[4:15] Speaker 1: the mind is the attempt to determine the sum of
[4:18] Speaker 1: arrest of ideas. Consistently with his rejection of the plurality
[4:23] Speaker 1: of mental faculties, Herbert identifies will with thought and teaches
[4:28] Speaker 1: that the freedom of the will is merely the assured
[4:30] Speaker 1: supremacy of the strongest idea or mass of ideas. Historical position,
[4:36] Speaker 1: Herbert is distinguished by his systematic opposition to the method,
[4:40] Speaker 1: starting point and conclusions of Hegre. His philosophy is a
[4:44] Speaker 1: union of Eliatic, Leibnizian and Kantian elements. We must not
[4:48] Speaker 1: overlook the fact that Herbert devoted special attention to the
[4:52] Speaker 1: pedagogical aspects of philosophy, his rejection of the plural concept
[4:56] Speaker 1: of mind being of special importance on account of its
[4:59] Speaker 1: inner influence on the development of the theory of education.
[5:04] Speaker 1: Third voluntarism. The most important of the anti Hegalian movements
[5:09] Speaker 1: was that inaugurated by Schopenhauer, a movement which may be
[5:13] Speaker 1: described as an emphatic assertion of the importance of the
[5:16] Speaker 1: non national in philosophical synthesis. Schopenhauer life. Arto Schopmahuer was
[5:23] Speaker 1: born at Dunzig in seventeen hundred eighty eight. After traveling
[5:27] Speaker 1: in France and England, he entered the University of getting
[5:30] Speaker 1: In and devoted himself to the study of the natural
[5:33] Speaker 1: sciences and of plata. From getting In he went to Berlin,
[5:36] Speaker 1: where fifty was lecturing at the time. Thence he went
[5:39] Speaker 1: to Yenna and there obtained his doctor's degree, for which
[5:43] Speaker 1: he wrote the dissertation entitled The Fourfold Root of the
[5:46] Speaker 1: Principle of Sufficient Reason Who with de Fea for Rivotzel
[5:50] Speaker 1: Dissasus from Zurreichen Gronde eighteen hundred thirteen. During the four
[5:55] Speaker 1: following years which he spent at Tresden, he devoted much
[5:58] Speaker 1: attention to the study of Hindo philosophy. His principal work,
[6:03] Speaker 1: develed as Villionforsdelin, appeared in eighteen hundred nineteen. After two
[6:08] Speaker 1: unsuccessful attempts to expound his philosophy from the professor's chair
[6:12] Speaker 1: and to stem the tide of Hegel's popularity at Berlin,
[6:16] Speaker 1: he retired in eighteen hundred thirty one to Frankfurt, a
[6:19] Speaker 1: main where he spent the remainder of his life in
[6:21] Speaker 1: a learned retirement, indulging his moody and passionate temperament and
[6:25] Speaker 1: elaborating a system of pessimism in which one may see,
[6:29] Speaker 1: in addition to the influence of his baddistic studies, the
[6:32] Speaker 1: reflection of the personal character of the man. He died
[6:35] Speaker 1: in eighteen hundred sixty sources Schopmauer's complete works have been
[6:41] Speaker 1: edited several times, for example, Leipzig eighteen hundred seventy three
[6:45] Speaker 1: Till eighteen hundred seventy four, second edition eighteen hundred seventy seven,
[6:50] Speaker 1: Leipzig eighteen hundred ninety and finally Leipzig eighteen hundred ninety four.
[6:55] Speaker 1: The following works exist in English translations fourfold et cetera, London,
[7:01] Speaker 1: eighteen hundred ninety one. The World Is Will et cetera,
[7:05] Speaker 1: three volumes, London and Boston eighteen hundred eighty four, Till
[7:09] Speaker 1: eighteen hundred eighty six, Essays five volumes, London and New
[7:13] Speaker 1: York eighteen hundred ninety six. The best English presentations of
[7:17] Speaker 1: Schopemahower's philosophy are to be found in Wallace's Schopenhauer London,
[7:21] Speaker 1: eighteen hundred ninety and Caldwell's Schopenhower System in its Philosophical Significance,
[7:27] Speaker 1: New York, eighteen hundred ninety six. Doc trines general character
[7:32] Speaker 1: of Schopenhower's philosophy. Kant, Plato, and the Buddhist philosophers contributed
[7:38] Speaker 1: to the building of Schopenhower's system of thought. From Kant
[7:41] Speaker 1: and the Kantiens was derived the transcendental element, the criticism
[7:46] Speaker 1: with which Schopmahauer started and the synthetic arrangement by which
[7:50] Speaker 1: he grouped all the elements of thought under the absolute will.
[7:54] Speaker 1: From Plato was derived the theory of ideas as stages
[7:57] Speaker 1: of the voluntary phenomenon, and from the Buddhists the pessimism
[8:01] Speaker 1: and the negation of will, which formed the practical aspects
[8:05] Speaker 1: of Schopenhauer's system. Mention must also be made of Hegel's influence,
[8:09] Speaker 1: which however, was wholly indirect. Indeed, it is hardly an
[8:13] Speaker 1: exaggeration to say that Schopenahauer was a voluntarist because Hegel
[8:18] Speaker 1: was an intellectualist, the former insisting on the importance of
[8:22] Speaker 1: the non rational, because the latter identified the rational with
[8:25] Speaker 1: a real starting point. Schopenhauer, like Fichtin Schelling, starts with
[8:32] Speaker 1: the Kantian resolution of nominal reality into subject and object
[8:36] Speaker 1: thing in itself, and addresses himself as they address themselves,
[8:40] Speaker 1: to the task of analyzing the object, with a few
[8:43] Speaker 1: to perfecting the Kantian synthesis. Influenced to a greater extent
[8:47] Speaker 1: than he was aware of by Fichte's subjectivism, he maintained
[8:51] Speaker 1: that there is no object without subject. Instead, however, of
[8:55] Speaker 1: resolving the subjective aspect of the object into a rational
[8:59] Speaker 1: activity of the ego, he resolved it into the volitional
[9:02] Speaker 1: activity of the will, which is not only the essence
[9:05] Speaker 1: of man, but also the essence of the universe the
[9:09] Speaker 1: fourfold route. In the treaties entitled the Fourfold Route of
[9:13] Speaker 1: the Principle of sufficient Reason, Schopmahawa teaches that the celebrated principle,
[9:18] Speaker 1: which had played so important a part in Leibniz philosophy,
[9:22] Speaker 1: has four forms corresponding to the four classes of representations
[9:26] Speaker 1: to which it is applied, Namely, first Principium ratziunis is
[9:31] Speaker 1: sendi as applied to formal intuitions, second Principium ratziunis fiendi
[9:37] Speaker 1: as applied to empirical intuitions, That Principium raziunis agendi as
[9:42] Speaker 1: applied to acts of the will, and fourth Principium ratziunis
[9:46] Speaker 1: cognos sendi, as applied to abstract concepts. The World as Representation.
[9:52] Speaker 1: In his most important work, The World as Will and Representation,
[9:57] Speaker 1: Schopmahawer first takes up and evolves the epism logical principles
[10:01] Speaker 1: which he had expounded in his earlier treaties. Here he
[10:04] Speaker 1: lays special emphasis on the notion of causality. When we
[10:09] Speaker 1: analyze our experience, he says, we find that all that
[10:12] Speaker 1: is given is sensation or representation. The understanding, however, which
[10:17] Speaker 1: may not be separated from sensation, immediately refers the representation
[10:22] Speaker 1: to an external cause. Now, if we were merely rational beings,
[10:27] Speaker 1: endowed with sense and intellect, but devoid of volition, we
[10:31] Speaker 1: should never be able to answer the question what is
[10:34] Speaker 1: the external cause of representation? It is by combining internal
[10:38] Speaker 1: experience with external that we perceive will to be the
[10:42] Speaker 1: ultimate real the nominal cause of the phenomenon. Will therefore
[10:47] Speaker 1: determines our knowledge of reality and constitutes reality itself. Will
[10:52] Speaker 1: governs knowledge. It is important to note that by will,
[10:56] Speaker 1: shob Mahua understands not merely the faculty of choice, but
[10:59] Speaker 1: all also impulse, the blind, unreasoning impulse to self preservation,
[11:04] Speaker 1: which manifests itself in pleasure and pain, hope and fear,
[11:09] Speaker 1: love and hatred in the word, the will to live.
[11:12] Speaker 1: To this blind impulse, he subordinates knowledge, and although he
[11:16] Speaker 1: claims that voluntarism is opposed to materialism on the one
[11:20] Speaker 1: hand and to subjective idealism on the other, the whole
[11:24] Speaker 1: trend of his investigation of knowledge is towards the materialistic
[11:28] Speaker 1: conclusion that understanding is a function of the brain. In
[11:32] Speaker 1: this connection, he quotes with a parent approval the celebrated
[11:35] Speaker 1: saying attributed to Cabanis as the liver secrets bill the
[11:40] Speaker 1: brain secrets ideas. The will is absolute, All representation is
[11:45] Speaker 1: conditioned by causality, space, time, et cetera, which constitute the
[11:50] Speaker 1: principle of individuation. The will is subject to none of
[11:54] Speaker 1: these conditions. It is neither individual nor personal, although individual
[11:59] Speaker 1: acts of the will volitions being merely representations, are subject
[12:04] Speaker 1: to causality, space time, and other individuating conditions. The world
[12:10] Speaker 1: is Will and the second book of the treaties above
[12:12] Speaker 1: mentioned the World is Will, et cetera. Shoub Mahawa proceeds
[12:16] Speaker 1: to the study of the external world, which is the
[12:19] Speaker 1: will in the form of objectivity, that is, in the
[12:22] Speaker 1: body which it creates for itself. Starting with self, he
[12:26] Speaker 1: takes for granted as axiomatic that the human body is
[12:30] Speaker 1: merely the external manifestation of the inner force, which is
[12:33] Speaker 1: human will. The will may be said to create the body.
[12:37] Speaker 1: In truth, however, the inner volition and the outer bodily
[12:41] Speaker 1: action are not cause and effect, but are merely the
[12:44] Speaker 1: inner and the outer aspect of the same reality. Turning
[12:48] Speaker 1: next to the world of natural phenomena, he finds there
[12:51] Speaker 1: the all permeating or producing will as natural force. This
[12:56] Speaker 1: force manifests itself in purely mechanical action, reactions, in chemical affinity,
[13:02] Speaker 1: in the striving and unconscious a petition of vegetable life,
[13:05] Speaker 1: and in the conscious self preserving impulse of animals. Everywhere
[13:09] Speaker 1: and at every moment, Will is indefatigably active, organizing, preserving, sustaining.
[13:16] Speaker 1: It is will that endows the animal with weapons of
[13:19] Speaker 1: defense and with the means of obtaining its food. It
[13:22] Speaker 1: is will, too that endows the animal with consciousness and
[13:26] Speaker 1: man with intellect. For these are weapons, like any other contrivance,
[13:30] Speaker 1: for escaping from the enemy or securing prey. Indeed, intellect
[13:34] Speaker 1: is the most perfect of all the weapons with which
[13:37] Speaker 1: will has endowed creatures. For as the inksect of the
[13:41] Speaker 1: cuttlefish serves to conceal the animal's flight or approach, so
[13:45] Speaker 1: intellect serves to hide the intent of the will, and
[13:47] Speaker 1: thus to ensure its success. The will to live as
[13:51] Speaker 1: manifested and vegetable animal and human life is essentially a
[13:55] Speaker 1: combative impulse as one form of existence necessary really comes
[14:00] Speaker 1: in the way of other forms. That arises an inevitable struggle. Here,
[14:04] Speaker 1: Schopenhauer undoubtedly forestars the Darwinian concept of nature as a
[14:09] Speaker 1: struggle for existence. Yet although he insists on the influence
[14:13] Speaker 1: of want an environment on organic development, he is opposed
[14:17] Speaker 1: to the Lamarchian hypothesis of the evolution of the higher
[14:21] Speaker 1: from the lower species pessimism. Schopmahauer was, by temperament and disposition,
[14:27] Speaker 1: inclined to dwell on the gloomy side of the picture
[14:30] Speaker 1: of life which he presented in his Doctrine of the
[14:32] Speaker 1: Struggle of Nature. The only positive feelings he taught are
[14:36] Speaker 1: those of pain. Pleasure is the merely temporary satisfaction of
[14:40] Speaker 1: her need, and is therefore negative. Positive pleasure is an illusion. Quote.
[14:46] Speaker 1: The simple truth is that we ought to be miserable,
[14:49] Speaker 1: and we are so. The chief source of the serious
[14:52] Speaker 1: evils which affect man is man himself. Humo Huminilupus, whoever
[14:57] Speaker 1: keeps this fact clearly in view, beholds world as a
[15:00] Speaker 1: hell which surpasses that of Dante in this respect. That
[15:04] Speaker 1: one man must be the devil of another life is
[15:07] Speaker 1: a path of red hot coals, with a few cool
[15:10] Speaker 1: places here and there. On the escape from bondage. In
[15:16] Speaker 1: the third and fourth books of the Treaties, The World
[15:19] Speaker 1: is Will, et cetera, Shubmahua undertakes to answer the question
[15:22] Speaker 1: how is man to escape from the bondage of will
[15:25] Speaker 1: and the misery of life? In his answer, he maintains,
[15:28] Speaker 1: throughout the individualistic standpoint, he has no belief in deliverance.
[15:33] Speaker 1: Through the ultimate development of the race, each man must
[15:37] Speaker 1: deliver himself. Now, the means of deliverance are three art, sympathy,
[15:42] Speaker 1: and negation of the will to live art. When a
[15:46] Speaker 1: man loses himself in artistic contemplation, pure perception takes full
[15:51] Speaker 1: position of his conscious life, the will disappears, and with
[15:55] Speaker 1: it all suffering. In this connection, Schupmahauer attaches a special
[15:59] Speaker 1: importance to music as a means of deliverance from the
[16:02] Speaker 1: bondage of suffering, but he confesses it requires a very
[16:06] Speaker 1: great effort to maintain the artistic attitude. We must look, therefore,
[16:11] Speaker 1: beyond art to find a more effectual remedy. Sympathy differs
[16:16] Speaker 1: from art in this that it is permanent and may
[16:19] Speaker 1: be universal misery. As we have seen arises from the
[16:23] Speaker 1: egoistic impulse to preserve one's own existence at the expense
[16:27] Speaker 1: of the well being of others. Now, sympathy leads us
[16:30] Speaker 1: to look upon sufferings of others as our sufferings. It
[16:34] Speaker 1: implies the oneness of all nature, the disappearance of the
[16:37] Speaker 1: concepts of individuality, which is an illusion, and the substitution
[16:42] Speaker 1: of the will to let live for the will to live.
[16:45] Speaker 1: It is therefore the grand phenomenon of ethics. Yet even
[16:49] Speaker 1: sympathy can only alleviate suffering. In order wholly to destroy
[16:53] Speaker 1: and remove the source of pain, man must negate the
[16:56] Speaker 1: will to live, which is the origin of suffering. Negation
[17:00] Speaker 1: of the will to live, Schopmahauer finds both in Christian
[17:04] Speaker 1: asceticism and in Buddhism examples of men in whom the
[17:08] Speaker 1: will to live is completely eradicated, men who are utterly
[17:11] Speaker 1: indifferent to self preservation and the preservation of the race.
[17:15] Speaker 1: This is the ideal of quiescence which the philosopher should
[17:19] Speaker 1: strive to attain, the nirvana in which passion and desire
[17:23] Speaker 1: and conflict and suffering disappear to give place to perfect peace.
[17:29] Speaker 1: Historical position, Schopmahauer's philosophies lacking in systematic cohesiveness. His theory
[17:35] Speaker 1: of knowledge, his pantholism, identity of will with reality, his pessimism,
[17:41] Speaker 1: and his doctrine of deliverance from suffering are not articulated
[17:45] Speaker 1: into rational system. Perhaps the failure to furnish a complete
[17:49] Speaker 1: and consistent rational scheme was pardonable in one who insisted
[17:53] Speaker 1: so emphatically on the irrational nature of reality. Indeed, it
[17:58] Speaker 1: is almost impossible in this instance to separate the philosophy
[18:02] Speaker 1: from the philosopher. So deeply do the doctrines of Schopenhauer
[18:06] Speaker 1: bear the impress of the character of the man. His
[18:09] Speaker 1: doctrines are, however, of extrinsic importance, as reflecting the sentiments
[18:14] Speaker 1: of an age grown weary of life and surfeited with
[18:17] Speaker 1: rationalism and idealism. For pessimism is an index of inferior
[18:22] Speaker 1: vitality rather than of superior spiritual insight, and the insistence
[18:26] Speaker 1: on the non rational nature of reality is a symptom
[18:29] Speaker 1: of a melody which may be traced to an overdose
[18:32] Speaker 1: of transcendental matter physics. Edward from Hartmann born at Berlin
[18:37] Speaker 1: in eighteen hundred forty two is the most original of
[18:41] Speaker 1: Schopenhauer's disciples, and is regarded as the greatest living exponent
[18:45] Speaker 1: of modified voluntarism and mitigated pessimism. His system, which was
[18:50] Speaker 1: first expounded in the Philosophidus Unbivusden eighteen hundred sixty nine
[18:54] Speaker 1: and since then has been developed and defended in several
[18:57] Speaker 1: important treatises, may be discret as a philosophy of the unconscious. Hartmann,
[19:03] Speaker 1: inspired with the idea of reconciling schopmahou of Hegel, tries
[19:07] Speaker 1: to unite the panthilism of the former with the evolutionary
[19:10] Speaker 1: idealism of the latter. The ground of reality, the absolute is.
[19:14] Speaker 1: He teaches the unconscious, which is not an irrational will,
[19:18] Speaker 1: but a will acting as if it were intelligent. The will,
[19:22] Speaker 1: guided by ideas, acts with the knowledge of its actions,
[19:26] Speaker 1: but since it does not know that it knows, it
[19:29] Speaker 1: is unconscious. Hartmann modifies Schoupmahauer's pessimism by teaching not only
[19:34] Speaker 1: that the individuals freed from the misery of life by
[19:37] Speaker 1: attaining the negation of the will to live, but that
[19:40] Speaker 1: the whole universe is moving by an evolutionary process towards
[19:44] Speaker 1: a universal redemption from evil by means of a universal
[19:47] Speaker 1: denial of will Wilhelm Richard Wagner eighteen hundred thirteen to
[19:52] Speaker 1: eighteen hundred eighty three and Friedrich Nietzche eighteen hundred forty
[19:56] Speaker 1: four to nineteen hundred are cited among those who were
[19:59] Speaker 1: in flo danced in their artistic and literary labors by
[20:02] Speaker 1: Schopenhauer's doctrines. End of Chapter sixty six

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